Detailed Contents. 1 Why Increase Media Literacy? 3. PART I: Introduction 1. JL Media Literacy Approach 11

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1 Detailed Contents Preface xvii PART I: Introduction 1 1 Why Increase Media Literacy? 3 Message Saturation 3 High Degree of Exposure 5 The Information Problem 5 The Challenge of Selection 6 Automatic Routines 7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Automatic Processing 7 The Big Question 8 Media Literacy 9 Conclusion 9 Further Reading 10 Keeping Up-to-Date 10 JL Media Literacy Approach 11 What Is Media Literacy? 12 The Three Building Blocks of Media Literacy 13 Personal Locus 13 Knowledge Structures 13 Skills 15 The Definition of Media Literacy 19 The Typology of Media Literacy 22 Advantages of Developing a Higher Degree of Media Literacy 25 Appetite for Wider Variety of Media Messages 25 More Self-Programming of Mental Codes 26 More Control Over Media 26 Conclusion 26 Further Reading 27

2 PART II: Audience 31 3 Audience: Individual Perspective 33 Information-Processing Tasks 34 Filtering 35 Meaning Matching 35 Meaning Construction 36 Analyzing the Idea of Exposure to Media Messages 37 Exposure and Attention 37 Exposure States 39 The Media Literacy Perspective 41 Conclusion 43 Further Reading 43 TT Industry Perspective on Audience 45 Shift From Mass to Niche Perspective on Audience 46 What Is a Mass Audience? 47 Rejection of the Idea of Mass Audience 48 The Idea of Niche Audience 48 Identifying Niches 49 Geographic Segmentation 49 Demographic Segmentation 50 Social Class Segmentation 50 Geodemographic Segmentation 51 Psychographic Segmentation 51 Attracting Audiences 52 Appeal to Existing Needs and Interests 52 Cross-Media and Cross-Vehicle Promotion 53 Conditioning Audiences 54 Conclusion 55 Further Reading 55 J Children as a Special Audience 59 Why Treat Children as a Special Audience? 60 Maturation 61 Experience 65 Special Treatment From Regulators 65 Protecting Children From Negative TV Content 65 Protecting Children From Unfair Advertising Practices 66 Special Treatment From Parents 66 How Useful Are These Techniques? 68

3 Reexamining the Case for Special Treatment 69 Maturation 69 Experience 70 Natural Abilities 71 Conclusion 75 Further Reading 75 Keeping Up-to-Date 76 PART III: Industry 77 O Development of the Mass Media Industries 79 Patterns of Development 80 Innovation Stage 80 Penetration Stage 81 Peak Stage 81 Decline Stage 82 Adaptation Stage 82 Comparisons Across Mass Media 82 Life Cycle Pattern 83 Indicators of Peak 84 Conclusion 85 Further Reading 86 Keeping Up-to-Date 87 / Economic Perspective 89 The Media Game of Economics 91 The Players 91 The Goal 96 The Rules 97 Characteristics of the Game 97 Importance of Valuing Resources Well 97 Indirect as Well as Direct Support 97 Complex Interdependence Among Players 99 Nature of Competition 100 Advertising as the Engine 101 Media Industries' Strategies 102 Maximizing Profits 102 Constructing Audiences 106 Reducing Risk 107 Consumers' Strategies 109 Default Strategy 109 Media Literacy Strategy 109

4 Conclusion 110 Further Reading 111 Keeping Up-to-Date Current Status 115 Convergence Across Media 116 Technological Innovations 116 Business Innovations 118 General Employment Trends 119 Overal I Size of Workforce 119 Demographic Patterns 120 Conclusion 122 Further Reading 122 Keeping Up-to-Date 122 PART IV: Content 123!7 Mass Media Content and Reality 125 What Is Reality? 127 Magic Window 127 Multiple Dimensions of Reality 128 Differences Across Individuals 129 Organizing Principle: Next-Step Reality 130 Audience's Perspective 131 Programmers' Perspective 131 Reality Programming as a Genre 132 The Importance of Media Literacy 133 Conclusion News 137 Is News a Reflection or a Construction? 139 Constraints 139 News-Framing Influences 141 News Perspective 147 Can Journalists Be Objective? 149 Fabrication 149 Bias 150 Partial Story 152 Context 152 Balance 154

5 Becoming Literate With News Content 155 Analyze the News Perspective 157 Search for Context 157 Develop Alternative Sources of Information 157 Be Skeptical About Public Opinion 158 Expose Yourself to More News, Not Less 158 Conclusion 159 Further Reading 159 Keeping Up-to-Date Entertainment Content 163 Entertainment Formula 164 General Story Formula 165 Genres 165 Constraints 167 Character Patterns 169 Demographic Patterns 169 Stereotypical Portrayals 171 Controversial Content Elements 175 Sex 175 Homosexuality 176 Violence 117 Language 179 Health 180 Deceptive Health Patterns 180 Responsible Health Patterns 181 Values 181 Becoming Media Literate With Entertainment Messages 183 Further Reading 186 Keeping Up-to-Date Advertising 191 Advertising Is Pervasive 192 Popular Surface Criticisms 197 Advertising Manipulates Us Into Buying Things We Don't Need 197 Advertising Makes Us Too Materialistic 197 Advertising Is Deceptive 198 Companies Manipulate Us Through Subliminal Advertising 199 Advertising Is Excessive 201 Advertising Perpetuates Stereotypes 202 Social Responsibility Versus Economic Responsibility 202 Becoming More Literate 203

6 What Are Ads Really Selling? 204 What Is the Intended Effect of the Ad? 205 What Are Your Needs? 205 Conclusion 207 Further Reading 207 Keeping Up-to-Date Interactive Media 211 Development of Interactive Mass Media 212 Shared Commons 212 Need for Social Networking 213 Attraction of Advertising Support 213 Informational/Educational Interactive Content 213 Social Networking Mass Media 214 MySpace 215 Facebook 216 ebay 217 YouTube 217 Napster 218 Blogs 218 Interactive Media Games 218 History of Video Games 219 Business of Interactive Media Games 220 Experience of Playing Games 223 MMORPGs 224 Media Literacy 226 Conclusion 227 Further Reading 227 Keeping Up-to-Date 228 PART V: Effects 229 I 4 Proactive Perspective on Media Effects 231 Media Effects Are Constantly Occurring 232 Manifest and Process Effects 232 Baseline and Fluctuation Effects 233 Factors Influencing Media Effects 235 Baseline Factors 236 Fluctuation Factors 239 Media Literacy and Blame 241 Media Uteracy: Controlling the Media Effects Process 242

7 Conclusion 242 Further Reading 243 Keeping Up-to-Date 245 I 3 Broadening Our Perspective on Media Effects 247 Timing of Effects 249 Type of Effects 249 Cognitive-Type Effect 250 Attitudinal-Type Effect 250 Emotional-Type Effect 251 Physiological-Type Effect 251 Behavioral-Type Effect 251 Macro-Type Effect 252 Valence of Effects 253 Intentionality of Effects 254 Conclusion 255 Further Reading 257 PART VI: Confronting the Issues Who Controls the Mass Media? 263 Two Competing Values 264 Localism 265 Efficiency 267 Cross-Ownership and Control 268 Types of Concentration 268 Megamergers 268 International Perspective 271 Concentration Among Advertising Agencies 272 Concentration Among Advertisers 272 Issues of Concern 273 Deregulation 273 Change in Content 278 Lack of Access 279 Internet 280 Conclusion 281 Further Reading 281 Keeping Up-to-Date 282

8 1 7 Privacy With the Media 285 Defining Privacy 286 Invasions of Your Privacy 286 Monitoring 286 Selling Information 287 Spam 290 identity Theft 292 Hijacking 294 Infecting 295 Public Opinion and Regulations 296 Public Opinion 296 Regulations 297 What Can We Do to Protect Our Privacy? 297 Conclusion Piracy With the Media 301 What Is Piracy? 302 Copyright 302 Some History 303 How Big Is the Problem? 305 Film 306 Print 306 Cracking Down on Piracy 306 Antipiracy Technology 306 New Legislation 307 Legal Action 308 Conclusion Media Violence 313 Effects 315 Narrow Perspective 315 The Overlooked Effect 319 Conception of Violence 319 Public's Definition 320 Ironies 321 Developing a Broader Sensitivity 322 Conclusion 323 Further Reading 323

9 2\J Media Influence on Sports 327 The Money Cycle 327 Players 329 Owners and Leagues 331 Television Networks 333 Advertisers 334 Public 335 Olympics 336 Conclusion 339 Further Reading 340 Keeping Up-to-Date 340 PART VII: The Springboard X Personal Strategy for Increasing Media Literacy 347 Ten Techniques Strengthen Your Personal Locus Focus on Usefulness as a Goal Develop an Accurate Awareness of Your Exposure Examine Your Mental Codes Acquire a Broad Base of Useful Knowledge Think About the Reality-Fantasy Continuum Make Cross-Channel Comparisons Examine Your Opinions Change Behaviors Take Personal Responsibility 351 Illustrations 352 Learning Ladders 352 Examples of Levels of Literacy 354 Conclusion Helping Others Increase Media Literacy 359 Interpersonal Techniques 360 What the Research Says 360 What Can You Do? 363

10 Public Education 365 Current Situation 365 Barriers 366 WhatYouCanDo 368 Societal Techniques 368 Conclusion 370 Appendix A Profiles of the Mass Media Industries 373 Appendix B Immediate and Long-Term Effects of Media on Individuals and Institutions 403 Appendix C Contacts 417 References 421 Index 443 About the Author 463