CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURES, CONCEPTS, AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

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1 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURES, CONCEPTS, AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS 2.1 Review of Literatures The review of literatures in this study consists of three papers and one journal. They refer to the previous researches which has have done by some students which gave a great contribution to this study related to the theories applied Review of Papers The first paper entitled Semantic Analysis of Verbal Message in English Printed Advertisements of Different Products was written by Arthika (2007) who graduated from Udayana University. It discussed about the verbal messages containing the connotative and denotative meanings. The data in this paper were collected from 10 printed advertisements and taken from the English magazines namely Dolly (September 2003), New idea (July 12, 2002), Woman's Day (August 26, 2002), Who Weekly (July 16, 2001), Grazia (September 13-19, 2006), Vogue (July 2001), Ralph (May 2003) and The Singapore Women's Weekly (September 2007). The theories applied in this paper were based on the semantics analysis proposed by Leech (1974), theory of meanings and functions proposed by Leech (1974) and theory of advertising proposed by Dyer (1993). The topic and theories used in this paper were supporting each other since the theories can answer the problems that arose from this paper. This paper analyzed 5

2 6 the connotative meanings, the shared meanings of the sentence that has connotative meanings and how was the denotative meanings presented to support the connotative meanings of the advertisement. This paper showed that the explanation of the meanings appears in the verbal aspects was not very clear. However, in my paper, I have explained very clearly about the meanings and functions of the verbal aspects and also some types of the figures of speech in the cosmetic product advertisements. The second paper entitled The Analysis of Advertisement Structure with Reference to Four Advertisements in Man Magazines by Narasoma (2009) who graduated from Udayana University. It was focused on the structures of advertisement in Man magazine and organized the functions and meanings of the message in the advertisements. The data were taken from English advertisements such as Sportindo magazine and Golf Digest magazine. The results of this paper were how the structures of the advertisements were organized and how the meanings and functions were described in the advertisements, therefore it could be attract the attention of the readers to buy the products. This paper used the theory of Leech (1974) regarding the functions and meanings of the messages in the advertisements. Meanwhile, the present paper used three theories namely the structures in the advertisements were analyzed based on the theory of Leech (1966), the meanings and functions in the advertisements were analyzed based on the theory of Leech (1977), and also the types of the figures of speech in the cosmetic product advertisements were analyzed using Perrine's theory (2005). This paper is different from present paper in term analysis where the previous

3 7 paper was focused on the structures of the advertisements and also meanings and functions of the man's advertisements, while the present paper was focused on the meanings and functions of the verbal aspects and also some types of the figures of speech in the cosmetic product advertisements. The third paper entitled Imagery and Figurative Languages in the Song Lyrics of Secondhand Serenade A Twist in My Story Album written by Saputra (2011) who graduated from Udayana University. The data used in this research was directly taken from the second album of the Secondhand Serenade entitled A Twist in My Story. The main theory used in this paper was based on the theory of Knickerbocker and Reninger (1963). It was focused to finding out the types of the imagery and figurative language employed in the song lyrics Like A Knife and Pretend in Secondhand Serenade album. This paper is different from present paper in term analysis where the this paper was focused on the imagery and figurative language languages in the song lyrics, while the present paper was focused on the meanings and functions of the verbal aspects and also some types of the figures of speech were found in the cosmetic product advertisements and they have different meanings to attract the readers' attention Journal Review The next one is journal review entitled The Use of Figurative Language in Advertising written by Pugsley (1990). The purpose of this journal is to identify the role of figurative language in advertising. The data were taken from 16 advertisements in magazines that contain the most relevant aspects to identify figurative language. In the 16 analyzed advertisements there are 18 examples of

4 8 metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche altogether because samples 12 and 13 presented two figures of speech. Among the 18 figures there are 5 examples of metaphor, 7 of metonymy and 6 of synecdoche. The results of the explanation in this journal are the figures of speech have an important role in constructing the language in advertisement which the language should be made as attractive as possible to attract the attention of the readers. The use of words in this journal is rather difficult. This journal is different from present paper in term analysis where this journal was focused on the some types of the figurative language which found in the different advertisements, while the present paper was focused on the meanings and functions of the verbal aspects and also some types of the figures of speech in the cosmetic product advertisements. 2.2 Concepts The concepts here consist of several parts related to the main topic in the study divided into concept of advertisement, concept of verbal aspects and concept of figures of speech Concept of Advertisement Advertisement is presented to the public to help selling a product. According to Leech (1966:25), advertisement is directed towards a mass audience with the aim of promoting sales of commercial product. In society, there are a lot of advertisements appear which have function to attract the readers' attention to buy the product which is presented by the advertiser. The advertisements usually has brand name and logo or slogan to introduce directly to the readers which means advertisements usually use specific information of the product and

5 9 attractive verbal aspects to promote the product to the readers. Advertisement is easy to find in the magazines, television and newspapers Concept of Verbal Aspect A verbal aspect has an important role in the advertisements to influence the readers. Verbal aspect in the advertisement consists of the forms of word, a phrase or a sentence. These forms describe the product itself and others which are related to the product. For example, the slogan or brand name and the advantages of the product are important things in advertisement. According to Dyer (1993), a word does not only describe things, communicative feelings, associations and attitudes, but it also brings ideas to our minds. For instance, the names of these lipsticks bring certain ideas to mind: sleek peach, hanky pinky, quite flame, warm coral. When products like carpets, paints or make up come in number of shades, colors or patterns, the advertisers choose attractive names for them which are designed to do more than just separate and distinguish one from another. The language used by advertiser shows that they think the people who read the advertisement and their target audience will be attracted to buying their product. This is the reason of the difference between the language used in an advertisement and the language spoken by people in everyday life. Dyer (1993:139) states that advertising language is of course loaded language. Its primary aim is to attract our attention and dispose us favorably towards the product or service on offer. Advertisers use language quite distinctively: there are certainly advantages in making bizarre and controversial statement in unusual ways as well as communicating with people using simple, straightforward

6 10 language. Copywriters are well known for playing with words and manipulating or distorting their everyday meanings; they break the rules of language effect, use words out of context and even make up new ones Concept of Figures of Speech According to Perrine (2005:70) figures of speech is any way of saying something other than ordinary way. Based on the Perrine's theory, the types of the figures of speech are divided into twelve such as simile, metaphor, personification, apostrophe, synecdoche, metonymy, symbol, allegory, paradox, hyperbole/overstatement, understatement, and irony. The aims of the figures of speech in the advertisements are trying to influence the readers through attractive words and make them remember about the product. 2.3 Theoretical Framework In this study, the theories related to verbal aspects were analyzed based on the structures of advertisement proposed by Leech (1966) and the meanings and functions of the cosmetic product advertisements were analyzed by Leech (1974). Next, the types of the figures of speech in the cosmetic product advertisements were analyzed using Perrine's theory (2005) Structures of Advertisement According to Leech (1966:25) advertisement is directed towards a mass audience with the aim of promoting sales of commercial product. Advertisement can be found in almost all mass media such as television, radio, magazine, newspaper, etc. The advertisers always use creative words and sentences for attracting the readers and giving information about the products.

7 11 In this time, there are lots of kinds of advertisement such as electronic, cosmetic, fashion, sport, watch, health, food and shoes. The function of advertisement is to make the readers having desires to buy the product which is presented by an advertiser. According to Leech (1966:59) there are five parts following advertisement structures such as: a) Headline b) Illustration (s) c) Body copy: The main part of the advertising message, often divided into various sections under subheads. d) Signature line: A mention of brand name, often accompanied by a price-tag, slogan, trademark or picture of the brand pack. e) Standing details: Cut out coupons and strictly utilitarian information in small print, they usually appear unchanged in a series of different advertisement, the address of the firm; how to obtain further information, legal foot notes, etc. The headline and signature line can be regarded as the most indispensable parts of advertisement, although even these are sometimes collapsed into a single display line. The other parts are definitely optional and omitted with varying degrees of frequency. An illustration might occupy the whole length of the advertisement, and tile various linguistic components be placed at different positions to the right or left of it: or the headline or other parts of the verbal message might be superimposed on the illustration (Leech, 1966:59).

8 Types of Meanings According to Leech (1974:10-23) there are seven types of meaning, as follows: a) Conceptual Meaning Conceptual meaning is sometimes called 'denotative' or 'cognitive'. It is consider as the central factor in linguistic communication. From all seven types of meaning proposed by Leech, he assigned priority to conceptual meaning because it has a complex and sophisticated organization of a kind which may be compared with and cross related to, similar organization on the syntactic and phonological levels of language (Leech, ). Particularly, he points to two basis structure principles in linguistic; they are contrastive structure and constituent structure. Contrastive features underlie the classification of conceptual meaning, for example, in which any label someone applies to a meaning defines itpositively, by what features it possesses, and also by implication negatively, by what features it does not possess. So, that the word woman could be specified as +HUMAN, -MALE, -+ADULT, as distinct from boy which could be 'defined' +HUMAN, +MALE, -ADULT. Structure is the principle by which larger linguistic units are built up out of smaller units, or by which people are able to analyze a sentence syntactically into its constituent parts, moving from its immediate constituent through a hierarchy of subdivision to its ultimate constituent or smallest syntactic elements.

9 13 b) Connotative Meaning Connotative meaning is the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. According to Leech (1974:15), in talking about connotation, we are in fact talking about the 'real word' experiences one associates with an expression when ones use or hear it. He also states that connotative meaning is peripheral compared with conceptual meaning, in which connotation varies considerably according to the culture, historical period and the experience of the individual. Connotative meaning is indeterminate and open-ended in a sense in which conceptual meaning is not. Connotative meaning is open-ended in the same way as our knowledge and beliefs about the universe are open-ended: any characteristic of the referent identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it (Leech, 1974:15). c) Stylistic Meaning Based on the theory of Leech (1974:18), stylistic meaning is that which a piece of language conveys about the circumstances of its use. He adopts the theory of English style by Crystal and Davy. He also mentioned some examples of the categories of the usage that one might distinguish on each dimension. Here are some parts of the stylistic meanings such as relatively permanent features of style, discourse and relatively temporary features of style.

10 14 d) Affective Meaning Language can also reflect the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to do something he is talking about, this called affective meaning. Affective meaning is often explicitly conveyed through conceptual or connotative content of the words used. Affective meaning is largely a parasitic category in the sense that to express the emotions that depend on the mediation of other categories of meaning such as conceptual, connotative, or stylistic. Emotional expression through style comes about for instance, when someone adopts an impolite tone to express displeasure or a casual tone to express friendliness. e) Reflected Meaning According to Leech (1974:19), reflected meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. One sense of word seems to 'rube-off on another sense in this way only when it has a dominant suggestive power either through relative frequency and familiarity or through the strength of its associations. f) Collocative Meaning Collocative meaning consist of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words tends to occur in its environment Leech (1974:20). For example, the words handsome and pretty share common ground in meaning good looking but may be distinguished by the range

11 15 of nouns which they are likely to co-occur or collocate: the word pretty is collocated with girl, flower, garden, color, village, etc, while word handsome is collocated with boy, man, vessel, typewriter, car, etc. g) Thematic Meaning The last type of meaning that Leech attempts to distinguish is thematic meaning. Thematic meaning is what is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer or organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus and emphasis Functions of Language There are five important communicative functions of language by Leech (1974: 47-50), namely: a) Informational Function This function tends to be the most important one which deliver the information from speaker or writer to listener or reader. It is predominant in the informational use of language. In fact, this function concentrates on the messages. It is used to give new information. It depends on truth and value. b) Expressive Function Language can have expressive function that can be used to express someone's feeling and attitude. Exclamations and swear words are the most obvious instance of this. This function could give a clear image for the personality of the speaker or writer.

12 16 c) Directive Function The aim of directive function is to influence the behavior or attitudes others. The most straight-forward instances of the directive function are commands and requests. This function of social control places emphasis on the receiver' end than originator' end of the messages, but it resembles the expressive function in giving less importance on the whole, to the conceptual meaning than to others types of meaning, particularly in affective and connotative meaning. d) Aesthetic Function It can be defined as the use of language for the sake of the linguistic artifact itself and for no purpose. This aesthetic function can have at least as much do with conceptual as with affective meaning. e) Phatic Function The phatic function is the function of keeping communication lines open and keeping social relationship in good repair (in Britain culture, talking about the weather is a well-known example of this) Types of Figures of Speech According to Perrine (2005:70) figures of speech consists of twelve types such as simile, metaphor, personification, apostrophe, synecdoche, metonymy, symbol, allegory, paradox, hyperbole/overstatement, understatement, and irony. Here are some explanations of them, as follows:

13 17 a) Simile According to Perrine (2005:70), simile and metaphor are both used as a means of comparing things that are essentially unlike. The only distinction between them is that in simile the comparison is expressed by the use of some words or phrase, such as like, as, than, similar to, resemble or seems. Ivan could run like the wind. The word of like means that Ivan could be runs like the wind. The speedy is fast like the wind. b) Metaphor Perrine (2005:70) states that between metaphor and simile is similar. Both of them are comparison between two things that are essentially unlike. He is a pig. The word of pig means it may involve comparison between people and animal related to their appearance and morality. c) Personification According to Perrine (2005:73), personification consists in giving the attributes of human beings to an animal, an object or a concept. The old train crept along the narrow part.

14 18 This sentence above is classified into personification, because the word of crept has meaning of crawl. The word of crawl is connotation with the slow motion, like old people. d) Apostrophe According to Perrine (2005:75), apostrophe defined as addressing someone absent or dead or something nonhuman as if it that person or thing were present and alive and could be reply to what is being said. Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are. Up above the world so high, like a diamond in the sky. (Jane Taylor, 1806) This sentence above is a means child address to a star and talking to a star being an imaginary idea. e) Synecdoche According to Perrine (2005:77), synecdoche is the use of the part for the whole. When one used a part to represent a whole, the part itself is very closely related to the whole or what is meant. Actually, the things are alike, the difference is one thing general which one represents more specifically for the specific thing. Both of them have the close relations each other. Hey man, nice threads. The word of threads refers to clothes (part of something referring to the whole).

15 19 f) Metonymy According to Perrine (2005:77), metonymy is the use of something closely related to the thing actually meant. Metonymy is characterized by the substitution of a term naming an object closely related with the word in mind for the word itself. The white house has decided the new constitutions. This sentence above shows that the words of the white house are associated or closely related to the president. g) Symbol Symbol is thing (could be an object, person, situation or action) which stand for something else more abstract. According to Perrine (2005:91), symbol maybe as something that means more than what it is. You cannot teach an old dog new trick. (Perrine, 2005:91) This sentence is not only talking about dog itself, but about living creatures of any species and therefore speaking symbolically. An old dog can be understood as old man that in his aged he cannot think likes he was young. h) Allegory According to Perrine (2005:99), allegory is a narrative or description that has a second meaning beneath the surface.

16 20 A fortuneteller likes to use this figure of speech whether to predict one's past or future life. If he says, / see a star above your head, actually he means that his customer is going to get a fortune luck or promotion in the future (Aritonang and Ownie, 2013:05). i) Paradox Perrine (2005:112) states that paradox is an apparent contradiction that is nevertheless somehow true. It may be either a situation or a statement. It is always sunny after rainy day. The meaning of this sentence here is contradiction, because sometimes it is true that after rainy day, there will be sunny, but it cannot always be sunny after rainy day. j) Overstatement or Hyperbole According to Perrine (2005:113), overstatement or hyperbole is simply exaggeration in the service of truth. There were figuratively millions of people at the beach! (Perrine, 2005:113) The words meaning of the figuratively millions in this sentence is the beach was very crowded. Like all figures of speech, overstatement may be used with a variety of effects. It may be humorous or grave, fanciful or restrained, convincing or unconvincing.

17 21 k) Understatement Understatement is saying less than one means, may exist in what one says or merely in how one say it (Perrine, 2005:114). Understatement is opposite of overstatement. If, for instance, upon sitting down to a loaded dinner plate, you say, This looks like a nice snack you are actually stating less than the truth (Perrine, 2005:114). 1) Irony According to Perrine (2005:116) irony has meanings that extend beyond its use merely as a figure of speech. Your voice is so good like a famous singer. But I think silent is better. The meaning of the sentence above is the word of good are contradictory with the fact.