LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AND SOCIETY IN AFRICA

Transcription

1 LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AND SOCIETY IN AFRICA

2 Local Environmental Chan and Society in Africa 2 nd Edition Edited by U.A. MOHAMED SALIH Professor of Politics of Development, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, The Netherlands & Department of Political Science, University of Leiden, The Netherlands If SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

3 A CLP. Catalogue record for this book is availablefromthe Library of Congress. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / First published 2000 Second edition 2001 All Rights Reserved 2001 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2001 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.

4 Contents Preface Abdel Ghaffar Mohamed Ahmed Executive Secretary, OSSREA Map List of Tables Introduction: Elements of Local Environmental Change and Society M. A. Mohamed Salih Human Health and Irrigation Development in Kenya Samson W okabi Mwangi Choice and Use of Rural Water Supply Systems: Environmental and Socio-Cultural Dimension Wilson Nyaoro Technology Change and Gender: Irrigated Agriculture and Peasant Women in Eastern Uganda Zie Gariyo Agricultural Land Management for Sustainable Production, Swaziland Paul S. Maro Price and Market Liberalisation Effect on Household Food Security: A Gender Sensitive Comparative Study of Rural and Urban Uganda Henry Manyire Structural Adjustment, Energy Crisis and Environment: A Comparative Gender Study of Rural and Urban Households Fuuna Peter Air Pollution in Addis Ababa: The Predicament of "Chile Sefer" Edlam Aberra Climate Change and Local Vulnerability M. A. Mohamed Salih Notes on Contributors Index vii ix Xl

5 Preface The Organization for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa (OSSREA) is a network of social scientists in the sub-region established in Its main objectives are to encourage and promote interest; to engage in collaborative research; to facilitate scholarly exchange of ideas and publication between individuals and institutions engaged in the study and research in the social sciences. OSSREA also aims to promote the training of social scientists from the sub-region in the study of and research in the social sciences and to encourage establishment of institutions dedicated to this goal. In pursuance of and consistent with its objectives, OSSREA established a fund to provide research grants and training fellowships to social scientists from the sub-region. Every year OSSREA offers, on a competitive basis, two limited types of research grants: the first on topics related to the social sciences in general and the second on gender issues in particular. The grants assist the social scientists to conduct field research in an eastern or southern African country, society, institutions, sector, or problem area. The objectives of the social science competition are intended to encourage and promote upcoming scholars from the sub-region to conduct research in the social, economic, political or other problems. Moreover, it aims to strengthen and raise the capacity of faculty members and students in field research, and promote the subsequent availability of research fmdings for teaching as well as to inform individuals and institutions. The second research competition focuses on gender issues and is intended to encourage local scholars to conduct relevant research that is expected to contribute to the education and understanding of gender issues and its integration into development thinking, planning and implementation. Another objective is to avail the research fmdings to policy makers as well as for teaching. Themes such as ethnic conflicts, analysis, management and resolution; regional co-operation; sustainable development and natural resource management, among others, and their relationship to gender; development; governance have been researched by our grant winners. OSSREA's research grant fund aims towards building up the capacity of eastern and southern African research institutions by offering an opportunity to up-coming researchers and scholars to address topics that are important to their work domain as well in informing as decision-takers and policy-makers. A jury of distinguished scholars from the sub-region is selected every year to evaluate the grant applications. The grant winners are brought together for a research methodology workshop, where they respond to comments and questions raised by the jury and other resource persons. It is at this point that the grant winners sharpen their research focus and exchange experiences with each other, the jury and the resource persons before vii

6 viii Preface commencing the fieldwork. Over the past 16 years some 300 research reports have been completed. Some of these reports have been published in OSSREA Research Report Series. Others have been summarized and published as articles in OSSREA's bi-annual journal: The Eastern African Social Science Research Review (EASSRR), now in its 17 th year of existence. EASSRR is widely distributed within and outside the sub-region. This book is the first attempt to edit some recent research material dealing specifically with local environmental change. By focusing on local environmental change and society, the reader is offered an opportunity to obtain a comparative perspective on topics pushed aside by an apparent interest in global environmental issues. It has been a deliberate decision by the researchers from the sub-region to bridge the knowledge gap in areas vital to the survival of millions of peoples. It is also an acknowledgement that the researchers feel a moral and ethical responsibility towards society by producing usable knowledge that could assist to those engaged in development interventions and to make them aware of the environmental cost of unchecked interventions. OSSREA hopes that similarly edited volumes on other topics studied by researchers reflecting on the realities of the sub-region will appear in future volumes. OSSREA's research, training and publications, including this volume could not have been possible without the generous support of a number of donor organizations. OSSREA extends its acknowledgement and gratitude for the generous support of the organizations and foundations that have been instrumental in assisting it to achieve its objectives. The research grants through which this work has been accomplished deserve special mention and applaud. Among the major organizations and foundations that have supported OSSREA are: The Ford Foundation, the International Development Research Center (IDRC), the Norwegian Agency for Development Co-operation (NORAD), the Swedish International Development Cooperation (Sida/SAREC) and The Netherlands Directorate of International Development (DGIS). Their invaluable and indispensable support has allowed OSSREA to make significant impact on the development of the social sciences in the sub-region and beyond. It is hoped that the reader will fmd this volume academically inspiring, interesting and useful. Professor Abdel Ghaffar Mohamed Ahmed Executive Secretary Organization for Social Science Research In Eastern and Southern Africa (OSSREA Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 28 June 2001

7 Map ix SUDAN x RWANDA INDIAN OCEAN SOUTH AFRICA leso~ MAP 1: RESEARCH LOCATIONS (X)

8 List of Tables Table 2.1 Main environmental problems according to household 27 interviews Table 2.2 Common human diseases identified. 30 Table 2.3 Water quality of constituent applied irrigation and surface 33 drain water near exit of irrigation water: irrigation season - Mwea irrigation scheme (average for 10 sampling sites). Table 2.4 Water quality of constituent applied irrigation and surface 33 drain water near exit of irrigation water: irrigation season - West Kano scheme (average for 10 sampling sites). Table 2.5 Soil characteristics in selected areas in Mwea settlement. 34 Table 2.6 Soil characteristics in selected areas of West Kano 34 Scheme. Table 2.7 Planning and management strategies at the household 36 level. Table 2.8 Planning and management strategies at the scheme level. 37 Table 3.1 Land use types covering Siaya District. 43 Table 3.2 Percentage distribution of methods used to fetch water by 46 division. Table 3.3 Percentage distribution of distance to main water source 48 from the household by division and season. Table 3.4 Percentage distribution of time spent to fetch water in 48 hours by division. Table 3.5 Percentage distribution of methods used to store household 49 water in the division. Table 3.6 Percentage distribution of use of household water in the 49 division. Table 3.7 Percentage water quality characteristics of the existing 50 water supply facilities in the division. Table 3.8 Percentage distribution of household water treatment 51 practices in the division. Table 3.9 Nature and percentage community contribution. 56 Table 3.10 Percentage distribution of water supply facility status. 57 Table 3.11 Monthly and annual average household income by division 58 Table 3.12 Percentage distribution of household income by division. 59 Table 4.1 Sexual division of labour within rice growing households. 77 Table 4.2 Labour intensity for women in rice farming activities. 80 Xl

9 xii Local Environmental Change and Society in Africa Table 4.3 Women's land ownership. 84 Table 4.4 Peasant's consumption levels. 88 Table 5.1 Characteristics of ecological zones. 102 Table 5.2 Population distribution by land tenure and ecological zone. 103 Table 5.3 Pressure of population and arable land in SNL ecological 105 total. Table 5.4 Age of respondents. 108 Table 5.5 Main occupations of respondents. 109 Table 5.6 Marital status. 109 Table 5.7 Major Sources of Income. 112 Table 5.8 Maize Output, 1988/ Table 6.1 Meals taken by households per day By location by gender 135 location. Table 6.2 Changes in number of meals taken by households per day 135 over the past six years by gender by location. Table 6.3 Type of foods taken by households by location by gender 136 location. Table 6.4 Changes in types of food taken by households over the past 136 six years by location by gender. Table 6.5 Changes in Expenditure on Food for Household 137 Consumption by Location. Table 6.6 Reasons for Changes in Expenditure on Food for 138 Household Consumption by Location. Table 6.7 Changes in expenditure on other domestic use 139 commodities. Table 6.8 Reasons for the chances by location. 139 Table 6.9 Change in education related expenditures by location. 139 Table 6.10 Changes in Health Related Expenditures by Location. 140 Table 6.11 Changes in farm Income over the past six years by 141 agricultural orientation. Table 6.12 Reasons for change in farm Income over the past six years 141 by agricultural orientation. Table 6.13 Chances in farm income over the past six years by sex. 142 Table 6.14 Reasons for change in farm income over the past six years 142 by sex. Table 6.15 Changes in urban incomes over the past six years by sex. 143 Table 6.16 Extent to which agricultural production returns met 144 both.producers' food and production needs by sex. Table 6.17 Extent to which agricultural production returns met both 144 producers' food and production needs by agricultural orientation. Table 6.18 Strategies adopted in the wake of increased food 150 expenditures by location. Table 7.1 Age distribution of respondents. 161 Table 7.2 Sources and domestic use of energy. 165

10 List of Tables xiii Table 7.3 Energy sources by ranking. 166 Table 8.1 Wastes generated by Addis Tire Factory 182 Table 8.2 Distribution of respondents by reported symptoms of 189 respiratory sickness and the frequency of occurrence. Table 8.3 Percentage distribution of respondents by agreement or 190 disagreement with the view that the symptoms of respiratory sickness are caused by the emissions of A TF. Table 8.4 Frequency and percentage distribution of respondents by 192 educational attainment and belief in relation between symptoms of respiratory sickness and A TF's emissions. Table 8.5 Distribution of respondents by whether or not they face 193 other perceived problems in relation to the ATF's emissions. Table 8.6 Distribution of respondents by reason for not having taken 195 measures to reduce health effect of emissions. Table 8.7 Frequency and percentage distribution of respondents by 205 reasons for not having moved out of the Kebele. Table 9: 1 Matrix showing the dimensions and critical variables of 211 food security. Table 9:2 A sample of edible plants collected by the Moro: Parts 212 eaten, preparation and season. Table 9:3 A sample of edible plants collected by the Fulani: Parts 214 eaten, preparation and season. Table 9:4 Vegetables and fruit production in 1000 kg 1983 to 1993.