The Role of Jordanian Women Farmers in Livestock Production with Implications to Agricultural Extension Education

Transcription

1 The Role of Jordanian Women Farmers in Livestock Production with Implications to Agricultural Extension Education Ahmad Shukri Al-Rimawi, Associate Professor University of Jordan Abstract The role of women farmers in livestock production in Jordan, the influence of selected socioeconomic factors on livestock involvement, and implications to extension activities were examined using factor analysis and non-parametric tests. Women farmers were found to have a significant role in livestock production activities, and in decision-making regarding livestock management. Contribution to production activities and participation in decision-making were found to be positively correlated. Gender division of labor was apparent, which implies that both men and women must have the technical knowhow and ability to manage their area of responsibility. Women farmers were found to be under-served by extension services; less than one fifth of women were found to have access to state extension services and 3% to private extension. Gender-specific extension activities based on relevant information have to be implemented to improve livestock management, and to ease or to mechanize women tasks, using appropriate methods and approaches of extension. Introduction The role of women in agriculture and in rural development is increasingly recognized both at national and international levels. Women play a significant role in many agricultural activities; they produce over half of the world s food (Johnson, 1998) and account for 50% of the total labor engaged in agriculture (Das, 1995; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO], 1995). Female economic activity in agriculture has attracted attention because of its potential contribution to the reduction of poverty, increased food security, and promotion of environmental sustainability (Muller, 1989). Livestock production is an integral component of farming systems in West Asia and North Africa (WANA). Tully (1990) concluded, in a review of the literature on the household labor issues in WANA, that female labor is important in most livestock production activities except shearing, slaughtering, and transporting water and fodder. Women were involved in lighter work that does not require great physical effort, but care and patience (Saito & Spurling 1992). Rangnekar, Vasiani, and Rangnekar (1991) in India made a similar conclusion. Gender division of labor is observed in the farming systems of the Near East. The division of labor is based on the nature of the agricultural enterprise itself and on the operations used in the production process. Generally, women conduct indoor jobs, such as feeding and milking, while men conduct outdoor jobs such as the selling of milk (Tully, 1990). In Northern Syria, the division of labor is more influenced by the traditional gender roles rather than seasonal labor needs. Feeding, milking, processing, and manual harvesting of cereals are considered female tasks (Pape-Christiansen, Doppler & Nordblom, 1995). Livestock production in Jordan is almost exclusively a family operation. Several studies on the role of women in agriculture in Jordan have confirmed the high contribution of women in livestock production (Brandenburg, 1993; Himour, 1994; Campbell, 1995; & Brockhaus, 1996). Women have a greater say in the aspects of production in which they are heavily engaged or predominate. If a woman is working and contributing to household expenditures, her power in the household and her economic worth are enhanced. Thus, any effort to increase the resources and skills available to women in income-generation activities should improve their decision-making power in the household (FAO, 1995). Mongella (1996) noted that the Beijing Declaration and Platform for action in 1995 called on organizations to increase women s access to new technologies as a tool for strengthening women s economic capacity. Awareness is growing of the need to reach women farmers and to fully involve them in development programs. However, extension services still face difficulties in effectively communicating and working with women (FAO, 1996). While most of the livestock management is carried out by women, extension and training programs are not geared to the involvement of Spring

2 women (FAO, 1995). Women farmers are under-served by extension services worldwide; the average percentage of extension time and resources allocated to women worldwide was 5% (Swanson et. al., 1990). A study in four countries by the FAO has concluded that women had rarely participated in extension activities that took place in extension offices located outside their villages (Das, 1995). Measures to improve the effectiveness of agricultural extension to women include; employing female agents and contact farmers, working with women s groups, and organizing extension activities at convenient times and locations (Das, 1996; Mvudulu, 1994; Satio & Spurling 1992). Women s perceptions regarding their knowledge in livestock keeping is high. Women farmers in rural India are said to be aware of the specific habits and behaviors of each of the animals owned and how to feed and handle animals accordingly (Rangnekar, et.al. 1991). Brockhaus (1996) reported similar observations in Jordan. The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and FAO called for a more participatory approach to extension in order to ensure the formulation of relevant extension programs to women farmers (Das, 1995). An excessive burden is being placed on women farmers, for they spend long hours every day on agricultural and domestic tasks (FAO, 1995). Das (1996) in a study in Syria, Trinidad, Thailand and Nigeria reported that women spent 11.7 hours or more on agricultural and domestic tasks. Dual domestic and production workload take up rural women s whole day, and prevented them from participation in extension activities. Women rarely have access to laborsaving, gender-specific technologies for farm and home activities (Saito & Spurling, 1992). Japan has adopted an integrated policy that does not only take into account the improvement of work hours and the working environment, but also the improvement of home life hours (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries [MAFF], 1993). Purpose The purpose of the study was to examine the involvement of rural women in livestock production, and to investigate their sources of extension information. Objectives The objectives of the study were to: 1. Examine the contribution of women farmers in livestock production activities and participation in decision-making of livestock management. 2. Analyze the influence of selected socioeconomic factors on women s role in livestock production. 3. Determine the extent of women farmers access to extension services. Methodology Primary data were collected using a structured questionnaire from a sample of 100 women farmers. The agricultural division of the Department of Statistics (DOS) provided the technical support for purposefully selecting four sites (2-3 villages each) that represented the middle region of Jordan, and selecting a proportional random sample from these sites. Data collectors, mostly female agents, were familiar with agriculture conditions in the area. The female agents helped in pre-testing the questionnaire for content validity and in making the necessary modifications. Eighty-eight questionnaires were eventually found to be usable. Twelve households were found to be involved in marginal poultry production activities that demand minimal efforts from adult females. The basic instrument was a 24 item questionnaire which provided a rating of women s contribution in livestock production activities (contribution thereafter) and participation in decision making regarding livestock management (participation thereafter). Women farmers were asked to rate their contribution and participation on a four point scale (1= none or very little, 2 = low, 3 = medium and 4 = high contribution or participation). A four-point scale was used, to avoid concentration of responses on the medium response should a 5-point scale have been selected. Two indexes were calculated in order to examine individual differences in contribution and participation. Eighteen variables were used to construct an index of the overall rate of contribution. These variables were related to raising cows, sheep, and goats with respect to shepherding, feeding, watering, caring, milking, cleaning, shearing, processing, and marketing of livestock products. Six variables were used to construct an index for measuring the overall rate 12 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education

3 of participation. These variables were related to decisions with respect to selecting livestock, health care, managing, processing, marketing, and spending income. The Cronbach s α reliability coefficient, which is based on the internal consistency of the test, was found to be 0.85 for contribution and 0.91 for participation. Coefficients of less than 0.60 would be considered poor (Sekaran, 1984; p 226). The scales were considered reliable. The levels of contribution and participation were established on the basis of the rates of contribution and participation. Rates beyond one standard deviation below the mean were labeled as low. Similarly, rates beyond one standard deviation above the mean were labeled as high. Rates in the range of one standard deviation below, or above the mean were labeled as medium. To achieve the second objective, the socio-economic variables that influence women s involvement in livestock production were subjected to factor analysis. The aim was to reduce the data into a few factors that represent the interrelationship among the socioeconomic variables and the indexes of contribution and participation. Spearman s rank correlation coefficient was used to measure the correlation between ranked variables. To test the differences between the ranked rates of contribution and participation that are measured on an ordinal scale, the non-parametric tests Mann-Whitney and Kruskal Wallis were used instead of t-test and one way ANOVA, Volume 9, Number 1 respectively. Unlike t and F tests, these tests do not require normally distributed data, and the form of the distribution need not be specified. To achieve the third objective, women were asked to cite and to rank their sources of information, and each response was graded on the basis of 3 points for the most important source, and one point for the least important source, and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. Results Objective 1 Sheep and goats are raised in Jordan for multiple purposes; milk products, meat, wool, hair and hides, while cows are raised for milk production. The average number of sheep (or goats) was found to be 48 head, and the average number of cows was found to be three head. A limited number of goats are raised as they have almost double the milking season of sheep (Campbell & Roe, 1995). As Table 1 shows, 89% of the women were found to have made a medium to large contribution to production activities, and 85% were found to be in the medium to large participation in decisionmaking category. The rates of participation and contribution were found to be positively correlated (r s = 0.53, p< 0.001). Gender division of labor was apparent. Women are responsible for fodder-mixing and feeding from October to April, as the vegetation in the rangeland does not produce enough feed to sustain the flocks. Table 1 Distribution of farm households by the levels of female contribution in livestock production or participation in decision making (88 cases) Levels Level of contribution % of women Mean hours of farm work Level of participation % of women Low Medium High Total /overall Milking during February to July, and processing of cheese, ghee, and dry yogurt (for cooking), constitutes the work of females. The months of May and June are labor intensive as manual harvesting of cereals (or vegetables) and milking coincide. Forty percent of the women are involved in disposal of milk products, which supports the findings of Brockhaus (1996) who observed that women were partially active in direct marketing. Men organize the sale of milk products and they contact dealers in the nearby towns, mobile traders, and traders who set up operations in the production centers during the season. The existence of gender-specific responsibilities in farm households (e.g., Spring

4 feeding) allows research and extension activities to be more effective in targeting their activities. An extension agent in northern Jordan reported during the survey that sheep-keepers were trained to treat the straw with urea to improve its digestibility and nitrogen content. The treated straw cannot be used immediately; it needs some time for fermentation. However, in one case, because the man s wife was not aware of this treatment, she used the straw to feed the sheep before it was safe for feeding and some of the sheep were poisoned and died. Convincing the sheepherders of the benefits of this treatment was difficult after this treatment. This event was a hard lesson for the extension agent, and emphasized the need to include women who actually perform the activities, in addition to male members in extension activities. Objective 2 Factor analysis was used to examine relationships between 17 socio-economic variables and contribution and participation indexes. The principal component analysis with oblique rotation was used and the analysis yielded six fairly interpretable factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0. These factors accounted for 70% of the total variance in both indexes as Table 2 shows. Multiple loadings on both indexes have made interpreting the results easier. Factor 1 reflects the conditions under which the women farmers were more likely to contribute to production activities and to participate in decision-making. Positive loadings were observed for women age, unsatisfaction with daily life, but negative loadings for the level of education. Thus, factor 1 profiles women who are likely to contribute in livestock production. In contrast, factor 2 profiles women who are unlikely to contribute. Factor 3 had positive loadings for the size of the household and the number of youth members, and negative loading with the index of participation in decision making. Factor 3 can be labeled structure of household. Women who are occupied with domestic activities in larger households appeared to be less likely to be involved in production activities. Factors 4 to 6 are labeled intensive farming, plant and livestock integration, and sharing income. 14 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education

5 Table 2 Volume 9, Number 1 Factor loadings of the socio-economic variables and indexes of contribution and participation Factor Variables Likely to contribute women 1 Women farmer age Unsatisfaction with daily life Women farmer education level Time in household activities Index of contribution Percent of farm income of total income Women share from farm income (%).334 Unlikely to contribute women 8 Areas of trees Number of cows Number of sheep and goats Women farmer education level Index of contribution Per cent of hired farm labor.323 Structure of household 14 Number of youth (< 15 Yr.) Size of the household Index of participation Intensive farming 17 Area of vegetables Per cent of hired farm labor Index of contribution Percent of farm income of total income Index of participation.412 Plant and livestock integration 21 Areas of cereals Percent of farm income of total income Time for livestock production Index of contribution Women farmer education level Sharing incomes 26 Women share of farm income Index of participation Percent of farm income of total income Index of contribution Eigen value Per cent of total variance explained Cumulative percentage * Note. Loadings < 0.30 are not reported. * Bartlett s test of sphericity: χ 2 = 547 df = 136 Sig KMO measure of sampling adequacy = 0.61, which is acceptable (Kim & Mueller, 1987 Factor analysis, statistical methods & practical issues, P: 54). * The total variance of the 17 variable = 17 as the variance of each standardized variable = 1. For example, the variance explained by factor 1 = 3.320/17 = Spring

6 Table 3 summarizes the results of the non-parametric tests. Single, elderly, and less educated women in nuclear families were more likely to contribute to livestock production and to participate in decision-making. Married women, in extended families have more domestic responsibilities, especially childcare, and are less likely to contribute to farm work. More women are available in extended families, while alternatives are absent or limited in nuclear families. Female farm work is generally tedious and less rewarding in monetary and social terms. The size of the household and level of education of the women were negatively correlated with the contribution and participation indexes (p<.05), while the cropped area and the age of women were positively correlated with the contribution and participation indexes (p<.05). These results are consistent with the factor analysis and non-parametric tests. Although, 55% of the husbands were found to have off-farm employment (OFE), the rates of contribution and participation were not influenced by the OFE of the husbands. The possible explanation is that OFE is normally located a short distance from home, allowing men to return back to their homes. Objective 3 The majority of women s households were found to have a TV set (88.7%) or a radio (84.1%). As column 3 in Table 4 shows, husbands, television and broadcasts, female and male state extension agents were most mentioned sources of information by women. Less than 20% of the women have access to state extension services. This finding is in line with Brockhaus (1996) who indicated that 15% of women in Southern Jordan were found to have access to state extension services. Least mentioned sources were found to be printed materials, newspapers, and private extension agents. This finding supports the work of Rimawi (1996) who indicated that women constitute only 3% of the target group of the private sector. When women were asked to name and to rank their main sources of information, husbands, female and male agents, and broadcast agricultural programs were found to have the highest rank, and printed materials, private extension agents, and newspapers were found to have the lowest rank. Other women appeared to be a valid source of information and were mentioned by 17% and ranked fifth as a main source of information. Table 3 Statistical relationship between selected socio-economic characteristics and the contribution and participation indexes Test Coefficient Probability Relationships with the contribution index P< Social status (married/unmarried) M-W U = 543 N = Type of the household (nuclear/extended) M-W U = 262 N = Education level (illiterate/basic/secondary +) K-W χ 2 = d.f. = Women age (<40, 40-50, >50 Yr.) K-W χ 2 = 9.10 d.f. = Percent of farm income (< 50%, 50-75, > 75) K-W χ 2 = 6.85 d.f. = Type of farming (irrigated/rainfed) M-W U = 658 N = Relationships with the participation index Social status (married/unmarried) M-W U = 522 N = Type of the household (nuclear/extended) M-W U = 357 N = Education level (illiterate/basic/secondary +) K-W χ 2 = 4.52 d.f. = Women age (<40, 40-50, >50 Yr.) K-W χ 2 = 2.51 d.f. = Percent of farm income (< 50%, 50-75, > 75) K-W χ 2 = 9.81 d.f. = Type of farming (irrigated/rainfed) M-W U = 523 N = * M-W stands for Mann Whitney test, and K-W stands for Kruskal Wallis test. Thus, women peers could have a functional role in transferring information. The study revealed that participation in extension activities outside the villages was quite low. Only 12% of the women reported that they contacted extension agents in the extension offices and 4.5% participated in field days or demonstrations. These findings indicate that 16 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education

7 women farmers are under-served by extension services, and a need exists to integrate women in extension activities and programs. The gender of the extension agent appears to be an important issue, as 63.4% of women expressed their preference for female agents. The mobility of women is restricted, and it is culturally unacceptable for women to interact with men. The awareness of the restrictions is vital for Volume 9, Number 1 extension program planners. The use of female extension agents, contact farmers and extension groups would overcome the cultural and mobility constraints of women. Working with women s groups has also the advantage of allowing for the exchange of information among women; similarly other women seem to be a valid source of information. Table 4 Distribution of women farmers by their sources of information Source Frequency Percent Most important source (%) Husband Jordan Television Jordan Broadcast Female extension agents Male extension agents Other woman Other household members Non-governmental organizations Printed materials Extension messages in newspapers Private extension agents Conclusions and Implications Women farmers have a significant role in livestock production activities and should share in the decision-making. The existence of gender specific responsibilities in farm households implies that both men and women must have the technical know-how and ability to manage their area of responsibility. This information allows research and extension activities to be more effective in targeting their activities. Without contacting both women and men, effective response to production constraints can not be developed. Women characteristics have a bearing on extension methods and approaches. Women with many children are less likely to participate in agricultural extension activities. In addition, women s access to extension and the ability to comprehend and use technical information and printed materials is lower as a result of the lacking of minimum education, as three quarters of women farmers were illiterate. Relatively old women have a long experience. The awareness of mobility and cultural restrictions are vital for improving the effectiveness of extension services to women. Young women are culturally restricted to interact individually with male agents. Hence, without adopting a participatory approach in extension that takes into account women characteristics and local conditions, an effective working relationship with women farmers is difficult to establish. Women farmers are under-served by extension services, their participation in extension activities is quite low, and most of them have preference towards female extension agents. Less than one fifth of women farmers were found to have access to female and male state extension agents, and about one tenth or less utilized printed materials, NGOs and private extension agents sources of information. Thus, the need to adopt appropriate extension methods for reaching women farmers is evident. Although some women claimed to have a long experience in herd management as reported by Brockhaus (1996), more than two thirds of women farmers (69.3%) felt the need for extension, and 64.8% felt the need for training in improved livestock production practices. Thus, a need exists for women to have access to information to improve their practices and to use the participatory approach to share experience. Identifying livestock management concerns, priority problems, and support needs is critical Spring

8 for ensuring more effective planning of interventions and organizing appropriate extension programs. Most of the women (81%) indicated that their lives were fairly or very hard. Working days for women are quite long; on average, women spend 10.9 hours daily on domestic and productive activities. Das (1996) and Satio and Spurling (1992) made a similar conclusion. The burden of the repetitive and time-consuming tasks such as milking and processing falls mainly on women. These tedious tasks could be made much easier, and their productivity would be improved, if labor saving technologies are adopted. The wide use of small washing machines in Jordan for the purpose of producing butter is just an example of local adaptation of such labor saving technologies. The FAO/AGROTECH and International Labor Organization-FIT program disseminate information and promote farming and food processing technologies used by women farmers (FAO, 1998). Lessons may also be learned from the Japanese extension service experience in addressing agricultural production and rural home life in a unified manner, to reduce the hardship that is placed on household members (MAFF, 1993). Recommendations Women farmers must be explicitly specified as a target clientele group in a policy statement of agricultural extension, and addressed by gender-specific extension activities. Male agents should be trained to contact and organize women s groups and conduct extension activities, based on the understanding of female production activities, priority problems, and involvement in decisionmaking. Integrating gender in training to improve livestock management and targeting the right member of the household who implement the solutions are essential to introducing changes in practices. Selecting the appropriate methods of extension, approach, timing, and location of extension activities would overcome women s time and mobility constraints and cultural restrictions. Recruiting trained female extension agents and subject-matter specialists and selecting female farmers with farming ability to serve as a link with other women farmers are important activities. Delivering messages through mass media, namely, radio, television programs to overcome women farmer s constraints of time, mobility, and illiteracy. Increasing gender-specific research work to improve the content of extension messages that are appropriate for women farmers and to ease or to mechanize women tasks. References Brandenburg, C. (1993). Development anthropology, Part I, Badia Research and Development Program, The Higher Council for Science and Technology (HCST), Amman-Jordan. Brockhaus, M. (1996). The role of women on sheep and goat farms in Jordan, GTZ, Amman, Jordan. Campbell, D. Roe, A. (1995). A survey of livestock owners in the Badia program area, The Higher Council for Science and Technology (HCST), Amman- Jordan. Das, M. D. (1995). Improving the relevance and effectiveness of agricultural extension activities for women farmers,, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. FAO. (1995). Women, agriculture and rural development: A synthesis report of the Near East Region, Rome: Author. FAO. (1996, March). Gender and agricultural engineering, in proceedings from AGROTEC/FAO workshop, Zimbabwe, Rome: Author. FAO. (1998). The potential for improving production tools and implements used by women farmers in Africa, Rome: Author. Himour, KH. (1994). Women role in rural development in Azraq area, unpublished M.Sc dissertation, University of Jordan, Jordan. Johnson, M.A. (1998, January). Women s contribution to sustainable agriculture worldwide. A paper presented to sharing the lessons of organic farming, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. 18 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education

9 MAFF. (1993). Outline of cooperative agricultural extension service in Japan, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan: Author. MOA. (1996). National strategy for agricultural research, NCART, Amman, Jordan. Mongella, G. (1996). The place of rural women in the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, A paper presented to the International Committee on the Economic Advancement of Rural Women, Jordan. Mvududu, C. (1994). Gender issues, constraints and potentials in AGRITEX-an overview, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Agricultural Technical and Extension Services, Rome. Muller, R.D. (1989). Women s work in Third World agriculture. Women, work and development, 9, International Labor Office, Geneva. Pape-Christiansen, A. Doppler, W. & Nordblom, T. (1995, November). The contribution of women to labor and decision making processes in Bedouin farming systems of Northern Syria. Symposium on integrated crop-livestock systems in the dry areas of West Asia and North Africa, Jordan. Volume 9, Number 1 Rangnekar, S. Vasiani, P. and Rangnekar, D. (1991). A study on women in dairy production,. A paper presented at the workshop on feeding of ruminants, Indo-Dutch BICON Project, India. Rimawi, A. (1996). The private extension systems in Jordan: Issues and policy implications, German Technical Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Amman, Jordan. Satio, K. and Spurling, D. (1992). Developing agricultural extension for women farmers, World Bank Discussion Paper No. 156, Washington, USA. Sekaran, U. (1984) Research methods for managers, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Swanson, B.E. Farner, B.J and Bahal, R. (1990). The current status of agricultural extension worldwide, in the Report of the global consultation on agricultural extension, FAO, Rome. Tully, D. (1990). Household labors issues in West Asia and North Africa (WANA), in Labor and rainfed agriculture, ed. Dennis Tully, Kluware Academic Publishers, Netherlands. Spring