Has the Electronic Voucher System Created Employment? The Case of Five Districts of Zambia

Transcription

1 Has the Electronic Voucher System Created Employment? The Case of Five Districts of Zambia by Henry Machina, Jairos Sambo, and Mooya Nzila Working Paper 128 December 2017 Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute (IAPRI) Lusaka, Zambia Downloadable at: and

2 Has the Electronic Voucher System Created Employment? The Case of Five Districts of Zambia by Henry Machina, Jairos Sambo, and Mooya Nzila Working Paper No. 128 December 2017 Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute (IAPRI) 26a Middleway, Kabulonga Lusaka, Zambia Machina is Research Associate and lead researcher in the Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute s Gender and Youth in Agriculture thematic area, Sambo and Nzila are Research Interns at IAPRI. ii

3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute (IAPRI) is a non-profit company limited by guarantee and collaboratively works with public and private stakeholders. IAPRI exists to carry out agricultural policy research and outreach, serving the agricultural sector in Zambia so as to contribute to sustainable pro-poor agricultural development. We wish to acknowledge the financial and substantive support of the Swedish International Development Agency (Sida) and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) in Lusaka. We further would like to acknowledge the technical and capacity building support from Kivu International and the Michigan State University and its researchers, and the editing and formatting assistance of Patricia Johannes. Any views expressed or remaining errors are solely the responsibility of the authors. Comments and questions should be directed to: The Executive Director Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute 26A Middleway, Kabulonga, Lusaka. Telephone: ; /81 Telefax ; chance.kabaghe@iapri.org.zm or info@iapri.org.zm iii

4 INDABA AGRICULTURAL POLICY RESEARCH INSTITUTE RESEARCH TEAM The Zambia-based IAPRI research team comprises of Antony Chapoto, Brian Chisanga, Munguzwe Hichaambwa, Chance Kabaghe, Mulako Kabisa, Stephen Kabwe, Auckland Kuteya, Henry Machina, Rhoda Mofya-Mukuka, Olipa Zulu-Mbata, Thelma Namonje- Kapembwa, Hambulo Ngoma, Paul Samboko, Mitelo Subakanya, and Ballard Zulu. Michigan State University-based researchers associated with IAPRI are Eric Crawford, Steven Haggblade, Thomas S. Jayne, Nicole Mason,, Melinda Smale, and David Tschirley. iv

5 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Zambian Government has committed to rolling out the electronic voucher (e-voucher), or electronic Farmer Input Support Programme (e-fisp), countrywide in the 2017/18 farming season. The advantages of the e-voucher are well documented but are centered on a system that enables greater choice of agro inputs to support increased productivity and diversification. The e-fisp also represents a more cost effective way of providing subsidies to smallholder farmers. However, Zambia faces significant barriers to growth on multiple fronts. Zambia is one of the sub-saharan countries faced with acute unemployment as well as the need to raise agricultural productivity and diversify away from maize. There is also unemployment challenges, almost 90% of the population are either unemployed or work in the informal sector and an increasingly young population will require more jobs to ensure continued economic growth. Nearly half of the country s population depends on agriculture for their livelihoods and employment and so, opportunities to continue using agriculture as a driver of job creation should be welcomed. By crowding in the private sector to act as the supplier of inputs for the e-voucher, the e-fisp offers an opportunity to encourage growth of agro-dealers at both local and national levels, bringing in investment and creating jobs. The scale of this opportunity has not been properly evaluated; therefore, IAPRI undertook an investigation to consider the potential of the e-voucher with regards to supporting growth of traders and job creation, addressing two questions: 1. Has the e-voucher system created jobs in Zambia? 2. What is the estimated (potential) number of jobs likely to be created by the e-voucher system once rolled out countrywide? The study applied a simple multiplier effect model to determine the number of jobs created and the potential of creating new jobs in five selected districts and consequently countrywide. A qualitative approach was used on 13 randomly selected agro-dealers in five districts (Chipata, Kalomo, Kapiri-Mposhi, Mazabuka, and Ndola), accompanied by key informant interviews and secondary data sources. This investigation has confirmed several key findings: Not only is this progressive for farmers as increased competition will see lower input prices and a better service but it also demonstrates a wider economic benefit in the form of job creation. This study shows that the rolling out of the e-voucher has created jobs among local dealers, both in new agro dealers and in existing ones as they expand. IAPRI estimates that 1,700 direct jobs were created in 31 e-voucher pilot districts. Scaling this up suggests the full roll out of the e-voucher could result in 2,900 new direct jobs in agro-dealers nationwide. It is noteworthy that this is a conservative estimate as our study only examined the number of new jobs among agro-dealerships. The likely number of new jobs created as a consequence of the e-voucher will be higher once indirect employment opportunities in related sectors for instance in banking and transport are taken into consideration. National input suppliers and dealers are also expanding their workforce in response to the countrywide rollout of the e-voucher. The study suggests that across the three major suppliers v

6 (Omnia Fertilisers, SeedCo, and ETG) there has been a 58% increase in jobs since the introduction of the e-voucher resulting into around 100 jobs. Importantly the study also shows that the new jobs created will be a mix of skilled and unskilled labour. The research shows in the five districts investigated, the jobs were created for marketing and sales, cashiers, drivers security and casual laborers. The findings clearly demonstrate that Zambian companies are responding to the e-fisp positively and that the full roll out creates significant opportunities for employment across all districts. These benefits would not be felt if traditional FISP were to continue. These critical findings should encourage the Government to continue pursuing the countrywide roll out of the e-fisp. Indeed, the evidence suggests there is a case for Government to maximize the potential employment opportunities. In particular, the Government should consider putting in place mechanisms that will see and increment in the number of women engaging and being employed in agro-dealing to promote gender equality. It should also deliberately ensure that it acts to tackle the barriers to growth faced by agrodealers, notably poor local infrastructure and access to finance among others. vi

7 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... iii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY... vi LIST OF TABLES... viii LIST OF FIGURES... viii LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS... viii 1. INTRODUCTION DATA AND METHODS Model of Estimation Study Area Selection Interviews With Agro-Dealers, Key Informants and Secondary Data Collection RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Number of Agro-Dealers in Sample Districts Employment Creation in Sample Districts National Input Suppliers/Agro Dealer Employment Creation through the E-Voucher General Views on the E-voucher and Factors that Would Enhance Employment Creation Challenges Faced by Agro-dealers CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS... 9 ANNEX REFERENCES vii

8 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Maize Production Estimates for 2016/2017 Agricultural Season New Agro-dealers in Sample Districts Estimated Number of Jobs Created in the E-voucher Districts Estimated Number of Jobs Created through E-voucher and Agro Dealer Development Nationally Selected National Agro-dealer/Supplier* Employment Resulting from the E-voucher... 7 A 1. List of E-Voucher Pilot Districts (2016/2017) Agricultural Season A 2. Direct Employment Levels by Agro-Dealers in Sample Districts LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Theory of Change... 3 CSF CSO DACO e-fisp e-voucher FISP IAPRI MoA LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Crop Forecast Survey Central Statistical Office District Agriculture Coordinator Electronic System of Farmer Input Support Programme Electronic Voucher Farmer Input Support Programme Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute Ministry of Agriculture viii

9 1. INTRODUCTION Zambia is one among sub-saharan African countries with high levels of unemployment, with only 10.7 percent (629,626 persons) of the country s employed labour force working in the formal sector in 2014 (CSO 2014). The rest were either unemployed or worked in the informal sector characterized by subsistence farming with fragile business environments. Agriculture offers a great opportunity for growth of employment among men, women, and youth in research, environment, financial management, information technology, marketing, and other technical areas. Forty-nine percent (49%) of the country s population depends on the agriculture sector, primarily through smallholder production for their livelihoods and employment (CSO 2014). Yet in the same sector, smallholder farmers face various challenges that hinder employment enhancement including low levels of technology, productivity, food insecurity, and limited access to knowledge necessary to improve productivity. In an effort to increase productivity and incomes, promote food security, and consequently reduce poverty, the Government has been implementing the (traditional/conventional) Farmer Input Support programme (FISP) since the early 2000s, mainly for maize production. One of the key challenges with the conventional FISP has been high budgetary cost and crowding out private sector participation, coupled with inefficiency in the delivery of inputs. As a response to these challenges the Government piloted the e-voucher system in thirteen (13) districts during the 2015/2016 agricultural season and expanded to thirty nine (see Annex 1) in the following season with the aim of rolling out to the entire country. This delivery mechanism was conceived to, among other things, enhance efficiency, and reduce programme costs. Unlike the centralized traditional FISP, which involved Government physically distributing inputs to all parts of the country, the e-voucher system is a decentralized mechanism involving private sector agro-dealers who supply governmentsubsidized inputs to farmers by use of a personalized card. 1 The role of agro-dealers in farm input supply provides a critical opportunity for citizens to engage in gainful employment. However, there is insufficient research work conducted to estimate the number jobs created by the e-voucher system. Against this background, IAPRI undertook this study to quantify the estimated number of jobs to be created by the e-voucher system if rolled out countrywide. The study focused on non-farm direct jobs created by agrodealers and sort to answer the following questions: Has the e-voucher system created any jobs in Zambia? If so, what is the estimated number of non-farm direct jobs created by the agro-dealers in the e-voucher pilot districts? What is the estimated (potential) number of jobs to be created by the e-voucher system once rolled out countrywide? 1 For details on the e-voucher, see Kuteya et al

10 2.1. Model of Estimation 2. DATA AND METHODS To estimate the number of jobs created in the e-fisp districts and the potential for creating new jobs, we employed a simple multiplier-effect model of productive categorization. The five purposively sampled districts were categorized into five different classes based on the CSO/MoA 2016/17 Crop Forecast Survey estimates of maize production (Table 1). Two separate files, one with five sample districts and the look-up file with all the districts were generated. These were then merged to get the estimates of the number of jobs created in the e-fisp districts and the potential for creating new jobs. Table 1. Maize Production Estimates for 2016/2017 Agricultural Season Class Class based Base level of maize Districts similar to sample district on data from sample District production (Mt) based on sample district 5 Kapri- Mposhi >=212,550 Kapiri-mposhi Lundazi 4 Chipata >=193,549 and Chipata <212,550 3 Kalomo >=187,864 and <193,549 2 Mazabuka >=76,537 and <187,864 Chadiza Chibombo Chinsali Choma Chongwe Kalomo Katete Kazungula Chadiza Chibombo Chinsali Choma Chongwe Katete Kazungula Mazabuka 1 Ndola <76,537 Chama Chavuma Chienge Chililabombwe Chilubi Chingola Gwembe Ikelenge Isoka Itezhi-tezhi Kabompo Kabwe Kafue Kalabo Kalulushi Kaoma Kaputa Kasama Kasempa Kawambwa Kitwe Livingstone Luangwa Luanshya Lufwanyama Lukulu Lusaka Luwingu Mbala Mkushi Monze Mpika Mpongwe Mumbwa Petauke Mbala Mkushi Monze Mpika Mpongwe Mumbwa Petauke Mafinga Mambwe Mansa Masaiti Milenge Mongu Mporokoso Mpulungu Mufulira Mufumbwe Mungwi Mwense Mwinilunga Nakonde Source: Authors classification from MOA/CSO (2017) Crop Forecast Survey for 2016/2017 agricultural season. Namwala Nchelenge Ndola Nyimba Samfya Senanga Serenje Sesheke Shang'ombo Siavonga Sinazongwe Solwezi Zambezi 2

11 Additionally, the nature and type of jobs being created was investigated and compared among the different agro-dealers to get an average estimate of the jobs created per dealer. The following formula was used to estimate the number of jobs that have been created since the piloting of the e-voucher system: n AT (1) where n is the number of non-farm jobs created. A is the average number of jobs created per agro-dealer and T is the total number of dealers registered with the Government. Using the case study, data estimates the potential number of jobs created if the programme is rolled out countrywide. The number of jobs created is likely to be underestimated considering that there are also jobs being created in the whole fertilizer and seed value chains, for example in the financial, technology and transport related sectors. For simplicity, the study only focused on the jobs created directly through agro-dealership. To assess the potential for creating new jobs after rolling out the e-voucher system, the study mapped the number of districts by type. The level of maize production was used as a proxy for high e-voucher activity, based on the number of agro-dealers set up upon piloting the e- voucher system. Further, the number of jobs to be created was estimated using the formula in equation 1. The study profiled 13 agro-dealers in five pilot districts. Detailed information about the operations of these agro-dealers and the number of people they have employed was captured. Figure 1. Theory of Change A. Does the e voucher system create jobs? "Steps needed: only "jobs" related to agro dealership" D. Therefore, how many jobs will be created natiaonally B. How many agro dealers were set up of the pilot? Step needed: Sample some districts and identify the number of new dealers C. In each dealership, how many jobs were created? Step needed: Number of people typically employed by a dealer in the districts Source: Authors. 3

12 2.2. Study Area Selection The study purposively sampled five districts (Kapiri-Mposhi, Chipata, Kalomo, Mazabuka, and Ndola) which participated in the e-voucher during the 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 agricultural seasons, based on maize production estimates for the 2016/2017 agricultural season. The study utilized this criteria as high maize active districts were assumed to have a strong presence of agro-dealers triggered by the introduction of the e-voucher and vice versa. Consequently, we assumed that the high maize producing districts would have created more employment than those producing less maize Interviews With Agro-Dealers, Key Informants and Secondary Data Collection The study undertook data collection from 11 to 18 July 2017, and purposefully sampled 13 district-based agro-dealers who participated in the e-voucher system during the 2015/16 and 2016/17 agricultural seasons. Two agro-dealers 2 were selected in each of the low maize yielding districts and three in high maize active districts. Further key informants were interviewed (District Agriculture Coordinators - DACOs). These provided valuable information, particularly on numbers of agro-dealers available in the districts, those existing before the introduction of the e-voucher and the new entrants after the e-voucher. The information provided was triangulated with that from the agro-dealers themselves. All the agro-dealers were located within their central business districts except in Kapiri- Mposhi where one rural based agro-dealer was interviewed. Further, information was collected from three national based input suppliers/agro-dealers (Omnia Fertilisers, ETG, and Seedco) to supplement district level information. These played a key role of supplying farm inputs to district level agro-dealers for the smallholder farmers. However, in a number of cases, the suppliers opened up new district based outlets that stood as competitors to local agro-dealers and dealt directly with the farmers. Additionally, data from the Crop Survey (CSF) 2016/17 of the Ministry of Agriculture/Central Statistical Office on maize production as well as the Food Reserve Agency was utilized. 2 Interviews were mostly conducted with the business owners or employees where the owners were not available. 4

13 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1. Number of Agro-Dealers in Sample Districts Findings show an increase in the number of agro-dealers in the study districts. Table 2 shows that out of 130 agro-dealers in operations in the five study districts, 65 were established after the introduction of the e-voucher, either as branches of national input suppliers or as entirely new business entities within the district. The increase in agro-dealers has triggered employment creation as presented in the next section Employment Creation in Sample Districts The study considered job creations within agro-dealers in the districts that were surveyed. Annex 2 shows that following the introduction of the e-voucher, levels of direct employment in agro-dealers increased markedly from 82 during the 2014/2015 agricultural season to 128 in the succeeding season. By the 2016/2017 season, the number of jobs in the five districts increased to 195. Annex 2 also reveals gender disparities in employment levels, though with a declining trend. While females consisted of 20.7% of the employees after the introduction of the e-voucher during the 2014/15 season, the percentage fell to 14.1% in the following year but rose slightly to 16.4% during the 2016/2017 season. These results set the stage for estimating the number of jobs created in the e-voucher pilot districts. Maize production data was only available in 31out of the 39 districts (Annex 1). 3 Therefore, estimated levels of employment in those districts were categorized in five classes. Table 3 provides the estimated number of jobs created in each of the classes. Table 2. New Agro-dealers in Sample Districts District Agro-dealers before e-voucher (2014/16) Agro-dealers after e-voucher (2016/17) New agrodealers (A) (B) (C) Kalomo Chipata Kapiri-Mposhi Mazabuka Ndola Total Source: District Agriculture Coordinators Offices and agro-dealers files. *C=B-A. 3 All the e-voucher districts in Annex 1 excluding Chikankata, Chilanga, Chisamba, Limulunga, Pemba, Rufunsa, Serenje, and Zimba. 5

14 Table 3. Estimated Number of Jobs Created in the E-voucher Districts Total number Jobs created Gender by Agro-dealers Male Female National Total 1,722 1, Class Class Class 4 1,197 1, Class Class Class Source: Authors based on field survey. The results in Table 3 show that most of the jobs (1,197) were created in the class related to Chipata District (Class 4) comprising those expected to have produced from 193,549 metric tons of maize to less than 212,550 metric tons than those in any other category. The class of districts related to Ndola (Class 1) producing from 76,537 metric tons to less than 187,864 metric tons created the least number of jobs at only 125. It is noteworthy that basing the calculation only on the 31 districts with maize production data while leaving out the other eight, underestimates the number of actual jobs created at current e-voucher district level. In reality, the e-voucher will have created far more agro-dealer associated jobs than what was estimated. To understand the impacts of the countrywide rollout, these results were again used to estimate the e-voucher s potential for job creation nationwide. These were estimated based on the 74 districts on which maize production data is available. Equally, this method had a limitation as it underestimates the potential jobs to be created nationwide. The results in Table 4 indicated that the countrywide e-voucher is rolled out countrywide, is likely to create an estimated 2,910 direct jobs through the agro-dealers. Most of these jobs (1,995) are likely to fall in the class related to Chipata district (Class 4) comprising those expected to have produced from 193,549 metric tons of maize to less than 212,550 metric tons. The Ndola class (Class 1) producing from 76,537 metric tons to less than 187,864 metric tons created the least number of jobs (110). Table 4. Estimated Number of Jobs Created through E-voucher and Agro Dealer Development Nationally Total number Jobs created Gender by Agro-dealers Male Female National Total 2,910 2, Classification of Districts Class Class 4 1,995 1, Class Class Class Source: Authors computation from MOA/CSO (2017) Crop Forecast Survey for 2016/2017 agricultural season. 6

15 Further, the findings showed that the new jobs in agro-dealerships when rolled out in full would be a blend of unskilled and semi-skilled positions both high and low-level including managers, accountants, stores officers, marketer/sales personnel, cashiers/sweepers 4, security officers and casual labour such as loaders among others. The position of loaders had the highest number of jobs created National Input Suppliers/Agro Dealer Employment Creation through the E- Voucher Input suppliers at national level constitute a larger portion of employers in agribusiness. Our interviews with three key suppliers (Omnia Fertilisers, Seedco, and ETG) revealed their strong support for the introduction and countrywide implementation of the e-voucher and that this has resulted in the key suppliers establishing new outlets, resulting in high employment creation. Table 5 shows that overall employment increased from 150 during the 2014/2015 agricultural season to 173 the following season. By 2016/2017 season, the number of employees rose to approximately 256. All the suppliers attributed this increase mainly to the introduction of the e-voucher. This represents a 58% increase in jobs among the three major suppliers since the advent of the e-voucher. However, taking gender into consideration, we find inequalities in employment with females comprising only an average of 21% over the study period. Table 5. Selected National Agro-dealer/Supplier* Employment Resulting from the E- voucher Job Title 2014/ / /2017 Male Female Male Female Male Female Manager Depot managers 20 8 Accounts Personnel Stores Officer Marketer Cashier Driver Security Officer Cleaner General Worker Loader/ casuals/contact staff Clerk Total Overall Source: Computed by authors from the national input suppliers/agro-dealers files. *Omnia Fertilisers, Seedco, and ETG. 4 Staff who swipe e-voucher cards to enable farmers collect inputs. 7

16 3.4. General Views on the E-voucher and Factors that Would Enhance Employment Creation All the agro-dealers emphatically supported the e-voucher system as a positive way forward towards efficiency in input supply as well as promotion of employment. They affirmed that the introduction of the e-voucher system is a critical cost saving measure for government in warehouse storage, transport costs, and pilfering of inputs. One respondent stated, The e- voucher system came at a time we needed it the most, since we were paying a lot of fees and levies to the council and the Zambia Revenue Authority. Another stated thus, If there is any programme which government has succeeded it is the e-voucher system. For them, participation in the program enhanced their revenue base, increased both direct and indirect employment, helped maintain clientele and widen customer base, broadened product line offered to farmers, saving farmers to promote agricultural diversification, as well as an opportunity for self-growth. After the implementation of the e-voucher in 2015/2016 farming season, the majority of agrodealers increased the labour force due to increased work load resulting from huge numbers of farmers visiting their outlets and demanding for agricultural inputs at swiping machines as well as the general complexity of e-voucher system compared to the conventional FISP. Those whose employment levels remained stagnant attributed this to low demand for their services as the number of dealers had increased exponentially. Further, some smaller agrodealers were not supplied with inputs by the larger suppliers/dealers as the suppliers demanded upfront payment or prohibitive value of collateral. As such, most of the farmers failed to access the inputs when required Challenges Faced by Agro-dealers District based agro-dealers face challenges that could pose as a threat to e-fisp s electronic voucher system s objectives. These challenges span from low capacity to face stiff competition emanating from the suppliers such as Omnia Fertilisers and ETG, which also have the liberty to deal with farmers directly. For example, besides their own management challenges, the stiff competition prevented some agro dealers from to honoring their obligation of paying the suppliers for the inputs collected. Additionally, it is costly for most of them to send fertilizers to far-flung rural areas where most feeder roads are in deplorable condition, coupled with long distances of as far as 100 km from the Central Business Districts and this prohibited most dealers in open their outlets in these rural areas due to high cost of operations, among others. Further, the incipiency in activation of farmers cards prevented some agro dealers from expanding their businesses and employing more people. 8

17 4. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS The findings set out in this paper demonstrate that: The introduction of the e-voucher has led to the creation of new agro-dealers, and more are expected resulting from the countrywide roll out. The countrywide roll out of the e-voucher created jobs, both by new agro dealers and existing ones as they expanded. This study shows that in the 31 e-voucher pilot districts 1,700 new direct jobs were estimated to have been created. The full countrywide roll out of the e- voucher could result in over 2,900 new jobs in agro-dealers nationwide. National input suppliers/agro dealers are also expanding to match the roll out of the e- voucher, as well as creating new local agro-dealers as well as increasing their workforce. Importantly the study also shows that the new jobs created will be a mix of skilled and unskilled positions. The research shows that jobs were created in marketing and sales, for cashiers, for drivers as well as for security and casual laborers. The overall number of new jobs created as a consequence of the e-voucher will be higher than the estimates. The study had only looked at jobs created among agro-dealers. However, the e-voucher has also created new jobs in related sectors, for instance in banking and transport. Equally, in speaking to agro-dealers and via the surveys, it was found that there were areas where government action could support benefits beyond those identified. In particular the government could seek to identify ways of increasing the number of women who are engaged and employed in agro-dealing and ensure that they are acting to tackle the barriers to growth faced by agro-dealers, notably poor infrastructure and access to finance. Similarly, as the government considers rolling out the e-voucher countrywide, there is need to invest in crop production data disaggregated by the districts. 9

18 ANNEX 10

19 Table A 1. List of E-Voucher Pilot Districts (2016/2017) Agricultural Season 1. Chibombo 14. Kalomo 27. Mufulira 2. Chikankata 15. Kaoma 28. Mumbwa 3. Chilanga 16. Kapiri-Mposhi 29. Mungwi 4. Chililabombwe 17. Kasama 30. Mwinilunga 5. Chingola 18. Katete 31. Nakonde 6. Chinsali 19. Kitwe 32. Ndola 7. Chipata 20. Limulunga 33. Pemba 8. Chisamba 21. Luanshya 34. Petauke 9. Choma 22. Lusaka 35. Rufunsa 10. Chongwe 23. Mansa 36. Samfya 11. Isoka 24. Mazabuka 37. Serenje 12. Kabwe 25. Mongu 38. Solwezi 13. Kafue 26. Monze 39. Zimba 11

20 Table A 2. Direct Employment Levels by Agro-Dealers in Sample Districts District 2014/2015 Total 2015/2016 Total 2016/2017 Total Gender Gender Gender Male Female Male Female Male Female Kalomo Chipata Kapiri-Mposhi Ndola Mazubuka Total Source: District Agriculture Coordinators Offices and agro-dealers files. Note: There are minimal differences in total figures of employees when this table is compared with Tables 5 and 6 arising from the employees who moved in and out over time. 12

21 REFERENCES CSO (Central Statistical Office) Zambia Labour Force Survey Report. Lusaka. Ministry of Agriculture/Central Statistical Office (MoA/CSO) Crop Forecast Survey. Lusaka, Zambia: MoA/CSO. Kuteya, Auckland, N. Chinyama Lukama, Antony Chapoto, and Vincent Malata Lessons Learnt from the Implementation of the E-voucher Pilot. Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute Policy Brief No. 8. Lusaka, Zambia: IAPRI. 13