Agroecology Ecological understanding of farming systems 7. Crop pest control
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1 Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Agroecology Ecological understanding of farming systems 7. Crop pest control Crop pests Insect herbivory Natural pest management Chemical control Biological and ecological control Transgenic technology BBoeken
2 Crop pests Herbivores Vertebrates Soybean Cyst Nematode nematode.unl.edu Insects Mites Nematodes Weeds Competitors for resources Red Sunflower Weevil ipmworld.umn.edu Co-dispersers Diseases Fungi Bacteria Viruses Rose Mosaic Virus Black Bean Aphid 2
3 Reduction of net yield NPP-consumption Damage to roots, foliage, flowers, fruits Disproportional reduction of market value Insect herbivory Species specificity Generalists Specialists Net Assimilation Rate Relative Growth Rate Aspergillus and insect damage Crop infestation Plant density and apparency Accessibility Secondary metabolism Stamp, N The Quarterly Review of Biology 78,23-55 Plant defense Bottom-up control Structural protection Secondary compounds (quantitative/qualitative) Costs and benefits (defense-growth trade-off) Defence and tolerance Genotypic or phenotypic expression Constitutive or inducible defense 3
4 Top-down control Predators Vertebrate insectivores Birds, lizards, shrews Generalists Insect predation Predatory insects (ladybugs, lacewings, beetles, mantises) Specialists on common pests, incl sessile pests (Aphids, scale insects, etc.) Spiders Generalists of moving prey, not sessile insects Also of predators and parasitoids Aleiodes indiscretus wasp parasitizing a gypsy moth caterpillar. Scott Bauer en.wikipedia.org Araneus diadematus André Karwath en.wikipedia.org Parasitoids Blackbird Sannse en.wikipedia.org Syrphid flies, ichneumonid wasps Pathogens Specialists on larvae and sessile insects Parasitized by hyperparasites Fungi, bacteria, viruses Host-specific 4
5 Natural enemies of cabbage Graham Burnett, en.wikipedia.org 5
6 Chemical insect control Insecticides Heavy metals Lead, mercury, arsenic Plant toxins Nicotine, pyrethrum Organochlorines DDT, Dieldrin, Lindane Organophosphates Parathion, Malathion Advantages No more insect damage Quick and easy application Disadvantages Selection of resistance Increasing use Kills all insects Accumulates in food chain Causes thin egg shells in birds Spreads in the environment Dangerous to handle 6
7 Natural insect control Predator efficiency Consumption rate (A) Consumer population response (B) Food patch distribution (C) Giving-up density Feeding rate A. Functional response B. Numerical response Food density Consumer density Consumer aggregation Food density Food depletion C. Ideal Free Distribution Profitability (Intake rate) Consumer density Life-cycle synchrony Availability, colonization Prey-switching 7
8 Ecological control Use of plant defenses Repellants Decoys Low crop density High genetic crop diversity Pyrethrum field Enhancement of natural predators Landscape diversity (habitats) Nesting sites, refugia Alternative prey Colorado potato beetle en.wikipedia.org Physical means Hand picking (large insects) Solarization against weeds and soil nematodes instead of herbicides and Methylbromide 8
9 Augmentation of natural enemies and introduction of exotics Biological control (Risk of invasiveness!) Weed herbivores Aphthona lacertosa (feeds on leafy spurge roots) Predators Rodolia cardinalis on cottony cushion scale Parasitoids Aphthona lacertosa, an introduced root-feeding flea beetle. Ichneumonoid wasps (oviposit in aphids) Parasites Nematodes (Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita on slugs) Pathogens Fungus (Trichoderma viride) Bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis) Toxic if ingested Icerya purchasi - Infestation of citrus plantations in California, 1888 ( The predator, Vestalia ladybird - Rodolia cardinalis, from Australia ( 9
10 Transgenic plants (GMOs) Bt plants Insertion of Bt plasmid into crop plant genome Specific Bt plasmid for particular pest Insect herbivores die upon ingestion Low chance of resistance Advantages Yield increase due to absence of herbivory No use of chemical pesticides Presumably no effect on non-pest insects and higher trophic levels (?) Bacillus thuringiensis JDeacon helios.bto.ed.ac.uk Other applications in plants Vitamin A production Roundup ready crops Broad toxicity and bio-accumulation Resistance leading to superweeds Terminator genes Sterile second generation 10
11 Problems of GMOs Ineffective on sucking insects Mirid leaf bugs on Bt-cotton Possible adverse effects on insect diversity Pollen-eating non-target insects (on Bt-corn, Zangerl et al. 2001) Pollinators Low crop diversity Few cultivars used for technique Regional crop diversity threatened Societal issues Dependence on few large companies Legal aspects (patents on GMOs!) Package deals with other products Corporate business monopoly Human health concerns Potato diversity, Peru ( See also the Convention on Biological Diversity, Rio de Janeiro 1992 ( 11
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