Chapter 4. Typology of Mixed Crop-Livestock Systems: Sri Lanka

Transcription

1 Chapter 4. Typology of Mixed Crop-Livestock Systems: Sri Lanka Mixed Crop-Livestock Systems Typology As in other South Asian countries, mixed crop-livestock farming system is the dominant production system in Sri Lanka. Animals are an integral component in these systems, and perform a variety of roles, either supplying products for the household, for sale, or providing inputs for crop production. The common feature is the rearing of one or a few species together with the crops. In this context, animals have a multi-purpose function and are extremely important for the existence of smallholder farmers. Large ruminants are used for draft power, milk and meat. And the manure produced is used for croplands. Keeping goat and pig is mainly to supplement the income. However, livestock remains a sub-sector in the crop-dominated agriculture. Of the total farming population of million people, an estimated 3.5 million are involved with work concerning livestock (Kodituawakku 1999). Land use is dependent on rainfall, elevation, and native vegetation, and these criteria have determined the three major agroclimatic zones: the wet, dry and intermediate zones. In recent years, the zones have been further sub-divided based on elevation and the pattern of land use: hill country, mid-country, low country wet zone, low country dry zone, coconut triangle, and Jafna peninsula. Dividing the country into crop-livestock systems/zones based on the district-level data may not be ideal since there is variation in agroclimatic characteristics, particularly topography, elevation, etc. within a district due to the large size of the districts. There is also considerable diversity in crop-livestock systems practised. However, despite this limitation, a crop-livestock typology has been constructed for Sri Lanka using the methodology described earlier. What emerges is a six-zone crop-livestock typology of agriculture. The zones in the typology, by and large, follow the agro-ecological classification with a few exceptions (Map 4.1 and Table 4.1). Paddy is the dominant activity in two zones, (Zones 1 and 2 1 ), plantations in three zones (Zones 3, 4, 5), and fruits and vegetables in Zone 6. Fruits and vegetables are the second-most important activity in a majority of zones. Large ruminant activities are important in all zones, and along with large ruminants, ovine particularly goat activity is important in Zones 1, 2, and 4. Characterization of Crop-Livestock Zones/Systems Geographical dispersion and economic importance of zones The zones are contiguously distributed geographically. Zone 1 extends from the north of Sri Lanka to the south, and is the largest zone (with 9 districts), and falls under the low country, dry zone system. Zone 1 accounts for 42% of the total geographical area, 38% of the grazing land and 36% of cropped area. However, it accounts for only 21% of the population, indicating low population density (Table 4.2). Average annual rainfall is 1522 mm, and is lowest in relation to other zones. Zone 6 also falls under the low country dry zone, and accounts for 15% 1 Coconut is the dominant crop activity in this zone. However, in this study area under coconut was not included. Hence paddy emerged as the dominant crop in this zone. 113

2 Table 4.1. Agricultural activity-based zones in crop-livestock typology: Sri Lanka, Zone No. of Location (province) Agro-ecological Major crop 1 and districts zone livestock activities Southern province(1) 3 Dry zone (South) (1) 3, Paddy(83), vegetables Northern province(4) Dry zone (North) (4), and fruits (6), cattle, North Central province(2) Dry zone (Central) (2) buffalo,ovine Eastern province(2) Dry zone (East) (2) 2 3 Western province(1) Wet low country and Paddy (44), vegetables North western province(2) coconut triangle (3) and fruits (33),cattle, buffalo, ovine, (Coconut ) Western province(2) Wet low country (5) Plantation (48), Southern province(2) paddy (28) Sabaragamuwa province (1) vegetables and fruits (11),cattle 4 3 Uva province (1) Up country (3) Plantation (60), Sabaragamuwa province (1) vegetables Central province (1) and fruits (18), paddy (9), cattle, ovine 5 2 Central province (2) Mid-country (2) Plantation (36), vegetables and fruits (29), spices (20), cattle, buffalo 6 2 Uva province (1) Dry low country (2) Vegetables and fruits (39), Eastern province (1) paddy (27), minor cereals (11), cattle, buffalo 1. Percentage to gross cropped area 2. Based on livestock density 3. Figures in parentheses are no. of districts 4. Coconut is a dominant activity in this zone, however its area was not included in clustering districts. Table 4.2. Relative importance of selected variables in crop-livestock typology zones: Sri Lanka, Zone Geographical Grazing NCA(incl NCA(excl Total area land tea+rubber) 1 tea+rubber) 2 population % to all zones total All zones Net cropped area including area under tea and rubber. 2. Net cropped area excluding area under tea and rubber. 3. Geographical area, grazing land and net cropped area (NCA) in 000 ha. 4. Population in 000 nos. 114

3 Map 4.1. Crop livestock typology: Sri Lanka,

4 of the area, but has a smaller share of cropped area (6%) and population (5%). Thus, Zones 1 and 6, which fall under the low country dry zone system, account for 68% of the geographical area, 44% of cropped area and 26% of the population. Zone 2 accounts for 14% of geographical area, but supports 20% of total population. Zone 3 accounts for only 11% of the area, but accounts for 23% of the cropped area and 31% of total population. Both these zones fall under the wet low country and coconut triangle agroecology. Rainfall is high, and above the country average in Zone 3. Zones 4 and 5 have elevations greater than 450 m (up-country and mid-country), Zone 4 has the highest rainfall (2522 mm/annum) and accounts for 16% of the cropped area. Zone 5 is relatively smaller than Zone 4. Crop and livestock activities In Sri Lanka, paddy is the main crop occupying 0.84 million ha, followed by coconut, plantations, and fruits and vegetables. Zones 1 and 6 account for 75% of the total paddy area, 72% of minor cereals, 71% of pulses, and 31% of fruits and vegetables area in Sri Lanka. Under irrigation, paddy is grown in both rainy seasons (maha and yala), while under rainfed conditions, paddy is grown only in the maha (north-east rainy season). Cash crops such as chillies and vegetables are cultivated in the off-season. Thus, for field crops, these two zones account for the bulk of the share. Spices and plantation crops are important in Zones 3, 4 and 5. Zone 2 accounts for 60% of the area under coconut (Table 4.3). In 1998, Sri Lanka had 1.57 million cattle, 0.73 million buffalo, 0.5 million goat and 9.5 million poultry. Zones 1 and 6 account for 52% of cattle, 50% buffalo, 44% goat, and only a small proportion of non-ruminant population such as poultry and pigs (Table 4.4). The majority of cattle and buffalo in these two zones are of the indigenous type. The animals graze most of the year on paddy fields after harvest, and are moved to scrub land during the cultivation season. Due to large livestock numbers, the two zones account for 48% of domestic milk production, and 36% of meat production. Zones 2 and 3 account for the bulk of the non-ruminant population, and about a third of other livestock species. The demand for non-ruminant meat from the large urban population is the main driving force. This area also forms the peri-urban dairy system with large numbers of both crossbred cattle and improved buffalo. Cattle and buffalo generally graze or are tethered on harvested rice fields or coconut plantations. Owing to large poultry and pig populations, these zones together account for 45% of the total meat production. Zone 4 accounts for only one tenth of the cattle population but accounts for 21% of milk production due to large share of European breeds and their crosses. Growth in crop and livestock sector Between 1980 and 1998, area under field crops declined in all zones except paddy in the dry Zone 1 where the share of paddy in GCA increased from 72% in 1980 to 83% in 1998 implying specialization in paddy production (Map 4.2 and Table 4.5 and Appendix Table 4.1). Overall, across all zones, the area under paddy remained stagnant. Increasing trend in the import of pulses, oilseeds and coarse grains has made their production less attractive despite a big gap between domestic supply and demand. In contrast, area under fruits and vegetables increased 116

5 Table 4.3. Relative importance of crop activities in crop-livestock typology zones: Sri Lanka, Zone Paddy Minor Pulses Oilseeds Vegetables Spices Plantation Coconut cereals and fruits % to all zones total All zones Area under crops in 000 ha. Table 4.4. Relative importance of livestock activities in crop-livestock typology zones: Sri Lanka, Zone Cattle Buffalo Goat Sheep Poultry Pig Total LU % to all zones total All zones Livestock population in 000 nos. Table 4.5. Growth in area for selected crop groups (%/annum) in crop typology zones, Sri Lanka. Zones Paddy Minor Pulses Oilseeds Root Vegetable Spices Plantation Coconut cereals crops and fruits All zones

6 > 75 Map 4.2. Share of area under paddy to to gross cropped area (GCA): Sri Lanka. 118

7 dramatically in all zones with an overall growth of > 2% per annum. In Zone 6, the share of fruits and vegetables nearly tripled (Map 4.3). Area under spices also increased in all zones from a low base as also in Zone 5, an important spice-growing zone. The increase in area under fruits and vegetables is attributed to the growing export market. In 2002, they earned Rs million through exports (Wickramasinghe 2003). For spices too, attractive export market prices, and government incentives for expansion were the main reasons for growth area (Herath 2002). Plantation area in the three plantation dominant zones 3, 4 and 5 declined marginally. This is largely attributed to decline in area under rubber due to decline in its profitability. Thus, the trend in the food crops implies a move towards greater specialization with area under minor crops declining further. On the other hand, there is a diversification away from food grains towards fruits and vegetables driven by income growth and urbanization. In all zones, the population of adult female cattle is growing by 2 4% per annum while the population of adult male cattle is stagnant. Adult female cattle account for 80% of the total adult cattle population (average for all zones) and the proportion is similar across zones. Buffaloes account for about one half of cattle population and like for cattle, adult female buffalo account for 70% of the total adult buffalo population, and the proportions are similar in zones where buffaloes are important (Zones 1, 2 and 3). Between 1982 and 1998, adult female buffalo population increased significantly in all zones with an overall growth of 3.7% per annum. The fastest growth was however, in goat population in all zones with an overall growth of 10% per annum. Poultry population also increased in all zones with an overall growth of 5% per annum (Table 4.6 and Appendix Table 4.2). Changes in composition of livestock population Between 1982 and 1998, the composition of livestock population has undergone some changes due to technological and socio-economic factors. The ratio of adult female bovine to male bovine has increased in all zones, indicating a shift towards milch animals and a decrease in draft animals due to mechanization. The all-zones average ratio increased from 2.14 in 1982 to 3.28 in 1998 (Table 4.7 and Map. 4.4). There has been a decline in the ratio of cow to shebuffalo (average for all zones), however, the decrease is less dramatic, and the ratio actually increased in Zones 4 and 5. A significant decline in the ratio of bovine to ovine in all zones is due to faster growth in ovine population. Overall, due to growth in livestock population of all species, the density of livestock units to cropped area increased in all the zones (from 2 to 2.8 LU/ha between 1980 and 1998) as also the density of goats to grazing lands (3 to 5.8 goats/ha grazing land). The density of all species (cattle, buffalo) to total cropped area also increased in all the zones (Maps 4.5 and 4.6). There is limited data on share of purebred and cross breed cattle in different zones. Household surveys by Ibrahim et al indicate a high proportion of crossbred cattle (40 60%) were in mid- and up-country and wet low country near Colombo. The study also found an increase in improved buffalo population due to growing importance of buffaloes for milk production compared with their traditional role as draft animals. For buffaloes, studs are the most appropriate for upgrading because AI is constrained due to several factors. The above changes point to a growing importance of female bovine to meet the demand for milk, increased pressure on limited land resources due to increase in livestock density, 119

8 Table 4.6. Growth in livestock population (%/annum) in crop-livestock typology zones, Sri Lanka. Zones Adult Adult Total Adult Adult Total Ovines Poultry male female cattle male female buffalo cattle cattle buffalo buffalo All zones Table 4.7. Density of livestock species and change in composition between 1980 and 1998, in crop-livestock typology zones: Sri Lanka. Adult Adult female female bovine / cattle / Ovines / adult adult grazing Cattle/ Buffalo/ Ovines/ Cattle/ Buffalo/ Ovines/ male female Bovines / land LU/NCA 1 NCA 1 NCA 1 NCA 1 NCA 2 NCA 2 NCA 2 Zones bovine buffalo ovines (no./ha) (no./ha) (no./ha) (no./ha) (no./ha) (no./ha) (no./ha) (no./ha) All zones All zones Net cropped area including area under tea and rubber. 2. Net cropped area excluding area under tea and rubber. 120

9 > 10 Map 4.3. Share of area under fruits and vegetables to gross cropped area (GCA): Sri Lanka. 121

10 and above Map 4.4. Ratio of adult female bovine to male bovine: Sri Lanka. 122

11 and above Map 4.5. Ratio of bovine to ovine: Sri Lanka. 123

12 and above Map 4.6. Density of livestock units: Sri Lanka. 124

13 growing importance of goat particularly for the poor and smallholders, and a decline in the use of animals for draft purposes. Although there is wide spatial distribution of animals, there is a tendency towards regional specialization. Pigs and poultry are concentrated in Zones 2 and 3 with large urban populations. Indigenous cattle and buffalo are mainly in the dry Zones 1 and 6. Goats are concentrated in the dry areas of Zones 1, 2 and 6. Dairy farming is important in Zones 3, 4 and 5, i.e., in the low country wet zone, and mid- and hill country systems. Socio-economic indicators and livestock infrastructure Share in total population and population density is highest in Zone 3 (848 persons /sq.km) due to large urban population (Table 4.8). Population density is lowest in Zones 1 and 6, the dry zones (144 and 93 per sq km respectively). Due to the large share of bovines, Zone 1 accounts for almost 40% of milk production. Zones 4, 3 and 2 contribute another 40%. Between 1970, and 1998, domestic milk production grew by 2.5% per annum (average for all zones). Zones 4, 6, 2, and 1 had significant growth rates in milk production 2. The only exception was Zone 3 where milk production was stagnant. Due to large urban population, the scope for expansion of dairy activities may be limited in this zone and consequently importing milk from neighboring districts to meet the growing demand. Due to low population density, per capita milk production was highest in Zone 1, followed by Zone 6. Zone 4 is an exception with high per capita consumption despite above-average population density. The growth in milk production and consequently per capita milk production was fastest in this zone, largely driven by adoption of improved European breeds. Except Zone 4, in all other zones, per capita milk production remained stagnant. Labor constraints (high opportunity cost of labor) and low milk prices are the major socio-economic constraints facing small-scale farmers, almost rendering dairying a non-profitable enterprise. Ibrahim et al found that in Sri Lanka the ratio of milk price (in formal markets) to wage rate (for unskilled labor) was 1 13, compared with 1 4 in India. Due to high opportunity cost of labor, hired labor is not economical to use in milk production. Despite liberalization of market policies, smallholders are compelled to sell milk to processing plants at government fixed prices. Imports of dairy products increased due to liberal trade policies further weakening the domestic markets (Devendra et al. 2000). Road density is high in Zones 2, 3, 4, 5, and is low in the dry Zones 1 and 6. The density of dairy centers and veterinary institutions is high in Zones 3, 4, 5. (Table 4.9 and Maps 4.7 and 4.8). Dairy cooperatives provide wide-ranging services including credit for the purchase of concentrate feeds, and extension services. Generally, the densities for these indicators are low in the dry zones, although these zones make significant contribution to milk and meat production. Factors influencing productivity Detailed data for analysis of factors driving productivity of milk and meat are not available. Based on available data, simple correlation between key selected factors and milk yield is shown in Table There is a positive and significant correlation between cattle milk 2 The data on livestock numbers, milk production, etc. need to be interpreted cautiously. Different studies have reported a decline in livestock numbers and an increase in milk production between 1985 and Between 1980 and 1998, we find that livestock numbers have increased. Since data on milk production during 1980 were fraught with problems, growth rates in milk production were calculated between 1970 and A part of the problem in getting accurate data is the long civil strife the country has been going through. 125

14 Table 4.8. Socio-economic indicators in crop-livestock typology, Sri Lanka. Pop. Urban Milk Per capita Milk Growth Growth density pop. production milk production in milk in per no/sq km (% to (000 t) (l/annum) density per production capita milk total) sq km of (%) production geog. area (%) Zones ( ) All zones Table 4.9. Selected infrastructural and agro-climatic variables in crop-llivestock zones, Sri Lanka. Road length Dairy Dairy centers Veterinary centers km/sq km of cooperatives no/0000 sq km no/ 0000 LU geog. area no/0000 LU geog. area Annual Annual rainfall temperature Zones (mm) (mean) All zones Table Correlation between milk yield and selected variables: Sri Lanka, Variables Cow milk yield 1 Buffalo milk yield 1 Population density (no./sq km of geographical area) Urban population (% to total) Road density (km/ 000 sq km of geographical area) Veterinary institutes (no./000' livestock unit) Dairy cooperatives (no./000' livestock unit) Rainfall (mm) Yield refers to all milch animals i.e., dry and in milk (kg/animal). 126

15 > 0.5 Map 4.7. Density of road: Sri Lanka,

16 > > 0.62 Map 4.8. Veterinary institutes and diary cooperatives: Sri Lanka,

17 yield and infrastructure variables such as road density, density of veterinary institutes and dairy cooperatives. Buffalo milk yield on the other hand, is high in areas with a larger proportion of urban population where perhaps buffaloes are kept mainly for milk purpose. However, since female buffaloes are also used for draft purposes, milk yields alone may not reflect the true productivity of buffaloes. Crop-Livestock Interaction in Production Systems Zones 1 and 6 Rainfed rice-based system The northern and southern dry zones encourage a considerable variety of settings, from subhumid forest to dry scrub to large irrigated rice-growing areas. These zones are typified by the use of indigenous breeds. These are extensively managed systems. Animals graze for most of the year on paddy lands, bunds, tank beds, villus and scrub jungle. There is almost no use of concentrates, and little use of crop residues, although buffaloes are fed rice straw. The herd size is comparatively large and varied, from 30 to 200 heads of cattle, mainly of indigenous and some Indian crosses. Milk yield is generally low, 1 3 L per day, length of lactation days is relatively less and consequently yields per lactation are low. The use of natural tree fodders is common in these areas. In the recent past, more and more lands that were used as natural grazing lands are being increasingly used for other purposes such as development projects, wildlife sanctuaries, etc. Thus, limitation in natural grazing lands has become a major constraint on feed availability. In this system, animals are kept as a live saving, and they are sold the moment there is need for money. Slaughter of cattle for home consumption is rarely practised. However, milk is sold mainly to the local market. According to a study (Ibrahim et al. 1999), the average milk production is 2.3 ± 1.3 L, and the lactation length is around 180 days with long calving intervals. High calf mortality is a common feature. Keeping goat mainly for sale of meat is also a common feature. Buffaloes are used for draft purposes in the northern dry zone, while dairy buffaloes are reared in the southern dry zone for curd (yogurt) production. The main income source is the rainfed crop farming. Rains from the Southwest monsoon are generally not reliable, and thus most croplands are kept fallow for about 7 8 months. The southern dry zone from February to September is heavily dry, and feed scarcity and lack of water is a major problem. It is a common feature that farmers tend to sell the animals for slaughter because of these constraints. Crops, mainly rice, are grown in the lowlands with the supplemented water under the tanks, while highlands are cultivated with minor grains, pulses, cash crops such as chilies, tobacco, etc. The soil type is reddish brown earth or red yellow lataritic soil and is fertile. The irrigated rice-based system is similar to rainfed system, but there are a few distinct features. Herd size is small, and keeping buffaloes is less common. Local x Zebu crosses are used for land preparation purposes. Lands are fully occupied for most of the year. Crop residues are available in plenty, but using them for livestock feeding is not common. Each farm family has about 0.81 ha of lowland for rice cultivation and about 0.20 ha for homestead in the 129

18 uplands. However, when the irrigation supply is not reliable, farmers go for various other combinations of crops. Some of the sub-systems are rice-pulse-coarse grain system, rice-pulse crop, and rice-highland crop systems. Vegetable-based intensive Jaffna peninsula system. Intensive crop farming throughout the year using ground well water is the common feature. Organic manure from livestock is mainly used for own croplands. Different kinds of cropping systems are practised. Vegetables, onion and chilies, tobacco, and fruit crops are common in all the cropping systems. Croplivestock integration is clearly seen. Zones 4 and 5 Tea estate system in the uplands and mid-country The up country (Hill country) zone lies 1200 m above mean sea level (amsl). The estate workers keep dairy cattle, mainly of improved European breeds, under stall-fed conditions, tethered grazing and feed moderate amounts of concentrates. Milk yields can range from 6 to 15 L per day or 2500 L per cow per lactation, with long length of lactation. They have no lands of their own. For forage requirements, they have to depend on natural grasses growing on the canal bunds, waste from uncultivated lands are cut and fed to the cattle, together with concentrate feeds. Surplus animals are sold to maintain the herd size at about less than 4 6 animals. Manure is also a good income source. The potential for further development is limited. Vegetable-based or off-farm based cattle farming systems In the village-based system, the farmers own a piece of land and their farming is mainly croplivestock mixed farming. They are engaged in commercial-oriented intensive vegetable cultivation. Dairy cattle are kept mainly to get manure and the milk is often a secondary activity. Zone 5 Kandian home garden system in mid-country This is a very complicated, but sustainable system, with limited potential for further development. The land size is less than 0.40 ha. Taller trees such as forest trees, plantation crops such as coconut, arecanut, kithul, jak, spices and cut flowers are the main crops. Dairy cattle and goat are kept either in semi- intensive systems or tethered to the trees. Forages are collected off-farm and concentrate feeds are fed to milking animals. Generally, the herd size is limited to two cows in production and their offspring. Small-scale rice production in the lowlying areas using buffaloes is a common feature. Zones 2 and 3 Coconut-based cattle farming system The cattle- and buffalo rearing in the coconut triangle districts and wet lowlands form an integral part of the farming systems. The animals are mainly Indian cross breeds and indigenous zebu type. Milk yields vary from 4 to 6 L per day. Semi-extensive system of 130

19 management is practised. Two to ten animals are maintained per unit, and help in controlling weeds, and providing manure for the plantation. The bulls and buffaloes are commonly used in land preparation works and in processing the harvest. Indigenous buffaloes are also milked although yields are less than 2 L per day. The milk is converted to curd, which is a delicacy. Animals are allowed to graze in the coconut gardens and fallow paddy fields. The land holding size is comparatively large (2 4 ha). Generally landowners reside away from the coconut garden and hired workers manage the plantation. Since these zones form part of the peri-urban dairy system around Colombo, informal markets for milk fetch higher prices. Zones 1, 2 and 3 Goat farming systems In the rainfed highland crop-based goat farming and in the low country and intermediate zones, goats are reared mainly under the extensive system. Breeds are mostly indigenous and a cross of Indian breeds. The herd size varies from 10 to 90, and feed mainly includes forages in the scrub jungles and thorn shrubs. Milking is practised rarely and the main purpose is for meat production. In the coconut-based goat farming in the low-country wet and intermediate zones, goats are reared as small herds of 4 12 under semi-intensive management. The animals are allowed for free grazing mainly to control weeds under coconut trees. A shed is provided for them to rest during night and when there is bad weather. Investment on goat is very low. Feed Resources Livestock is an integral component in the sustainable crop-livestock farming systems in Sri Lanka. It remains under the crop-dominated agriculture, as a sub-sector. The government had given high priority to uplift the dairy industry in the past, but the resultant achievements have not been up to the expected level. Moreover, an island-wide survey conducted by the Agrarian Research and Training Institute (ARTI) has shown that most dairy farmers in Sri Lanka feed coconut poonac (coconut cake obtained after removing the oil from the coconut), rice bran or a home-made mixture of the two to their cows. The proportion of farmers feeding commercial compounded feeds to cows is less than 10%. Therefore, the involvement of feed milling industry, for producing compound feeds, is very low. The feeding practices are varied depending on the agro-ecology and the particular farming system. Lack of good quality feed throughout the year, is a major constraint for profitable smallholder dairy production. This is primarily a result of pressure on land and competing opportunities for labor, which restrict the supply of fodder for many dairy herds. In turn, limited access to good-quality fodder reduces the cost effectiveness of feeding concentrates. Dairying in Sri Lanka primarily depends on the pasture and fodder found on the farm, or from common property lands with limited areas of cultivated pasture and fodder. Of the total dairy farmers in Sri Lanka, 65% are smallholders. A majority of them depend upon grazing as their main source of animal feed. Grazing occurs mainly on paddy land (bunds and harvest aftermath), public spaces and under coconut trees. Animals are usually tethered during grazing, except in the dry zones. In the higher-production potential Zones 3, 4, and 5, 131

20 stall-feeding often combined with some grazing is a common system. Use of concentrates is higher per lactating cow in Zone 3. The cattle are fed concentrate feeds over buffaloes, indicating that buffaloes are kept mainly for draft and not for milk. In the dry zone (Zone 6), which is the predominant rice-growing area, larger quantity of rice bran is fed to both dry and lactating cows. In the wet zone (Zones 2 and 3) feeding of rice bran is common. The cut fodder is used for night feeding or seasonally, when grazing is restricted due to cropping. Farmers apparently relying solely upon stall-feeding may be periurban producers or those rearing cattle in confinement in the uplands, where manure is a major product of the system. Technology Adoption Artificial Insemination (AI) Although known to most of the livestock farmers in many areas, successful application of the AI technology has not yet been achieved. As per the performance of AI activities, Kandy and Kurunagala districts (Zones 5 and 2 respectively) rank high as the best districts that reached over 90%of the annual AI target (performance review of AI activities, DAPH 1998). At the province level, central province (Zones 4 and 5) ranked first, recording 40,871 Als in 1998, followed by north western and western provinces (Zones 2 and 3). The highest performance in central province was not only due to better climate suitable for improved animals, but also due to better awareness of the technology. It is not just AI, but also all the other related livestock breeding technologies such as pregnancy diagnosis and AI calving that have been widely adopted in the Central province (DAPH 1998). Performance of AI species-wise, indicates that AI of both cattle and goat increased over the year, but AI of goats appeared to be declining/stagnated in the past three decades. The performance of AI in Jaffna district where large numbers of goats are reared was highest in the country during the 1970s. In the last two decades, it declined drastically. AI in buffaloes has also increased but the number covered is very small. There is a significant growth of total AI of cattle; however, compared with the total breedable cattle, there is a huge potential for improvement of AI (Figure 4.1). The AI technicians, both government and private, are attached to range veterinary office from which they have to obtain semen doses. Variations in the number of AI technicians and the number of breedable cattle over time are shown in Figure 4.2 According to a field survey, the constraints encountered by farmers were non-availability of timely insemination (84%), repeated breeding (90%) and poor veterinary follow-up work (75%). While others were silent or showed no heat signs, only 64% of animals exhibited distinct estrus signs at the time of visit. The coverage of AI is marginal and the conception rate appears to be less than optimal (Abeygunawardena et al. 1995). The 1981 census found only 3% improved cattle, but a household survey in 1998 found that some 40% of the national cattle herd consisted of improved cattle. Private bull services as well as marketing of improved heifers from surplus areas have also contributed to this (Ibrahim et al. 1999). 132

21 Figure 4.1. Variations in total breedable cattle and total AI of cattle, Sri Lanka. Figure 4.2. Variations in number of AI technicians over time, Sri Lanka. 133

22 Urea Molasses Mineral Block (UMMB) Dairy buffaloes and cattle in Sri Lanka have traditionally been reared on natural pastures and tree fodders that are available in the locality. The quantity and availability of these grasses and fodder vary widely from season to season. During the dry period, both the quantity and quality of forages decline, and the feeds available for dairy animals are mature grasses and crop residues such as straw, which are deficient in crude protein, soluble carbohydrates and minerals. They are low in digestibility and palatability. UMMB supplements provide nutrients that are deficient in poor-quality roughages. It helps create favorable conditions in the rumen to enhance microbial fermentation. It thereby improves digestibility, intake and utilization of forages and crop residues as it acts as a catalyst to enhance microbial growth. The importance of Urea Molasses Mineral Blocks (UMMB) is well recognized and proven at the field level, and there is an increasing, consistent demand for it. The major problems encountered at the field level were over-licking, biting and eating of blocks. A need was felt for the cow to have UMMB throughout the day. However, it is impossible to practice this under semi-intensive type of management, because the animals are grazing most of the time. The Fodder Development Center is presently unable to continue the UMMB manufacturing process, as they do not have funds from the provincial council, and also, it is difficult to have a continuous supply of molasses. Organizations such as Cooperatives, Farmers Organizations and the private sector should undertake this operation and the required publicity (Perera 1996, Siriwardana 2001, Subhasinghe 2001, Nettasinghe 2001). To overcome the problem of continuous supply of molasses, a policy-level decision is required on the issue of molasses to farmers organizations or registered companies, and the prices fixed because molasses are prone to large price fluctuations in a given year. Urea treatment of straw With the assistance of the extension officers of the National Livestock Development Board and Mahaweli Authority, the Straw Utilization Project (SUP) launched its first attempt on extension of urea treatment of straw on a trial basis, at Malsiripura and Mahaweli H area among farmers. A convenient and easy method of treatment of straw (4% urea) the socalled two pit-seven day system has been demonstrated and successfully adopted. However, although many efforts were taken since then to popularize the technology, the adoption rate in the field level is very slow. Presently, this technique is practised only in largescale livestock farms. Use of treated straw among small-scale and subsistence-level farmers is very low. Lack of extension support, accidents due to urea, lack of water, high cost of treatment of straw are the major constraints (Ibrahim & Schiere 1986; Ibrahim et al. 1986). Rice bran Sri Lanka is a rice-producing country and rice bran is the most widely used local feed ingredient fed directly to all types of livestock in varying proportions in the rations (concentrate feed). Palipana and Swarnasiri (1985) determined the composition of bran from the milling of raw and parboiled rice of six varieties. Variety had a significant effect on the chemical composition. It is fairly balanced with regard to the amino acid composition. The quality of the rice bran varied widely with the type of milling. Non-conventional type of mills 134

23 produce poor-quality bran containing a higher percentage of rice husk resulting in increased crude fiber content up to 20 30%, whereas semi-modern and modern mills produce rice bran with crude fiber levels of 14 15% and 7 8% respectively. Therefore, the use of bran in formulation of rations (concentrate feed) has been a constraint due to high fiber content (Palipana 2000; Wickramaratne 1999). Conclusion There is a distinct pattern of regional specialization of livestock species and their outputs influenced by agro-ecological and socio-economic factors. Dairy farming is important in Zones 4, 5, and 3, non-ruminants in Zones 2 and 3, and goats in Zones 1, 2 and 3. Indigenous cattle and buffalo are mainly found in Zones 1 and 6, and here meat production is more important than milk. Zones 1 and 6 account for the bulk of livestock population, but has poor livestockrelated infrastructure facilities. The unexploited potential of livestock in this zone should be tapped.secondly, there is a wide variation in production systems from the backyard (extensive management) to intensive stall-fed market-oriented systems requiring high inputs of labor and capital. Between these two extremes, there are semi-intensive systems where a mixture of both is practised. Any intervention in the livestock sector has to keep these differences in the forefront for success of the intervention. The dairy farmer in Sri Lanka primarily depends on pasture and fodder found on farm or from common property lands with limited areas under cultivated pasture and fodder. As more and more land is used for crop production and for non-agricultural purposes, area under natural pasture is decreasing. Therefore, the farmers have to depend more on fibrous feedstuff and crop residues. The nutritive value and the digestibility of these fibrous feedstuffs are relatively low, compared with tropical grasses. To improve the nutritive value of rice straw, urea treatment of straw was promoted on a large scale. However, the adoption rate in the field level was very slow due to technological and socio-economic constraints. Presently this technique is practised only in large-scale livestock farms. Another technology was to provide all the requirements together through UMMB. At present, there is a growing demand for UMMB. To meet the demand, some commercial establishments have come forward to undertake production of UMMB. Farmer organizations in Uva and Southern province have also expressed interest in manufacturing UMMB. Policies to encourage this industry need to be formulated. Since livestock are generally grazed during the day, an awareness program to promote night feeding with UMMB for dairy cows would be beneficial. Farmers expressed their willingness to buy UMMB at the milk-collecting center rather than at the Veterinary office because they did not visit the veterinary officer regularly. Rice bran is an important feed ingredient available locally. However, the quality of available bran needs to be improved, by encouraging mill owners to replace outdated milling technology. Rice breeding programs can also contribute to improving the quality of the bran in rice through breeding for improved quality of bran an aspect that has been totally neglected. Due to strong Government support (tax concessions to feed industry, liberalized imports of feed ingredients, breeder material, etc.) the poultry sector has grown rapidly during the last decade and has established itself firmly in the country and is a significant avenue of employment for Sri Lankans. The private sector has entered the industry in a big way, and 135

24 many new technologies in various activities have been adopted. This is reflected in the significant growth in the poultry sector compared with the stagnation in the milk and ruminant meat sectors. The per capita availability of non-ruminant meat increased from 1kg/capita/ annum in 1982 to 3 kg/capita/annum in 2000, compared with a near-stagnation of ruminant meat at 2 kg/capita/annum. Although milk production increased, milk yields remained stagnant in much of the country except in Zones 4 and 5. Infrastructure facilities like roads, verterinary institutions and dairy cooperatives significantly influence milk yields by facilitating adoption of improved technologies. In the bovine and ovine sector, adoption rate of technologies is marginal. Proper understanding of the socio-economic constraints (land, labor and capital), increasing the profitability of milk and meat production or reducing per unit cost of production through improved technologies will enable small farmers to adopt new technologies to increase the overall productivity of the sector. The innovation rate of any new technology is determined depending on the cost of technology and the margin of the output. In general, agriculture being crop dominated, livestock in most of the systems are given low priority. Strong government support is required for this sector to raise its contribution to the agriculture economy that would directly benefit the poor and small holders. References Abeygunawardena, H. Charles Mya Sein and Epakande L. W. B Reproduction status of artificial Insemination program, success rate and factors affecting fertility of artificially bred cattle. Ceylon Veterinary Journal (Abstract). 42(2): DAPH (Department of Animal Production and Health Administration) Report of Department of Animal Production and Health ( ). Gatabe, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Devendra C, Thomas D, Jabbar M and Zerbini E Improvement of livestock production in cropanimal systems in agro-ecological zones of South Asia. Nairobi, Kenya: International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). Herath, A International trade agreements and the future of spice sector. Paper presented at the National Workshop on High Quality Spice Products, 9 July 2003, Training Center, Department of Export Agriculture, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Ibrahim MNM and Schiere JB Extension aspects of treatment application at farm level. Rice straw and related feeds in ruminant rations. Proceedings of an International Workshop, March 1986, Kandy, Sri Lanka pp. Ibrahim MNM, Schiere JB and Perera HGD Effect of method of urea solution on the nutritive value of treated rice straw. Agricultural Wastes 18(3): Ibrahim MNM, Staal, SJ, Daniel SLA and Thorpe W Appraisal of the Sri Lanka dairy sector. Volume 2. Main report. Department of Animal Science, University of Peradeniya; ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya: International Livestock Research Institute; and Colombo, Sri Lanka: Ministry of Livestock Development and Estate Infrastructure. Kodituawaku AO Crop-livestock systems in Sri Lanka. Pages in Proceedings of a Planning Workshop of Regional Stakeholders on Increasing Livestock Productivity in Mixed Crop-Livestock Systems in South Asia. ICRISAT, India. Patancheru , Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 136

25 Nettasinghe AMP Experiences in use of UMMB in western province. In Workshop on Impact of Introduction Urea-Molasses-Mineral Blocks (UMMB) in Sri Lanka, 20 December 2001, Institute for Continuous Education, Department of Animal Production and Health, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Palipane KB Paper presented at the rice symposium, Department of Agriculture, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Palipana KB and Swarnasiri CDP Composition of raw and parboiled rice bran from common Sri Lankan varieties and from different types of rice mill. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 33: Perera ANF Urea molasses mineral blocks. Low cost feed for high milk production. Economic Reviews Sep-Oct Siriwardana J and Ade S Nutritional benefit in using Urea Molasses Mineral Block (UMMB). In Workshop on Impact of Introduction Urea-Molasses-Mineral Blocks (UMMB) in Sri Lanka, 20 December 2001, Institute for Continuous Education, Department of Animal Production and Health, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Subasinghe DHA Research experience on UMMB. In Workshop on Impact of Introduction Urea- Molasses-Mineral Blocks (UMMB) in Sri Lanka, 20 December 2001, Institute for Continuous Education, Department of Animal Production and Health, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Wickramaratne SHG Terminal report submitted to CARP on characterization and economic evaluation of major pig farming systems in the coastal regions of Sri Lanka. Veterinary Research Institute (VRI), Peradaniya, Sri Lanka. Wickramasinghe PJ, Abeysekera T, and Herath A Agricultural diversification in Sri Lanka. Paper presented at the International workshop on agricultural diversification and vertical integration in South Asia, 5 7 November 2003, New Delhi, India Jointly organized by ICRISAT, FICCI and IFPRI. 137

26 Appendix table 4.1: Area under crops relative to total cropped area 1 (%) in crop-typology zones, 1998: Sri Lanka. Zones Paddy Other Pulses Oilseeds Root Vegetable Spices Plantation Coconut 2 cereals crops and fruits All zones All zones Coconut area not included in total cropped area. 2. Total cropped area with coconut area included. 138

27 Appendix table 4.2. Livestock population (000 numbers) in crop-livestock typology zones, 1980 and 1998; Sri Lanka. Zones Adult cattle Adult cattle Total Adult buffalo Adult buffalo Total Goat Pig Poultry male female cattle male female buffalo All zones

28 140