The Effects of Soil Moisture and Nutrients on Cropland Productivity in the Highland Area of the Loess Plateau

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1 14 The Effects of Soil Moisture nd Nutrients on Croplnd Productivity in the Highlnd Are of the Loess Plteu inli Ling, * Shozhong Kng nd Chenge Zhng * Abstrct Soil moisture nd nutrient distribution, nd their effect on croplnd productivity in the tblelnd re of the Loess Plteu, were studied. For mjor crops, the following chrcteristics were investigted: sensitivity to wter stress t different stges of growth, methods for improvement of crop wter use efficiency nd soil nutrient input nd output of croplnd ecosystem in the tblelnd re of the Loess Plteu. This chpter discusses how soil fertility cn be improved in croplnd ecosystem, the effects of fertiliser on crop productivity under different ptterns of rinfll, how fertiliser use cn be linked to productivity, optimum fertilistion nd fctors ffecting the efficiency of fertiliser use. It describes key fctors limiting croplnd productivity nd the min mesures by which productivity cn be incresed in the tblelnds of the Loess Plteu. * Institute of Soil nd Wter Conservtion, Chinese Acdemy of Sciences nd Ministry of Wter Resources, ngling, Shnxi , PRC. Key Lbortory of Agriculturl Soil nd Wter Engineering in Arid nd Semirid Ares, Northwest Sci-Tech University of Agriculture nd Forestry, ngling, Shnxi , PRC. Emil: kngshozhong@163.net inli Ling, Shozhong Kng nd Chenge Zhng The effects of soil moisture nd nutrients on croplnd productivity in the highlnd re of the Loess Plteu. In: McVicr, T.R., Li Rui, Wlker, J., Fitzptrick, R.W. nd Liu Chngming (eds), Regionl Wter nd Soil Assessment for Mnging Sustinble Agriculture in Chin nd Austrli, ACIAR Monogrph No. 84,

2 THE HIGHLAND re of the Loess Plteu is situted in the centrl southern portion of the plteu. The Overview provides bckground informtion on the region; Figure 1 of the Overview shows its loction. The climte is clssified s semihumid temperte zone with n verge nnul temperture of C nd frost-free period of dys. Most res cn support three hrvests over two yers but some regions in the estern prt cn chieve two hrvests per yer. Averge nnul precipittion is mm, with wide vrition between yers nd sesons, so the soil is frequently deficient in moisture. The re is typicl drylnd frming re where griculturl production depends minly on rinfll. Rinfll is concentrted in the period from July to September, so there is wter shortge in spring nd winters re dry nd cold. The soil is moderte lomy Heilu soil, formed from deep Mln loessil soil. It is suitble for drylnd cultivtion due to its porous nture nd high cpcity to hold wter: mm of rinfll cn be stored in the top 2 m of soil in this region. The soil functions s reservoir nd is importnt in sustining production of the stple crops, which re winter whet nd summer corn. These crops ccount for 70 80% of sowing in the region nd 80 90% of food crop production. Criticl problems in griculturl production in the highlnds re the smll re of lnd vilble for growing crops, soil erosion, frequent drought nd low crop yield. The overll ims for ensuring food production in this smll highlnd region, with mny slopes nd gullies, re: to improve the efficiency of wter nd lnd resource use, nd increse productivity, by incresing fertiliser use through the combined ppliction of mnure, nitrogen (N) nd phosphorus (P); to focus on soil moisture, nutrient cycling nd nutrient blnce in the croplnd ecosystem; to investigte the theories nd techniques of improving lnd productivity to promote development of the regionl economy; nd to investigte solutions to the problems of high popultion density, which plces demnds on lnd nd wter resources nd the ecosystem. The Effect of Soil Moisture on Croplnd Productivity Soil moisture chrcteristics In the highlnd re of the Loess Plteu, most soil is lomy; its moisture cpcity reches mm in the cm lyer becuse the soil hs mny interspces. Precipittion is bout 600 mm, so the soil s cpcity to hold moisture constntly exceeds precipittion. The deep lyer of wter held in the soil mkes the Loess Plteu highly suitble environment for plnt growth. To promote use of this deep soil moisture by crop roots requires n understnding of crop root growth nd stge of development. Productivity The highlnds of the Loess Plteu re typicl drylnd frming res, where soil moisture nd nutrients re the min fctors limiting crop production. During , crop productivity ws low nd the min limiting fctor ws soil fertility rther thn soil moisture; yields were improved minly by incresing fertiliser. During this period, lck of nutrients led to decrese in the yield of winter whet (by %) nd of summer corn (by %). Fertiliser use grdully improved soil fertility nd in low fertility ws responsible for only % decrese in yield, with soil moisture the min fctor limiting productivity. In , moisture shortge led to fll in the yield of winter whet (of %) nd of summer corn (of %). However, in , the effect of low soil moisture ws greter, cusing yield to fll by % in winter whet nd by % in summer corn. 188

3 Historiclly, fertiliser input in the Loess Plteu region hs been low; in lrge res of the region fertiliser input is currently insufficient becuse of economic constrints. Thus, nutrient stress is limiting fctor for improving productivity in the long term. However, wter shortge is becoming more importnt thn nutrient stress s limiting fctor for productivity, prticulrly in regions where initil productivity is high nd the rurl economy is reltively ctive. The Effect of Soil Nutrient Distribution on Croplnd Productivity Soil nutrient distribution in the highlnds of the Loess Plteu Tble 1 shows the soil nutrient distribution in the highlnds of the Loess Plteu. The coefficient of vrition for ech nutrient is lrge, prticulrly for vilble P nd potssium (K). Overll, the soil is low in orgnic mtter, N nd P, but rich in K. Tble 1. Soil nutrient distribution in croplnds in the highlnds of the Loess Plteu. Rnge Averge Orgnic mtter g/kg 9.45 g/kg Nitrogen g/kg 0.75 g/kg Avilble nitrogen mg/kg 53.7 mg/kg Avilble phosphorus Avilble potssium mg/kg 6.3 mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Effect of nutrient on croplnd productivity Use of N fertiliser improved the yield of winter whet. Studies from 1984 to 1995 on Heilu soil showed tht dding N incresed winter whet yield by % (verge 135.5%) (Ling et l. 2000). The increse in whet yield per kilogrm of N ws kg (verge 17.0 kg). However, s the quntity of dded N incresed, the impct on yield decresed. The effect of N fertiliser ws lso relted to the quntity of P dded. If enough P ws used, N hd greter effect on yield nd the decrese in impct with incresing mounts of N ws less mrked. The use of P fertiliser improved winter whet yield in Heilu soil by % (verge 26.8%). The increse in whet yield per kilogrm of P ws 6.3 kg. The effect of P ws much greter if it ws used together with N, s shown in Tble 2. Similrly, the effect of N ws greter when combined with P. N combined with P fertiliser produced whet yield of kg/h (verge 3049 kg/h) n verge increse of 139.6% when compred to using no fertiliser, of 25.4% compred to using only N nd of 25.4% compred to using only P. Tble 2. Phosphorus fertiliser (kg/h) Effect of combining nitrogen nd phosphorus fertiliser. Increse in yield (%) Nitrogen fertiliser (kg/h) Sensitivity of Different Growth Stges of Mjor Crops to Wter Stress Limited-wter irrigtion nd optiml mngement of limited wter resources is bsed on vrition in the sensitivity of different growth stges of crop to wter stress. Little is known bout the wter sensitivity of different stges of winter whet nd summer corn on the semirid Loess Plin. The Jensen multipliction model (Jensen 1986) describing wter sensitivity is more sensitive nd more prcticl thn the ddition model in Chin (Kng nd Dng 1987). Hence, we used the Jensen multipliction model to determine the reltion between crop yield nd wter consumption (Jensen 189

4 1986). Tking the reltive evportion t ech growth stge (i) s the independent vrible, the effect on crop yield cn be expressed s follows: m n ET = i=1 ET m λ i i (1) where is ctul crop yield, m is mximum crop yield if sufficient wter is present, n is the ordinl number of the growth stge, ET is ctul evpotrnspirtion, ET m is mximum evpotrnspirtion nd λ i is the crop wter sensitivity index of ech growth stge (tht is, the extent to which crop yield is ffected by ny wter deficit). For this model, high vlue of λ i indictes lrge reduction in crop output. Hence, λ i is the crucil prmeter in the model. The im of this study ws to determine chnges in wter sensitivity for winter whet nd summer corn during the entire growth seson, nd propose n optimum wter supply schedule for these crops in the Loess Plteu region. Field experiments were conducted in plots sheltered from rin, t the Chngwu Agro-Ecologicl Sttion of the Chinese Acdemy of Sciences on the Loess Plteu during Figure 4 of the Overview shows the loction of Chngwu; the sttion is pproximtely 1200 m bove se level. The men temperture is C nd men nnul precipittion is 548 mm. The crops studied were winter whet (vriety Chngwu 134) nd summer corn (vriety Dnyu 13). For ech crop, we investigted the soil moisture level nd the stge t which the crop ws irrigted. Three levels of soil moisture were tested: low (D) with reltive wter content of 45 55%, medium (Z) with reltive wter content of 55 70%, nd high (G) with reltive wter content of 75 85%. Wter tretment stges differed for the two crops. Development of winter whet ws divided into five stges: seedling (erly October to erly Mrch), vegettive (erly Mrch to erly April), jointing (erly April to erly My), heding (erly My to erly June) nd the milk phse. Development of summer corn ws divided into four stges: jointing (mid-june to mid-july), preheding (mid- July to erly August), flowering (erly to lte August) nd the milk phse (lte August to lte September). A totl of 15 different irrigtion tretments were tested in winter whet nd summer corn, using rndom design with two replictions for ech tretment. Plots were wtered regulrly ccording to soil moisture content. Before ploughing, N nd P were sprinkled on the soil surfce t rtes of 138 kg/h nd kg/h, respectively. Time-domin reflectometry (TDR) ws used to mesure the soil wter content t 15-dy intervls. Crop wter use ws clculted from the soil wter content mesured t ech growth stge. Crop yield ws determined t mturity. The lest squres difference method ws used to test significnt difference nd the Jensen model ws used to clculte crop wter sensitivity t different growth stges. Determintion of crop wter sensitivity Dt from the field experiments were used to clculte reltive evpotrnspirtion from different growth stges nd reltive yield from different irrigtion tretments using the Jensen model nd the following equtions (Eqution 2 is for winter whet in ; Eqution 3 is for summer corn in ): m m = 1 ET 2 ET 3 ET 4 ET 5 ET m m2 m3 m4 = 1 ET 2 ET 3 ET 4 ET m m2 m3 m4 m5 (2) (3) 190

5 Wter sensitivity t different stges Eqution 2 shows tht the wter stress index λ i vried gretly mong the different growth stges of winter whet. The stge from seedling to vegettive hd high λ i vlue nd ws crucil for the crop. The λ i vlue ws lowest during the vegettive to jointing stge becuse the plnts were reltively smll t this stge nd the temperture ws low, so the plnts grew slowly. Winter whet grows rpidly from the jointing to the heding stge when leves nd stems nd reproductive growth occur simultneously. Lef re incresed rpidly t this stge nd the wether becme wrmer, giving high level of trnspirtion from the leves. Thus, wter deficit in this period gretly ffected yield nd the vlue of λ i ws high. The wter stress index ws lso high from the heding to milk stge. This period is crucil for seed formtion, so wter deficit ffects reproductive growth. During the milk to mture stge, plnt leves begin to turn yellow, trnspirtion decreses nd the effect of wter deficit on yield is reduced. The λ i vlue t this stge ws low; this ws expected becuse oversupply of wter in this period delys mturity. Overll, the seeding to vegettive stge ws the most sensitive to wter deficit, followed by the jointing to heding stge, the heding to milk stge, the milk to mture stge nd the vegettive to jointing stge. Eqution 3 shows tht the wter stress index vried gretly mong the different growth stges of summer corn. For the resons given bove for winter whet, the λ i vlue ws low during the erly period of nutritive growth before jointing but ws high fter jointing, due to nutritive nd reproductive growth nd incresing tempertures. The λ i vlue ws lso high in the heding to milk stge, which is crucil to yield. During the milk to mture stge, the effect of wter deficit on yield decresed, gin for the resons given bove for winter whet. Irrigtion efficiency nd wter use efficiency of crops under limited wter supply At different stges of growth, wter deficit ffects yield differently. Tble 3 shows tht yield of 4500 kg/h cn be chieved with some wter deficit. Controlled wter deficit cn benefit the output of winter whet. For trget yield of kg/h, soil moisture should be sufficient before winter nd t prticulr stges during the growth period. Of gretest benefit to output were lternte medium nd high wter tretments during the erly period nd wter stress tretment during the lte milk stge. For trget yield of kg/h, t lest one stge of sufficient soil wter during the whole growth period is needed. Alternte medium nd high wter tretments during erlier stges nd wter stress t lter stge were beneficil to yield. For trget output of less thn 3750 kg/h, there could be two stges of wter stress tretment during the whole growth period. Among the tretments in which the yield ws higher thn 3750 kg/h, two lternting serious wter-deficit stges gve noticebly higher yield thn did two continuous serious wter-deficit stges. There were remrkble positive reltionships between biomss nd irrigtion volume (r = 0.82, n = 15) nd with grin yield nd irrigtion volume (r = 0.82, n = 15). During the seeding stge, there were lso positive reltionships between biomss nd irrigtion volume nd between grin yield nd irrigtion volume (r = 0.75, r = 0.74, n = 15): irrigtion during the seeding stge ws importnt to promote erly vigour, for the plnt to live through winter sfely nd to gin high yield. This ws contrry to previous results, which showed two criticl wter sensitive stges for winter whet: the first from the mother cell qurtet of pollen to pollen forming stge, the second from the beginning of milk stge to the milk mture stge (Shn 1996). There re two possible resons for this. First, the experimentl tretments were different. Our study begn wter tretments before winter, when the seedling ws incomplete; we used different drought degree tretments; nd we divided the soil wter tretment into five stges during the whole growth period. The previous study begn most wter tretments when the seedling ws complete 191

6 Tble 3. Effect of irrigtion volume on irrigtion efficiency (IE) nd wter use efficiency (WUE) of winter whet, Tretment b ield (kg/h) Irrigtion (mm) WU c (mm) IE (kg/h/mm) WUE (kg/h/mm) D-D-D-D-D D-D-D-G-Z D-G-Z-D-D G-D-Z-G-Z Z-Z-Z-Z-Z D-Z-D-D-Z Z-D-D-Z-G Z-G-D-D-G Z-G-Z-D-D G-G-D-Z-D D-Z-G-Z-G G-G-G-G-G Z-Z-G-G-D G-Z-G-D-Z G-Z-G-G-D b c Ech vlue is the men of four mesurements from seprte plots D = low soil moisture with soil reltive wter content t 45 55%; Z = middle soil moisture with soil reltive wter content t 55 70%; G = high soil moisture with soil reltive wter content t 75 85% for the five winter whet growth stges introduced previously. WU = wter quntity used (mm) (fter winter nd the strt of vegettive growth) nd strong, nd used different periods nd degrees of wter tretment. Second, our study ws conducted in highlnd nd gully regions in the semirid environment of the Loess Plteu; this re is typicl dry frmlnd, nd drought ws the min obstcle to crop production. We considered it importnt for winter whet to hve erly vigour, grow strongly, live through winter sfely nd give high yield (Ling nd Richrds 1999). The previous study focused on high yield rther thn on wter sving nd high wter use efficiency. If grin yield of more thn 3750 kg/h is desired, the totl wter use should be mm, with n irrigtion volume between 260 mm nd 300 mm t the seedling stge nd before flowering; this will produce high yield nd high irrigtion efficiency. Tble 4 shows tht there were gret differences in the grin yield of summer corn under different wter tretments. The yield ws lowest under sustined wter stress nd highest when there ws sufficient irrigtion during the totl growth period of summer corn; the yield under light wter stress ws between these two extremes. Alternting wter supply to the soil hd different effects on grin yield in corn. ield ws lowest when plnts suffered from serious wter stress t ll four growth stges; when three growth stges suffered from serious wter stress, the yield ws lower thn when only two stges suffered such stress; similrly, when two stges suffered from serious wter stress, the yield ws lower thn when one stge suffered from such stress during the growth period. Moreover, the yield depended on which stge ws ffected: wter stress 192

7 Tble 4. Effect of irrigtion volume on irrigtion efficiency (IE) nd wter use efficiency (WUE) of corn, Tretment b ield (kg/h) Irrigtion (mm) WU c (mm) IE (kg/h/mm) Ech vlue is the men of four mesurements from seprte plots b D = low soil moisture with soil reltive wter content t 45 55%; Z = middle soil moisture with soil reltive wter content t 55 70%; G = high soil moisture with soil reltive wter content t 75 85% for the four summer corn growth stges introduced previously c WU = wter quntity used (mm) WUE (kg/h/mm) D-D-D-D Z-D-D-D Z-D-D-Z D-Z-Z-Z Z-D-Z-Z Z-Z-D-Z Z-Z-Z-D Z-Z-Z-G Z-G-Z-Z G-Z-Z-Z Z-Z-Z-Z Z-Z-G-Z Z-G-G-G G-G-G-G Z-G-G-Z 10, hd greter effect on yield fter jointing nd from the heding to milk stge thn from the milk to mture stge. Grin yields of more thn 7000 kg/h could be obtined for corn when there ws only light wter stress if no serious wter stress occurred t ny time during the growth period. Discussion In the res where wter ws limited, the centrl tsk ws to sve wter while obtining high yield efficiently. The min objective of optimising or mnging limited wter resources is to increse the economic yield per unit wter volume (Aston nd vn Bvel 1972; Blnk 1975; Ling nd Richrds 1999; Shn 1996; Steinberg nd Henningger 1997). The results showed n obvious reltionship between yield nd irrigtion volume. Moreover, for whet yield, irrigtion volume produced different effects t different stges of plnt growth. ield ws most ffected when seedlings were irrigted before Mrch; irrigtion t the jointing to heding stge produced the next gretest effect. The effect of irrigtion t the vegettive to jointing stge nd fter the milk stge ws reltively unimportnt. Crop sensitivity to wter stress ws reltively high. The wter stress sensitivity index, λ i, ws reltively lrge t the seedling stge but reltively low during the vegettive to jointing stge. The λ i vlue incresed fter the jointing stge nd ws lso high during the heding to milk stge, but begn to decrese during the milk to mture stge (Eqution 2). The reson my be tht the seedling stge is the crucil stge for root elongtion nd root system development. Ling nd Kng (2000) studied the reltionship between photosynthetic nd soil wter 193

8 deficit t different growth stges; the highest rtio of photosynthetic sensitivity to soil wter deficit occurred t the booting to heding stge. At this time, the temperture ws reltively high, wter consumption ws reltively lrge, wter requirements were urgent nd there ws n incresed sensitivity to wter deficit. This suggests tht wter deficit ffects not only photosynthesis, but lso grin yield. The yield would be little ffected if wter stress occurred fter the vegettive or milk stges, but would be ffected gretly if the wter stress occurred fter the jointing or heding stge. Thus supplementry irrigtion should be rrnged, if possible, for the seedling nd jointing to heding stges. If soil wter content during the seedling stge is sufficient for the formtion of strong seedling, irrigtion should be pplied if possible t the booting to heding stge rther thn t other stges. The wter sensitivity index λ i of summer corn lso differed t different growth stges. It ws reltively low before jointing, nd it ws high fter the jointing stge nd during the heding to milk stge; however, it begn to decrese during the milk to mture stge. Wter stress before jointing or fter the milk stge hd little effect on yield, but wter stress fter the jointing or heding stge ffected the yield gretly. Hence, the heding stges should be given the highest priority for irrigtion, followed by the fter-jointing stge. Soil nutrient input nd output of croplnd ecosystems The soils of most croplnd res in the Loess Plteu region contin insufficient N for whet nd corn. In ddition, there is not enough P vilble in the soil to stisfy crop needs. Consequently, both N nd P re dded in fertiliser. The soils of the Loess Plteu re rich in K, so K fertiliser is not usully pplied. Studies t Chngwu Agro-Ecologicl Sttion from 1984 to 1995 hve shown tht the efficiency of fertiliser use depends on precipittion. The fertiliser use efficiency for N ws % (verge 35.3%, coefficient of vrition 48.7%); for P, the figure ws % (verge 14.2%, coefficient of vrition 39.5%). The fertiliser use efficiency for N nd P depended on the quntity of fertiliser used. For P fertiliser (phosphorus oxide, P 2 O 5 ) pplied t 90 kg/h nd N fertiliser pplied t kg/h, the fertiliser use efficiency ws % (verge 36.3%) in whet. Min Conclusions Long-term reserch on the Loess Plteu hs shown tht croplnd productivity depends on mny production fctors. If fertility or wter were limiting fctors for the crop, the yield depended on time, spce nd productivity level. This ws not the cse for drylnd frming res, in which incresed fertiliser ppliction ws the key to incresing yield nd wter use efficiency under certin wter conditions. As productivity improves, wter becomes more importnt in determining yield. References Aston, A.R. nd vn Bvel, C.H.M Soil surfce wter depletion nd lef temperture. Agronomy Journl, 64: Blnk, H Optiml irrigtion decision with limited wter. Colordo Stte University, PhD thesis. Jensen, M.E Wter consumption by griculturl plnts. In: Kozlowski, T.T., ed., Wter Deficits nd Plnt Growth. New ork, Acdemic Press, Kng, S.Z. nd Dng,.H Study on crop wter production function nd optiml irrigtion scheme. Wter Resource Sciences, Boreli-Occidentli Sinic, 1, Ling,.L. nd Richrds, R.A Seedling vigor chrcteristics mong Chinese nd Austrlin whet. Communictions in Soil Science nd Plnt Anlysis, 30, Ling,.L. nd Kng, S.Z Effect of no full irrigtion on physiologicl chrcters of whet on Loess Plteu. In: J.M. Lflen, ed., Soil Erosion nd Drylnd Frming. US, CRC Press, Ling,.L., Dng, T.H. nd Zhng, C.E Croplnd ecosystem productivity reserch on Loess Plteu. Xi n, Shnxi Science nd Technology Press, Shn, L The study on limited wter efficient utiliztion in dry lnd. Reserch of Soil nd Wter Conservtion, 3(1), Steinberg, S.L. nd Henningger, D.L Response of the wter sttus of soyben to chnge in soil wter potentil controlled by the wter pressure in micro-porous tubes. Plnt Cell nd Environment, 20,

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