1.3 Community biodiversity management
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1 1.3 Community biodiversity management Defined and contextualized Pratap Shrestha, Pitambar Shrestha, Abishkar Subedi, Nivaldo Peroni and Walter Simon de Boef Community biodiversity management Community biodiversity management (CBM) is a methodology for promoting conservation and the sustainable utilization of biodiversity at local level, with an emphasis on agrobiodiversity or plant genetic resources. CBM distinguishes itself from other strategies that target in situ conservation, or on-farm management, by its focus on increasing the decision-making power of communities and securing access to and control over their biological and genetic resources for sustainable livelihood management. The CBM methodology integrates local knowledge and practices and is driven by local social systems, local rules and institutions (Sthapit et al., 2006). In the current chapter, we provide definitions for terms commonly associated with CBM, to establish a common vocabulary. We then look at CBM and the components or steps that form the basis of its implementation, based on experiences in Nepal. However, our main intention, in this general introductory chapter, is to focus on the methodology, rather than describe the processes that result in community biodiversity management. Definitions Plant genetic resources and agrobiodiversity Plant genetic resources (PGR) can be defined as all plant materials that have an actual or potential value (IBPGR, 1991, p. 74). The reference to resources suggests an economic and political connotation. Agrobiodiversity is often approached as an ecological service rather than as a resource, owing to its broader and ecological association, and to its delineation within the three levels of biodiversity (i.e. system, species and genetic diversity). Based on Professor Harold Brookfield s definition of agrodiversity (Brookfield, 2001), De Boef and Thijssen (Chapter 1.8) describe agrobiodiversity as a dynamic and constantly changing patchwork of relations between people, plants, animals, other organisms and the environment, always coping with new problems, always finding new ways. This description has major implications for defining the relationship between CBM and the on-farm management of agrobiodiversity as a conservation strategy.
2 20 Pratap Shrestha et al. Communities In the context of the dynamics of agrobiodiversity, communities are approached as open systems that have inflows and outflows of people, goods, knowledge, information, skills and resources (Cumming et al., 2006). This means that communities are also open systems with regards to PGR and associated traditional knowledge (ATK). According to Wilson (2012), interactions between communities and society can be identified at regional, national and global levels. At the regional level, the migration of people into and out of the community (e.g. for work, education or marriage) may result in both an inflow and outflow of PGR and ATK. At national level, there are many ways to activate such flows, including the implementation of policies related to the dissemination of seed of improved varieties among farmers, and mechanisms that promote agricultural research and extension; the implications of agricultural subsidies on the use of particular crops and varieties; and the management of protected areas of agrobiodiversity at the landscape level. At the global level, flows may be connected to global trends concerning intellectual property rights and the introduction of hybrid and genetically modified varieties; or to food trade regulations and fluctuations in food prices, which affect food and seed security. Within CBM, communities are approached as open systems simply because of the multitude of scalar interactions; we know only too well that with PGR there is no escape from the forces of globalization. To approach communities as closed systems, with the aim of conservation through community biodiversity management, does not fit in with the dynamics and constantly changing patchwork of relations that define agrobiodiversity. Rather, community codes of conduct (norms and regulations) could be used to regulate the open systems in favour of biodiversity conservation and sustainable utilization. Local knowledge and local management Local knowledge is unique to a given culture or society (Warren et al., 1995). The term is interchangeable with traditional knowledge, which, however, has stronger links to a cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs that were handed down over generations by cultural transmission, and which concern the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment (Berkes et al., 1995). Thus, traditional agrobiodiversity management refers to such historical continuity. Because of the dynamic nature of agrobiodiversity, and the openness of communities that manage agrobiodiversity, the term traditional needs constant redefinition. As such, we prefer to use the term local management in this context. Local crops and varieties, and informal seed systems As with knowledge and management, we apply the term local crops and varieties to those PGR that are maintained and used by farmers in their production system. Communities, as open systems, have continuous inflows and outflows of crops, and local or improved varieties, as well as less tangible elements like ATK and technologies. We avoid using the term landraces, because of the conflicting views that exist concerning whether the term should only be applied to those varieties that are found in centres of origin or crop genetic diversity; or whether it can also be applied to those that are
3 Community biodiversity management 21 found beyond those centres. The term landrace has a strong territorial and static connotation, which seems incompatible with the more dynamic perception of agrobiodiversity and communities as open systems. Consequently, we use the term local variety throughout the book. Local varieties are managed by farmers, and are thus maintained either through farm-saved seed or through informal seed systems. These varieties are not necessarily considered traditional, as many of them originate as modern varieties maintained by farmers, and as such may have gone through a process of dynamic management (i.e. local maintenance, selection and exchange). CBM as an endogenous or exogenous process We understand the term community biodiversity management to have two distinct meanings: (a) a methodology with a set of practices, used by both communities and external actors supporting those communities, for the maintenance and sustainable use of agrobiodiversity; or (b) a situation in which community organizations achieve the maintenance and sustainable use of agrobiodiversity, in a conscious and autonomous manner. Thus, according to the first meaning, CBM can be associated with actors (though not necessarily exclusively) outside the community, which trigger the process of management. With regards to the second meaning, the CBM process is initiated by the community itself, without the involvement of any external actors. In addition, CBM can also be a combination of both meanings, for example, where the CBM process is initiated internally within a community, but requires the involvement of external actors, such as conservation and development organizations, in order to fully implement CBM as a methodology, and result in CBM as a sustained situation. When we refer to CBM as an externally initiated process that gradually becomes embedded in community structures, we consider it an exogenous process. But when CBM is an existing situation, resulting from a process that is initiated within the community, we consider it an endogenous process. External actors can act as catalysts for advancing such endogenous CBM processes. In both exogenous and endogenous CBM processes, the objectives and modalities of the external agents, for introducing or strengthening CBM (as methodology), and contributing to the empowerment of the community in conservation and livelihood development, are quite different. CBM practices CBM as a methodology incorporates many practices, as used both by communitybased organizations (CBOs) concerned with conservation and use, and by other external actors. Practices can be single actions that are geared towards raising awareness of conservation and diversity, enhancing understanding, building capabilities within CBOs, and encouraging communities to make informed decisions over their agrobiodiversity. Such single-action practices include rural diversity drama and poetry, diversity fairs, diversity kits and diversity blocks, as described in more in detail by Shrestha et al. (Chapter 2.2). The practices may also result in the development of community institutions such as the community seed bank, which is detailed in a global overview by Shrestha et al. (Chapter 2.8); and the community biodiversity
4 22 Pratap Shrestha et al. register, as described by Subedi et al. (Chapter 2.4). CBM practices are also approached as multi-year processes for value addition and value chain development, as presented in various chapters in Part IV. Several methods of participatory crop improvement that are embedded within the general process of CBM, and which can as such be considered CBM practices, are described in Part V. CBM components Experience in Nepal has shown that a series of steps lead to the establishment and promotion of the CBM methodology to manage agrobiodiversity by collective community action. However, a diversity of realities and variations exist around the world today in using the CBM methodology, and this diversity is partially linked to whether the CBM processes are endogenous or exogenous. Consequently, when considering the CBM methodology in a global context, we refer to those steps as components (i.e. the CBM methodology does not require all the components to be implemented in all the situations, and they do not need to follow the same sequence of order as would be implied by using the term steps). These components are summarized here below (Sthapit et al., 2006). Enhancing community awareness of conservation and diversity This component is essential for initiating the CBM process. It is important that community members are engaged in the organization of activities, in order to raise awareness. They realize the value of conservation, discuss conservation needs, allocate the roles and responsibilities for community members and other actors, and identify and understand their own working modalities for the organization of practices such as diversity and/or seed fairs, rural drama and poetry, and the implementation of diversity blocks and diversity kits. It is important that, in the end, the CBOs that are involved in the process are autonomously capable, and recognize the value, of continuously organizing such awareness-raising events. Increasing the community s understanding of diversity, social networks and organizations In order to enhance the community s understanding of local biodiversity, social networks and organizations, and to develop appropriate conservation and utilization strategies, a number of participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools are used. Four-cell analysis is an effective PRA tool for identifying common, unique and rare plant genetic resources. In comparison with other PRA tools, such as variety listing, mapping and matrix ranking, four-cell analysis enables the participants to develop diversified livelihood options and community-based conservation strategies (De Boef and Thijssen, 2007). Social seed network analysis is useful for understanding the structure of seed networks and for identifying farmers with specific roles as nodal, access providers or connectors within those networks. The tool is also relevant for enhancing the understanding of flows of related knowledge, both within and beyond farming communities (Poudel et al., 2009; Abay et al., 2011).
5 Community biodiversity management 23 Establishing institutional working modalities This component is essential for ensuring CBM can function and that it results in autonomy. Key organizations are identified for the coordination of CBM within the community, and their roles and responsibilities, and institutional norms are defined. A work plan is prepared and community-level indicators for monitoring performance are identified. A CBM committee is established within those local organizations in which community members and the CBOs are represented. Specific CBM practices, such as the community seed bank and the community biodiversity register, which involve complex organizational processes and institutional set up, can be instrumental in the formation of leadership roles in the community, thereby creating a foundation in human resources for the establishment of a CBM committee. In addition to planning, implementation and management of CBM activities, the key responsibilities of the committee include coordinating and overseeing the implementation of CBM strategies and plans. Furthermore, the committee also enforces the codes of conduct established for the management of genetic resources, including community-based mechanisms for access and benefit-sharing. Its capabilities are further strengthened by establishing institutional linkages with, and seeking resources from, service providers outside the community. Strengthening the capabilities of community organizations This component focuses on strengthening the capabilities of CBOs in carrying out analyses for increasing efficiency and self-confidence, but also for enhancing their capacity in social mobilization (communication, mobilization of members and participatory decision-making), organizational management (administrative and financial management) and institutional development (institutional policy, strategies and governance). In addition, the CBOs need to develop their capacity to establish locally driven guiding principles for use in their operations, and to design, implement and monitor the effectiveness of codes of conduct. They may also become engaged in complex processes and procedures in order to organize biodiversity access and benefit-sharing, and a community biodiversity fund at community level. The application of this component should be based on an assessment of the existing situation. The Venn diagram can be used to identify and explore existing relationships between CBOs and other actors operating in a community. A SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis of CBOs can help to identify what is needed to strengthen the capabilities of those organizations, and explore which local organizations may take up coordination and/or facilitation roles (De Boef and Thijssen, 2007). The need to set up a new CBO may emerge during this component, around a specific user group. Consolidating the community s role in planning and implementation This component encourages the community to assume its responsibilities in CBM. The CBM committee is a community institution or legal unit that has the authority to act on behalf of local communities. It coordinates the activities of various farmers groups or partner CBOs, each of which develops annual action plans through village
6 24 Pratap Shrestha et al. meetings. The organization of activities for strengthening capabilities, by the committee members and CBOs, supports this community-level planning process. Establishing a CBM trust fund The CBM trust fund is an effective way of organizing community members, developing community ownership and motivating the community and their organizations to implement CBM action plans. It may also provide a mechanism to transfer to the community any funds generated from the use of genetic resources through access and benefit-sharing mechanisms. It is important to strengthen the capabilities of the CBM committee members for managing the fund, as it can be a motivating factor for collective actions in the community. Monitoring and evaluating activities Procedures for monitoring and evaluating activities within the community must also be incorporated in the CBM process. The CBM committee establishes an annual CBM calendar, which presents action plans that address the roles and responsibilities of participating organizations and community members. This CBM calendar is helpful for reviewing and monitoring progress, but it also promotes transparency within the community and among the organizations involved. Review meetings are regularly held for monitoring and evaluating community actions. Social learning and scaling-up for collective community action This component supports the involvement of an increasing number of households from within the community, and from other farming communities, for adopting and adapting similar CBM processes and practices. Progress concerning the scaling-up of CBM activities to other households and communities is reviewed during community meetings, where successes and failures are shared, and innovations and new practices are identified. Ways of facilitating collective learning include diversity fairs, educational tours and community visits, as well as travelling and learning workshops for farmers. The synthesis of social learning and good practices can be used to inform policy-makers and influence the creation of policy environments that support and enable CBM as an approach towards integrating conservation and development. Diversity of situations sharing common processes CBM, as initially developed in Nepal and other locations in Asia, acquired various nuances and interpretations in order to be accepted as a global and common methodology. The very notion of community, which is commonly defined as an open system, within the context of agrobiodiversity, still varies from sites with almost a thousand households, to those with fewer than 40 farming households. The concept of agrobiodiversity, which can refer to wildlife or landscapes, but which also refers to local crops and varieties used by agricultural settler societies in Brazil, is quite different in countries with an ancient agricultural background, such as India and Nepal, or in those
7 Community biodiversity management 25 that are prominent centres of origin, such as Ethiopia. In France, agrobiodiversity is associated with particular regions and the livelihood strategies of small-scale farmers who oppose and divert away from mainstream agro-industrial production systems. The non-governmental organization Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Research and Development (LI-BIRD) in Nepal, in partnership with local farming communities, and national and international partners, elaborated CBM as a methodology, which is implemented through a process consisting of a number of steps that use different participatory tools and practices, as presented by Subedi et al. (Chapter 1.2). Similar methodologies, not necessarily referred to as CBM, were developed simultaneously in South and South-East Asia (FAO, 2011). The M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) is an important reference point for CBM in India. The South-East Asia Regional Initiatives for Community Empowerment (SEARICE), which is active in several Asian countries, supports CBM processes that are embedded within local government structures, and influences the development of genetic resource policy frameworks favourable to CBM processes. In Ethiopia, the Seeds of Survival (SoS) programme initiated by the national gene bank, with support from the Unitarian Service Committee, Canada, and continued by the NGO Ethio-Organic Seed Action (EOSA), is also an important reference for CBM. In Latin America, CBM-type activities are being implemented by public, non-governmental and community-based organizations in several Andean countries, while in Central America a participatory crop improvement programme incorporates many CBM practices. In Brazil, the Seeds of Passion network, in the state of Paraíba, which involves over 200 community seed banks, has been functioning for over 20 years and is both a national and global reference point for CBM. Endogenous CBM processes are being strengthened and institutionalized at landscape level in Brazil, in the form of a conservation regime referred to as the sustainable development reserve. The CBM methodology and its practices are also of great value to organizations of small-scale farmers in France. These farmers are engaged in endogenous CBM processes that are identical to those in Nepal, India, Ethiopia and Brazil; they support those farmers and their organizations in their search for more sustainable and regionally oriented production systems, and for regaining sovereignty in their use of seed and varieties. This shows that CBM is relevant beyond the old North South divisions, for those farmers and farming communities who value agrobiodiversity as an asset in their livelihood strategy. Thus, a common CBM methodology purports to be applicable in dissimilar situations, linking the empowerment of farming communities to the achievement of on-farm agrobiodiversity management. The rather complex local realities have their own specific historical, political, cultural, and even biological and ecological contexts, which link CBM to interactions between people, their biological resources and their environment. Each reality may appear unique, in terms of the type of agrobiodiversity managed; the structure and organization of the community and its organization; the endogenous and/or exogenous processes through which community management is initiated; and the relationship, type of interactions and duration the community has with external actors. However, the current book aims to show that despite the diversity of realities it is possible to identify common properties of how the CBM methodology contributes to achieving on-farm management, together with conservation and livelihood development.
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