8. Crop Rotation: Putting it All Together

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1 8. Crop Rotation: Putting it All Together Crop rotation mirrors the entire farm, reflecting the farmer s ability to utilise his/her ecological knowhow and the farm s biological potential. Crop rotation is the basis for farm management Farm types A livestock farm with ruminants A crop farm without any livestock A livestock farm with monogastric animals Mixed farming Energy balance Photo: Ghita Cordsen Nielsen Crop rotation is the key to organic farming. Rotating crops is not only an issue of avoiding diseases, but just as much a question of successful nutrient and weed management.

2 Crop rotation is the basis for farm management After having thought through and planned the farm s crop rotation, you have an excellent starting point for working out a cropping plan, fertilizer plan and work schedule. The selection of crops is not only based on which crops can be grown, fed to livestock or sold. Other considerations include the crops role in the nutrient cycle, their utilisation of manure resources, the field ecosystem, their role in weed management and the required field operations. Meeting many requirements In this chapter we will focus on how to plan a biologically optimised crop rotation. However, in real life, many other considerations than biological ones must be taken into consideration, as can be seen in the figure below. You may often experience that, due to these other considerations, compromises have to be made. For example, you may choose to grow sugar beets, since they provide you with a lot of necessary feed units per ha, even though their cultivation often leads to soil compaction. Feed requirement Relevant cash crops Pratical considerations Farm management Biologically ideal crop rotation Economy Farm machinery + buildings Crop rotation and cropping plan a compromise A crop rotation and a cropping plan have to balance the biological objectives and practical/economic considerations. Biological objectives There are numerous biological objectives one would like to achieve on an organic farm. Many of these are linked to choice of crop and crop rotation. The table below presents a selection of important objectives. Why rotate crops? The aim of rotating crops is to utilise the benefits of growing a certain crop, while at the same time reducing the disadvantages involved in its cultivation. The general goal is the optimal and long-term utilisation of the farm s resources: soil, labour, capital, energy and farm inputs. Example crop: Sugar beets For any specific farm, some of the objectives are more important than others. Thus, before choosing crops and catch crops, one has to decide on the most important biological goals for the farm. What do I need to maintain or improve? Benefits: High yields/ha Good utilisation of solid manure and preceding crop Enables the control of seedling weeds Absorb subsoil nutrients Disadvantages: Labour-intensive, both as crop and fodder Catch crops cannot be grown (late harvest) Control of perennial weeds in autumn not possible Soil compaction risk during harvest. 106

3 Objective Yes/no How can this be improved? Is the farm s nutrient balance acceptable? Is the farm s energy balance acceptable? Is there an acceptable organic matter balance? (org. mat. in crop residues t/ha/year) Is there sufficient nitrogen fixation? Are cash crops grown where possible and appropriate? Are there crops with a deep root system? Do all crops utilise the preceding crops benefits as effectively as possible? (with regard to nutrients, weeds and mycorrhiza) Is manure utilisation optimal? Can enough N, P, K, etc. be provided to crops that require lots of nutrients? Can the strain on soil structure be kept at an acceptable level? (field traffic, ploughing frequency, etc.) Can the crops (incl. catch crops) sufficiently compete with weeds? Is the control of seedling weeds satisfactory? Can the control of perennial weeds be carried out at the right place in the rotation? (effectively and with minimal nutrient losses) Is the risk of infection from rotation diseases acceptable? (number of years between vulnerable crops) Are there favourable conditions for beneficial organisms? (undercrops, cash crops, field boundaries, field dimensions, other biotopes) Are crops dependent on mycorrhiza placed ideally in the rotation? A crop rotation can have certain biological objectives This overview can be used as a check list. Farm energy balance is discussed at the end of this chapter. Farm types The choice of crop and crop rotation are naturally closely linked to the farm type in question. Does the farm have livestock or not? If so, which species and how many? What is grown and raised on the farm, what is bought and what is sold? To illustrate the general differences between the various farm types, we will take a look at three main types, and present three actual cases for each of them: A livestock farm with ruminants (Example: Crop rotation with dairy cattle) A crop farm without livestock (Example: Arable crop rotation) A livestock farm with monogastric animals (Example: Crop rotation with pigs) There are significant differences between livestock and crop farms, as well as between farms with ruminants and those with monogastric animals (pigs, poultry). These differences are clearly reflected in the choice of crops and crop rotation. As a result, each of the three farm types focus on completely different biological objectives. In order to clearly illustrate these differences we have selected examples with relatively high stocking rates, more than 1 AU (animal unit) per ha, and compared these to a crop farm with no livestock at all. A livestock farm with ruminants A specialised livestock farm with ruminants can relatively easily achieve its biological goals, and is also the easiest type of farm to run organically. 107

4 Such farms usually have a considerable nutrient surplus, since only rather small amounts are sold in milk and meat, see page 50. They also fix quite a bit of atmospheric nitrogen via grass-clover leys and other legume crops, e.g., in whole-crop barley-pea silage. Finally, nutrients are often imported in bought-in straw (for bedding) and minerals. Soil structure and the breakdown of organic matter in the soil are usually good, since a lot of biomass is produced and many crops in the rotation have long growing seasons, especially grass-clover. In addition, ploughing is less frequent in crop rotations due to the long-term leys. Weeds are rarely a serious problem, due to most of the crops competitiveness and a sufficient nitrogen supply. Seedling weeds usually don t stand much of a chance in grass-clover leys and other herbage crops which are regularly cut or grazed. However, perennial weeds can become a problem if one doesn t pay attention. Most of the crops normally grown on a livestock farm with ruminants are furthermore not very susceptible to harmful organisms. Sugar beets, maize and rape are rather vulnerable, though, and young clover plants can be significantly infested by pea weevils. Crop rotation diseases can be easily avoided, since it generally is no problem to observe the recommended cropping intervals. To summarise, organic livestock farms with ruminants usually do so well because of the small amount of exported nutrients and the large share of grassclover leys and other fodder crops. Crop rotation with dairy cattle Crop rotation planning on a dairy farm is relatively easy. The first thing to consider is the feeding strategy: Feed requirements, summer & winter Required roughage quality Roughage percentage and types of roughage Grazing requirements In this phase, many different practical and economical considerations need to be made. These include roughage storage and feeding facilities, access to grazing land, cost analysis of homegrown versus bought-in feed, etc. Planning a crop rotation for dairy farms 1. Allocate enough land for pastures and leys. Determine the duration of the leys and pastures. Grass-clover leys fulfil many of the biological objectives. With 40 % grass-clover in the rotation, an average of about 100 kg N per ha will be supplied per year per farm. 2. Calculate how much land is needed to establish new grass-clover leys. Determine which cover crop to use, e.g., green cereal silage, green peas, whole-crop silage or crop to maturity. Mixed crops are preferable. In an undersown ley, weed control can only be carried out if the underseed is sown later than the cover crop. Luckily, the need for weed control is not big in a fodder crop rotation, especially if you Ruminant-based meat production Meat production requires another roughage quality than dairy production. That s why a meat-producing farm often grows slightly different crops. can conduct effective weed control measures in one of the crops. 3. Calculate the need for other roughage crops, and choose crops. These can be green cereal silage, whole-crop silage, maize, sugar beets or others. 4. Calculate the acreage remaining to grow feed concentrates and cash crops. Choose crops that can be grown on your farm and that are suited to your feeding plans. Perhaps, determine which cash crops you want to grow. Again, mixed crops such as barley/peas are a good bet. 5. Plan to grow catch crops wherever the rotation allows. Control of perennial weeds is most efficient after green cereal or whole-crop silage. Thereafter, it is still possible to sow a catch crop, thus minimising nutrient leaching. same on beef cattle or sheep farms as on dairy farms. The key factor is the stocking rate, i.e., animal units per ha, which often is lower on meat-producing farms However, the considerations regarding the pro and cons of different crop rotations are more or less the 108

5 Farm example: crop rotation with dairy cattle, about 1.3 AU/ha The farm has 100 ha of sandy clay soil and 100 cows (relatively large breed) with followers. The stocking rate is thus 1.3 AU/ha. Both groups are kept on deep litter, the cows have feeding cubicles with slatted floors. The yield is 7500 kg energy-corrected milk per cow year. The cows are each fed about 6000 feed units a year, the followers about 1600 feed units a year. Bull calves are sold early. About 750 t deep litter and 580 t slurry are produced annually. Nutrient input Nutrient output Example of a crop rotation for a dairy farm The net yields (feed units per ha) and manure application (t/ha) for each field in the rotation are shown. (CS = cattle slurry; CD = cattle deep litter. In tons/ha). Feed 120,000 FU Straw 220 tons Minerals seed Barley with underseed Yield: 2500 FU 20 t CD Maize vith late ryegrass Yield: 8500 FU 15 t CS + 15 t CD!. Year ley Yield: 5500 FU Barley/peas with ryegrass Yield: FU 15 t CS 2. Year ley Yield: FU Milk 750,000 kg Meat 13,000 kg 200 N, P and K net supply kg N/ha kg P/ha kg K/ha Bought-in manure Purchased feed and seed From the environment Nutrients exported in sold products Surplus There is a sufficient net supply of N, P and K

6 A crop farm without any livestock On crop farms without any livestock, one really has to work hard to achieve the biological objectives in a crop rotation. Roughage crops, and especially grass-clover leys with all of their benefits don t fit in here. Maintaining a nutrient balance is critical, since crop farms export (sell) much more nutrients than livestock farms, see page 50. Grass-clover mixtures, which can supply lots of nitrogen to the farm, are not part of the rotation. The purchase of bedding straw or mineral feed is also unnecessary. Bought-in manure is an important nutrient source for crop farms, but the amounts thereof are limited by the rules for organic production. In many areas, the availability of manure is also limited. Soil structure often gets worse, since the net supply of organic matter for humus formation is insufficient in arable crop rotations. In general, one grows annual crops with short growing seasons. Crop farming is also tougher on the soil, due to such factors as more frequent ploughing. Root development can thus be impaired, and the turnover of organic matter in the soil reduced. All in all, this often leads to a sub-optimal supply of nutrients in the growing season. There is typically a lack of nitrogen, but K, S, Mn, etc. shortages can occur, thus resulting in poor crop development. Arable crops often compete poorly with weeds, and weed management is thus much more demanding. Growing many crops to full maturity, and having few, if any, fodder or pasture crops makes the matter even worse. Nutrient shortage can also lead to increased vulnerability to pests and diseases. In addition, arable crop rotations often include a greater share of pest and disease-prone crops, such as cereals, pulse crops, potatoes and rape. A somewhat greater input is thus needed for pest and disease control. Arable crop rotation It is much more difficult to plan and successfully implement a pure arable crop rotation. Such a crop rotation cannot be planned step by step, but rather in a kind of trial and error process. Many different aspects have to be taken into consideration at the same time. A major issue is finding competitive crops, which can effectively suppress weeds and which can withstand pest attack or disease infestation. Another important aspect is nutrient supply, which is why having good green manure strategies is so vital for crop farms. One example is the choice between growing green manure as an intermediate (catch) crop or as a full-season crop. The pros and cons of the two systems are presented on page 67. Planning an arable crop rotation: A. Nutrient supply Always have the farm s nutrient balance in mind: How much manure do I want to buy? How much bought-in manure is permitted? What is available? What types of manure? How large is my nutrient export in sold crops? Most nutrients are exported when one sells the entire above-ground crop, e.g., lucerne to a grass meal factory or as fodder. Roughly, the export of nutrients from the farm increases in the following order: Grass and clover seed < grain < pulse seed < root crops < vegetables and green biomass (e.g., lucerne, grass, grass-clover leys, whole crops) Remember that selling straw means a significant export of especially potassium, but also other minerals. B. The soil s condition Remember to consider the following soil parameters: Organic matter reserves, soil structure, nutrient turnover. How can I maintain the contents of soil organic matter? How can I affect the soil s humus content? How can I limit soil compaction? You are definitely on the right track if you are growing perennial crops, using catch crops, incorporating straw and other crop residues, and are conscious of soil compaction. 110

7 C. Setting up a cropping plan 1. Determine how to fix enough nitrogen in the crop rotation. Choose between: Green manure (as catch crop or full-season green manure) Clover seed production Grass-clover mixtures Lucerne Pulse crops to maturity Green manure with legumes supplies the greatest amount of nitrogen to the farm, since the biomass stays on the farm. The other crops involve a certain export of nutrients. When selling clover seed, much of the fixed nitrogen remains in the soil. However, clover seed production is demanding and unreliable. Selling green biomass (grass-clover and lucerne) also exports a lot of nitrogen. A better alternative is to rent out the land for grazing. When selling mature pulse crops, about the same amount of nitrogen is exported as the crop fixed from the atmosphere. Another alternative is mixing pulses with cereals. 2. Choose a cover crop. Clover for seed production, grass-clover and lucerne are usually undersown in a spring crop. The same applies to a full-season green manure crop. More advice on choice of crops, etc. can be found in the section starting on page 68. Harmful organisms Which pests or diseases can become a problem? How big is the risk? How can I limit these problems? Nutrient supply What are the crop s nutrient requirements? When does the crop need nutrients? (Early or late in the season? Continuously?) Can I supply the nutrient required by the crop? 4. Crop rotation a comprehensive approach In addition to all of the above-mentioned, individual considerations, one should also take a comprehensive look at the design of the crop rotation. How do all of the different crops in the rotation interact as a whole? Among other things, consider: How the crops as a whole utilise the available manure resources How are the benefits of preceding crops utilised If green manure can be effectively managed (practically and with minimal nutrient losses) If perennial weeds can be controlled (and if so, with minimal nutrient losses) If crop rotation diseases are under control (cropping intervals and resistant varieties) Refer to the check list on page Choose other cash crops. In addition to the factors mentioned above, there are numerous other aspects to consider: Market conditions Which crops can be sold, and what requirements must these meet? Of course, the economic aspects of growing a crop have to be examined. Weed control What is the expected weed tolerance of a given crop? (Type of crop, preceding crops, manure application, soil type and climate) Are there specific weed problems that limit what can be grown? Is weed control possible in the established crop? How many row crops can you manage? (Row crops enable effective weed control) 111

8 Farm example: crop production with catch crops The farm has 100 ha of sandy clay soil and a 6-course rotation. Catch crops are grown all years. All crops are sold. Spring wheat and spring barley straw is sold, in total 100 tons per year. A total of 1320 tons of cattle slurry (CS) is bought each year, equivalent to a stocking rate of 0.7 AU/ha. Nutrient input Nutrient output Cattle slurry 1320 tons Seed Potatoes Yield: 18 t/ha 20 t CS Ryegrass seed Yield: 0.16 t/ha 25 t CS Spring barley /ryegrass underseed Yield: 3 t/ha 15 t CS Spring wheat/ white clover Yield: 3 t/ha Oats/red clover Yield: 3.5 t/ha none t CS Peas/ryegrass Yield: 3 t/ha none Entire crop Straw 100 tons N, P, K net supply Crop farm no fallow kg N/ha kg P/ha kg K/ha 80 Example of an arable crop rotation with catch crops The net yields (t/ha) and manure application (t/ha) for each field in the rotation are shown. The arrows indicate the purchase (import) and sales (export) of nutrients at farmgate level. (CS = cattle slurry, tons/ha) Bought-in manure Purchased feed and seed From the environment Nutrients exported in sold products Surplus 112

9 Full-season or undersown green manure At first sight, using an entire field in a rotation for a full-season green manure crop may seem like a costly solution since the crop doesn t generate any income. In addition, a lot of nitrogen and other nutrients are accumulated in one field, and can be difficult to transfer to following crops without too much loss along the way. It may thus seem that undersown green manure in most cases is a better solution than full-season green manure. However, both systems have their advantages and disadvantages. The Danish Farm Advisory Centre studied yields and economic results in the two systems. Both had 4-year crop rotations (cereals following cereals) one with catch crops all four years and one including a fullseason green manure field, but otherwise no catch crops. See also the green box on page 67. A comparison of two green manure systems Crop rotation with full-season green manure E.g., 1 year green manure + 4 years cereal crops Crop rotation with catch crops E.g., 5 years cereal crops with catch crops Net supply of nutrients is about the same Large amount of fixed nitrogen and accumulation of organic matter in one field Lower machine costs Less work Less soil tillage and field traffic Weeds can be topped More possibilities for weed harrowing in the grain fields and better couch-grass control The green manure field can be part of the set aside program of the EU (max. 21.6% of farmland can be voluntarily set aside) Nitrogen fixation more evenly distributed throughout the crop rotation. Better utilisation of nitrogen, therewith less leaching. Additional cash crop field More flexible crop rotation Better utilisation of own machinery and labour EU set-aside means loss of income from crop, or requires land in addition to the crop rotation. Roughage crops can be sold from the set-aside area. (EU»eco-fallow«=»Set-aside area with feed legumes). Conclusions: The annual grain yields are slightly higher in the system with full-season green manure. However, the catch crop system gives an addi tional grain crop in the rotation, and thus the average yield for four years is higher. On the other hand, the total costs for soil cultiva tion, seed, etc. are greater for the system with four grain crops and undersown catch crops. The rotation with full-season green manure gave the best financial result, when the machine costs are based on contractor rates. The rotation using undersown catch crops is more challenging, and requires a greater degree of farm management. The rotation with full-season green manure is more suitable for part-time farmers and others who don t always manage to get things done at the just the right time. The full-season green manure alternative gives an ever better result if some of the green crop can be sold as roughage. However, before choosing this alternative, one has to determine how much of the rotation shall be allocated to the green manure crop (under consideration of all previously mentioned aspects of crop rotation design). On good soils, a general rule would be 1/5 of the crop rotation, which is more or less equivalent to the 21.6 % that can be taken out of production within the EU s set-aside scheme. However, on poorer soils, and if the possibilities for buying manure are limited, one may have to use as much as 1/4 of the crop rotation for the green manure crop. 113

10 The Fussingø Farm Peder Iversen is farm manager on the Fussingø Farm in Denmark. The farm has an arable crop rotation on 190 ha of sandy loam soils. The main crops are seed and bread grain and grass seed. Peder has the following comments on the farm s crop rotation: We prefer not to have a full-season green manure in our rotation. On such fields, kg N per ha can be produced, an amount which is hard to utilise effectively. That s why we undersow green manure in all of our cereal crops: white clover/ryegrass in spring grain and red clover/ryegrass in winter grain. We are in the process of phasing out the winter cereals, though, because they don t utilise the available nutrients well enough. Of course, we have a crop rotation plan, but we also have to remain highly flexible. We should easily be able to choose another crop, if it can be sold at a good price. In the long run, we actually hope to establish a separate rotation for each field. We find it important to consider each field s specific requirements, and to find measures A livestock farm with monogastric animals Monogastric animals (pigs, poultry) should have daily access to fresh grass in the summer, and to other roughage for the rest of the year. This type of farm thus has some of the same advantages as a livestock farm with ruminants, although to a lesser degree. Pig and poultry feed only contains 5-20 % roughage, whereas ruminants are fed with % Photo: Karen Munk Nielsen that are tailored for various problems, such as a serious thistle or couch-grass infestation. If the clover underseed does well, we prefer to plant spring grain the following year. If not, this gives us the chance to cultivate against couch-grass in the fall. After such a treatment we either sow winter grain or peas the following spring. roughage. As a result, grass-clover leys and other green crops take up less place in the crop rotation, and the farm to a certain degree is thus like an arable farm, with the same inherent problems. Crop rotation on a pig farm When planning a crop rotation for a pig farm, one starts by calculating the roughage requirements, and choosing suitable roughage crops, just like on a dairy farm. This also includes determining how much land is needed for freerange enclosures and perhaps grazing land. After this, however, the considerations more or less resemble an arable crop rotation. Pro (+) Contra (-) Reduced export of nutrients from the farm (in sold crops). Roughage can naturally be added to crop rotation. Grass-clover mixtures can be included on farms with breeding sows. Crop wastes can be utilised (e.g., straw). Stored manure from fattening pigs can be distributed among the crops. Net supply of nutrients can be enormous at high stocking rate, due to large amounts of bought-in feed. Manure from free-range pigs is deposited on a very limited area. Sows that are not nose-ringed leave a very uneven field, thus increasing leaching. Pros and cons of introducing pig production to an arable crop farm The relative extent of the advantages or disadvantages depends mainly on the stocking rate. 114

11 Farm example: crop rotation on a pig farm, 1.0 AU/ha The farm has 100 ha of sandy clay soil, 110 sows with piglets and an annual production of 2500 fattening pigs, equivalent to a stocking rate of about 1.0 AU/ha. The fattening pig production annually generates 200 tons of deep litter (PD) and 750 tons of pig slurry (PS). About 66 tons of bedding straw are bought each year, but no manure is purchased. The total feed requirement is about 940,000 feed units. Nutrient input Feed FU Straw 66 tons Seed Barley/peas with underseed Yield: 4000 feed units 10 t PD, 10 t PS Spring wheat (with grass-clover) Yield: 5000 feed units 20 t PS Barley/ryegrass Yield: 4000 feed units 15 t PS (on 10 ha) 1. year ley Yield: 5500 feed units none 2. year ley Yield: 4000 feed units none Barley/ryegrass Yield: 4000 feed units none 250 Nutrient output Meat kg N, P, K net supply Pigs, 1,0 AU/ha kg N/ha kg P/ha kg K/ha 200 Example of a crop rotation for a farm with breeding and fattening pigs Total stocking rate 1.0 AU/ha. The net yields (t/ha) and manure application (t/ha) for each field in the rotation are shown. The arrows indicate the purchase (import) and sales (export) of nutrients at farm-gate level. (PS = pig slurry; PD = pig deep litter) Bought-in manure From the environment Purchased feed and seed Nutrients exported in sold products 115

12 High or low stocking rate? As previously mentioned, the stocking rate has a significant effect on crop rotation design. On the previous page, a farm example is presented with a stocking rate of 1.0 AU/ha. Below the net nutrient supply for the farm in the example can be seen after changing the stocking rate to 0.5 and 1.3 AU/ha. A high stocking rate makes it necessary to buy a lot of feed (net purchase). This gives a rather large surplus of N, P and K and thus a risk for nutrient losses. A high stocking rate thus doesn t make sense, neither ecologically nor economically. However, it does enable a higher percentage of fodder crops, including grass-clover leys, and helps to increases the farm s own manure resources. A low stocking rate reduces some of these problems, but also creates others, since the farm thus becomes more similar to a pure crop farm. N, P, K net supply pigs 0.5 AU/ha N, P, K net supply pigs 1.3 AU/ha 100 kg N/ha kg P/ha kg K/ha kg N/ha kg P/ha kg K/ha Bought-in manure From the environment Purchased feed and seed Nutrients exported in sold Surplus products -150 Bought-in manure From the environment Purchased feed and seed Nutrients exported in sold Surplus products 0.5 AU/ha: 55 sows, 1250 fattening pigs. Purchased: Feed: 0 feed units (net), straw: 0 t, manure: 350 t cattle slurry. 1.3 AU/ha: 143 sows, 3250 fattening pigs. Purchased: Feed: 765,000 feed units (net), straw: 137 t, manure: 0 t. Mixed farming As we have seen, it is easier to run a farm organically if it has a lot of livestock, especially ruminants, than if it only grows crops. On the other hand, there is still a large demand for organically grown plant products, both within Denmark and in the EU as a whole. Organic products that are in shortage include grain and pulses (for human consumption and as feed), vegetables, seed stock and sugar beets. Intensive livestock production, as is common in Denmark and throughout the EU, can neither be considered environment-friendly nor very beneficial to developing countries, when seen in a global perspective. Certainly Denmark makes a lot of money from livestock farming, but feed production requires vast areas of farmland, not only in EU, but also in countries producing imported feedstuffs such as soya, maize, etc. A much larger share of this land could be used for other purposes, e.g., produce for direct human consumption. 116

13 Thus, there are both ecological and political reasons to promote mixed farming, with an acceptable livestock density and a balance between food and feed crops. Economically, it would be an advantage for a farm to diversify its production. However, this requires a lot of agronomic know-how, management skills and investments. One way to achieve greater diversity would be to develop cooperation between neighbouring livestock and crop farms. Energy balance There are so much livestock in the EU because our diets contain a lot of animal products. Danes especially consume a lot of meat and dairy products. In addition, Denmark earns well selling highlyprocessed livestock products worldwide. However, the production of meat, milk, eggs and poultry is poor energy economy. Animal production does not utilise the energy in the crops very well. Most of the energy in the feed is lost to the atmosphere as body heat from the animals. The energy balance for different farm types is presented below. The figures include all of the energy used on the farms, i.e., the solar energy transformed by the growing crops as well as the energy used in production. The latter includes fuel and electricity used on the farm and for the production of farm inputs (mineral fertilizer, medicines, machines, etc.). Energy for the transport of inputs to the farm and products from the farm is not included. On Danish conventional farms, an average of only 1.2 KJ is sold for each 1.0 KJ used (solar energy, fuel and electricity). An important reason for this is that about 1/5 of the total energy consumed in agriculture is used to produce mineral fertilizers. At the same time, this is also the main reason for the generally more favourable energy balance on organic farms. Energy efficiency in agriculture Farm type Stocking rate Bought-in feed 1) Bought-in fertilizer Energy ratio 2) (AU/ha) (output/input) Denmark, national average for * 100 kg N/ha in 1.2 mineral fertilizer Conventional dairy farm, average figure % * 0.5 Organic dairy farm % Organic dairy farm % Organic crop farm kg N/ha in slurry 1) Expressed as % of total feed consumption. 2) Variations mainly due to differences regarding the amount of bought-in feed and irrigation, both of which require a lot of energy. The demand for bought-in feed and irrigation is usually highest on farms with light soils. Energy awareness on farms The individual farmer can t just change the type of farm she has overnight. There are, though, many different ways to reduce energy consumption on a dayto-day basis. Energy saving recommendations are often available from ministries of energy or other energy-related agencies. For information in Denmark, see 117

14 How to save energy Choose crops with a low energy requirement, e.g., grass-clover mixtures Increase the production of farm-grown feed, reduce bought-in feed Use less diesel, e.g., by using slurry instead of solid manure, grazing instead of cutting, minimising transport, reducing soil tillage. Utilise crop residues, after-growth and straw Avoid using grass pellets Concentrate irrigation on those crops that best respond to irrigation, reduce irrigation and import more feed In livestock housing, use natural ventilation and less bedding Optimise the entire production system, in order to achieve a higher energy ratio Produce bioenergy to compensate for some of the bought-in energy 118

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