CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Constraints in adoption of sericulture technologies

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1 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE The review of literature on the understanding of the very subject and related work done earlier on the subject of the study was done to enlarge the knowledge. The review of the subject is presented under the following heads as per the objectives of the study Knowledge and adoption of sericulture technologies 2.2. Constraints in adoption of sericulture technologies 2.3. Yield gaps in mulberry and cocoon production 2.4. Socio-economic characteristics of farmers and their relationship with knowledge, adoption, cocoon yield and income 2.5. The cost and return structure in sericulture 2.6. Employment generation in sericulture 2.1. Knowledge and adoption of sericulture technologies Rogers (1962) defined that diffusion is the process of spread of new ideas from its sources of invention or creation to its ultimate users or adopters through certain channels over time among members of a social system. He defined an innovation as "an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. The rate of adoption is defined as the relative speed with which members of a social system adopt an innovation. It is usually measured by the length of time required for a certain percentage of the members of a social system to adopt an innovation. The adoption of an innovation follow an S curve when plotted over a length of time. The categories of adopters are innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. 16

2 Rogers and Shoe maker (1971) defined that scientific orientation is the forerunner of farmers Innovativeness. The concept of appropriate technology is that it should be less in cost, high in profit, less risky, ensures immediate rewards, less in decrease discomfort, highly compatible with socio-cultural values and beliefs, less in complexity, highly trialable on a small scale and the results of the same should be easily observed and communicated. Viratpong (1990) opined that because of the high income potential, diffusion of sericulture is rapidly increasing both in number of adopters and in expansion of mulberry area, based on a study in Thailand. Srinivasulu (1991) revealed that majority of sericulturists had medium level of knowledge with regard to recommended practices of mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing practices. Big farmers were high adopters of new sericulture technologies in Karnataka. Prabhakar et al., (1992) conducted a study on the socio-economic profile of the sericulturists in Chikmagalur district of Karnataka and revealed that in silkworm rearing, small farmers were more enthusiastic for the adoption of improved technologies. Dolli et al., (1993) revealed that most of the farmers in Mysore district had adopted simple practices like variety, plant spacing, frequency of feeding and bed cleaning whereas application of FYM, fertilizer, disinfection and RKO were adopted partially. No farmer had adopted plant protection measures, incubation care and bed spacing. Non adoption or partial adoption of the improved sericultural practices is the reason for low intake of layings and low cocoon yield in the study area. Anjaneya Gowda (1993) reported that marginal farmers showed better adoption as they had less land area that made them to concentrate and involve deeply in the activities. Geetha (1993) opined that, farmers adopt low or no cost technologies fully and the technologies which are costly are adopted partially or may not be adopted at all. 17

3 Singhvi et al., (1994) reported that majority of the farmers (98.30%) reared silkworm in their dwelling houses and adopted the disinfection measures partially. Only 1.7 of respondents were having separate rearing house. Nearly 50% of the farmers applied FYM and used bed disinfectants. It was also observed that the adoption level of fertilizer application, plant protection measures, maintenance of optimum temperature and humidity in rearing house, use of bed cleaning nets and disease control measures was low. Chikkanna et al., (1995) reported that in Kolar district of Karnataka the level of adoption was higher for practices like FYM application, spacing in late age silkworm rearing and disinfection. The adoption was either low or poor for practices like application of fertilizers, spacing in chawki rearing and incubation care. The adoption level among different categories of farmers was in the order of big farmers> small farmers> marginal farmers. Govindaiah et al., (1996) reported that plant protection measures were mostly adopted by sericulture farmer in irrigated mulberry gardens while in rain fed areas adoption rate was totally nil, An average of 22.6% farmers were aware of plant protection measures, only 10.73% were found adopting them in field. The adoption was high in big farmers followed by small farmers. Shreedhara (1997) reported that there was non significant difference between small and big farmers of Tumkur district in overall knowledge and adoption of improved practices of sericulture. Srinivasa (1998b) conducted a study in Dharward and revealed that farmers belonging to small category were found to be specialized in sericulture and displayed zeal to prosper through sericulture. The average probability of adoption of technology was around 43% among big farmers and 61% among small farmers. The education and area under mulberry in respect of small farmers did not influence the degree of adoption as indicated by a non-significant chi-square value. Jagadisha (1999) reported that the level of knowledge among different categories of farmers in K.R. Nagar taluk of Mysore district with regard to disinfection, egg 18

4 transportation, black boxing, bed cleaning and maintenance of humidity was same. But the extent of adoption varied among the different categories with 70% full adoption in small scale and above 80% full adoption in medium and large scale farmers. Ganapathy et al., (1999) revealed that a large number of sericulturists in Mysore taluk were low adopters of recommended practices. Shankar et al., (2000) indicated that the major contributing factors towards adoption of all related technologies necessarily depended on the existence of separate rearing house. Geetha (2001) reported that the minimum rate of adoption (50%) was noticed among large scale holding farmers and a maximum (68%) rate of adoption was noticed among the farmers who had marginal size of land holdings. The rate of adoption of small and medium scale farmers were 56% & 53% respectively. This infers that the chances of adoption of technologies can be hopefully more among small scale sericulturists than large-scale sericulturists. Madhu Prasad (2002) reported that there was time lag in terms of first heard and first adoption of technologies namely shoot feeding, package of practices for chawki mulberry garden & S36 variety and bio-fertilizer. In case of Vijetha powder (beddisinfectant) and V-1 mulberry variety the time lag was not observed. The spread of technologies in the initial years was slow and gradually picked up. In the study the diffusion curve followed S shaped pattern. It was reported that the adoption distribution curve is not normal which is bell in shape under natural conditions. Qadri et al., (2002) reported that the Regional Sericultural Research Station (RSRS) Salem, Tamil Nadu jointly with the Department of Sericulture (DOS), Salem stepped in to taking a pivotal role for popularization of bivoltine sericulture through transfer of technology programme. First success achieved in this regard in Thoppakadu area of Salem district served as model. As regards the adoption of CSR races, it was found that most of the sericulturists had adopted shoot feeding method for rearing CSR hybrids owing to its advantages over the traditional method of leaf rearing. 19

5 Thiagarajan (2002) reported that majority of the farmers in rain fed areas had poor knowledge on the technologies. Most of the farmers had partial knowledge on method of leaf harvest, I.P.M. of uzifly, silkworm mounting and cocoon harvesting. The same trend was observed in adoption of technologies. Mohamed and Baldeosingh (2003) pointed out that large majority of the respondents had fully adopted the recommended high yielding bivoltine races (90%), time of rearing (85%), time of harvesting of cocoons (75%) and time of disinfection (72%). Benchamin et al., (2004) reported that farmers were well aware of the importance of chawki rearing which contributes towards saving time and adoption of technology for better crop results, minimizing the crop instability by rearing of silkworm after II moult. Jaishankar and Dandin (2004) conducted a study in Kolar district and revealed that the respondents had adoption level of 91.11% for FYM application. Farmers to an extent of 13.3 % had adopted drip irrigation. Mallikarjuna et al., (2004) conducted a study during 2002 in irrigated areas of Karnataka and revealed that a vast majority of farmers have got knowledge on proper pruning, new mulberry varieties, paired row spacing and drip irrigation. The farmers (96%) had knowledge on separate rearing house, disinfection with Clo2, use of bed cleaning net and application of vijetha. As regards adoption, pruning by 100%, mulberry variety by 100%, paired row by 95%, drip irrigation by 11%, separate rearing house by 74%, chlorine-di-oxide by 71%, bed cleaning using net by 41.3%, bed disinfectant by 72.3%, of the farmers fully adopted. Though 78% of the farmers had knowledge on rotary mountages the full adoption was nil. Sariful Islam (2004) revealed that JICA farmers in Mandya and Tumkur districts of Karnataka had sufficient knowledge on mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing technologies, but the full adoption level varies from 35% (Paired row system) to 100% (pruning method) for mulberry cultivation technologies and 35% (rotary mountages) to 100% (shoot rearing and separate rearing house) for silkworm rearing technologies 20

6 Philip and Qadri (2004) assessed that the silkworm rearing technologies showed higher adoption levels compared to mulberry cultivation practices at Ernakulam and Trichur districts of Kerala. Dandin et al., (2004) found that the adoption rate of technologies increased from 47.22% to 83.02% after implementation of IVLP programme by CSR&TI, Mysore. Qadri et al., (2005b) reported that the average cocoon yield/100 dfls of bivoltine hybrid improved by 20 kg after adoption through cluster approach in three clusters in Tamil Nadu. Vijayaprakash and Dandin (2005b) conducted a study in Mandya district and revealed that the adoption rate of technologies was better with the bivoltine farmers compared to cross breed rearers. The large scale farmer adopted mulberry plant spacing& harvesting of leaves (100%) followed by irrigation (95.08%), FYM application & dusting of vijetha (86.89%), disinfection (83.61%), shoot rearing (82%), separate rearing house (70.49%). The adoption pattern of the technologies of small farmers was almost similar to that of the large farmer. All the technologies were either fully or partially utilized by the sample farmers. This may be due to the successive implementation of JICA and IVLP projects. Gope (2006) reported that all the selected farmers had high knowledge of mulberry variety, plant spacing, quality of leaf, size of the leaf and bed cleaning. Most of the sericulturists in non-traditional area had better knowledge about new technologies than those in traditional area. The knowledge regarding soil type and manure was more in traditional area compared to non-traditional area. Mani et al., (2006) conducted a study in Erode district of Tamil Nadu and revealed that the adoption level of all the mulberry cultivation technologies except, glycel application, VAM inoculation and vermin-composting, were adopted either fully or partially. The technologies bio-fertilizer, green manuring and growth promoters were respectively adopted by 46%, 58% and 72.5% of the farmers fully. In silkworm rearing shoot rearing (100%). separate rearing house (96%), incubation (92%), black boxing (81%), and rearing house disinfection (80%) were adopted fully. 21

7 Meenal and Rajan (2006) reported that all sampled farmers of Sathyamangalam taluk, in Erode district had 100% knowledge about the recommended mulberry variety and spacing and with 100% and 94% adoption respectively. Sample farmers to an extent of 68% had full knowledge about FYM and fertilizer doses, but 52 and 58% of the farmers respectively had adopted these practices fully. Partial knowledge was noticed for bio-fertilizers (52%), seriboost (44%) drip irrigation (58%) and control of tukra (68%). Non-adopters were high for these four technologies to an extent of 82%, 64%, 90% and 84% respectively. With respect to silkworm rearing technologies, it was observed that all farmers had full knowledge about mounting method and 82% had full knowledge on the type of rearing house, silkworm breeds and shoot rearing. Partial knowledge was noticed for technologies such as incubation of eggs (60%), black boxing (62%), bed cleaning (64%) and IPM of Uzi fly (78%). Adoption indices showed that technologies such as mounting method (100%), shoot rearing (82%) and type of rearing house (80%) were highly adopted by the farmers followed by disinfection (68%), bed spacing (66%) and new mountages (66%). Qadri (2006) reported that the recent upcoming of bivoltine in Tamil Nadu is an excellent example of the successful TOT, thanks to the concerted efforts and team work of the extension staff who could turn the table amidst all odds and win over the unwilling farmers to take to sericulture for better returns. The share of bivoltine cocoon production during was barely 0.09%. During the situation gradually improved to a level of 7.37%. The bivoltine cocoon production during improved further to reach 13%. During the end 2006, the bivoltine cocoon production reached 21% which is the highest share of bivoltine production achieved by any state. Almost all the bivoltine dfls are chawki reared and supplied to the farmers. The latest cocoon yield performance (kg/100 dfls) during the year indicated quite high yield levels among on-farm, off-farm and non-adopted farmers which was remarkable with 71.3 kg, 64.8 kg and 55.8 kg/100 dfls respectively. The productivity demonstrations among the TOT farmers with an average yield of 64.8 kg/100 dfls did influence the farmers at other fringes and the effect was notably good with average yield of 55.8 kg/100 dfls. 22

8 Sujatha et al., (2006a) reported that sericulturists in Anantapur district, Andhra Pradesh had high adoption for plantation spacing, application of FYM, disinfection, bed spacing, and temperature and humidity maintenance during rearing. Adoption was low / nil for practices like bio-fertilizers, vemiculture and mulching. The adoption level among different categories of farmers was in the order of big farmers > small farmers > marginal farmers. Deepa (2007a) reported that there was non-significant difference between big, small and marginal farmers in their overall knowledge and adoption of improved practices of sericulture. Farmers irrespective of categories have not adopted soil testing, soil correction, spacing, triacontanol, compost making, vermicomposting and green manuring. Majority of the farmers irrespective of categories have partially adopted the silkworm rearing technologies such as use of bleaching powder, bed disinfectants for disinfection, maintenance of hygiene and temperature and humidity. Considerable percentages of big, small and marginal farmers have not adopted shoot rearing. Deepa and Sujathamma (2007b) studied the technology adoption in semi- arid conditions of Chittor district in Andhra Pradesh. Soil testing and application of bio fertilizer were not adopted by 86.11% and 70% farmers respectively. But 70% of the farmers had planted the recommended mulberry variety. Most of the silkworms rearing technologies were fully adopted viz., disinfection (82.22%), recommended brushing (87.22%), new silkworm races (80.00%) and mounting care (76.66%). Himantharaj et al., (2007) reported that the second phase of JICA (PPPBST) during 1997 to 2002 implemented in Erode district of Tamil Nadu has made its impact in such a manner that improved mulberry variety (85%), paired row system of planting mulberry, package of practices for mulberry, separate rearing house, shoot rearing, silkworm pest and disease management were adopted by all the farmers (100%) after the project. The total income of the farmers has increased 2 to 5 times from `80, 000 to `1.39 lakhs, after adopting the bivoltine sericulture technology. Lakshmanan and Geetha Devi (2007c) reported that more than 60% of the sample farmers in Malavalli and Srirangapatana taluks of Mandhya district in Karnataka, who 23

9 reared CSR hybrid races, had full knowledge about high yielding mulberry varieties, irrigation, separate rearing house and shoot rearing.it was found that shoot harvesting (79%) and separate rearing house (69%) were adopted. Similarly about 80% of crossbreed rearing farmers had full knowledge about shoot rearing, 79% on separate rearing house and 77.05% had on irrigation schedule. Both CSR hybrid rearers and crossbreed rearers had high knowledge and adoption on high yielding mulberry variety, shoot harvesting and separate rearing house with required equipments. The farmers who were not covered under JICA were also adopting the technologies either fully or partially which was attributed to the indirect influence of JICA programme in the adjacent villages. Rajeev et al., (2007) studied the adoption of CSR hybrids by farmers of Kolar district in Karnataka and reported that 44.17% of sericulturists had high level of perception regarding the performance of CSR hybrids whereas 31.66% had medium level and remaining 24.17% had low level. Srinivasa et al., (2007) reported that the knowledge and adoption levels of farmers had increased by 42.64% and 90.69% respectively after training. Krishnamoorthy et al., (2008) reported that the IVLP implemented in 5 clusters namely, Dasampalayam in Erode, Dasaripalli in Krishnagiri, Manupatty in Udumalpet of Tiruppur, Gorimedu in Salem, and Uppukottai in Theni districts of the state has created a lot of impact on the technology adoption level especially in the bivoltine sector. Chawki rearing technology has been well imbibed by the stakeholders in the state especially in the IVLP project area and the adjoining clusters. The private CRC concept has also picked up well and, now there are 20 CRCs in the state catering to the needs of the IVLP farmers and other farmers. Hiriyanna et al., (2009) revealed that a high rate of adoption was noticed for most of the technologies such as V-1 mulberry variety (93.75%), training and pruning of mulberry plants, separate rearing house (71.88%), CSR hybrid rearing (100%), disinfection, maintenance of hygiene, bed spacing (100%), use of disinfectants (100%) and shoot rearing. Partial adoption was observed for FYM/ fertilizer application 24

10 (59.38%). Mulberry pest control was only partially adopted by 31.25% of the farmers. Non adoption was found high for green manuring and mulberry pest control. Kumaresan and Geetha Devi (2009) reported that the mulberry holding was the major discriminatory factor (40.08%) in adoption of separate rearing house in Andhra Pradesh. The quantum of cocoon production/ac/year was the second major discriminatory factor (29.15%) in adoption of separate rearing house. Educational level was the third factor (22.67) that discriminated the adopters of separate rearing house from the rearers of the silkworm in dwelling house. In the discriminant function fitted for Tamil Nadu, the contribution of the variable, extension contact was the highest with 38.17%. This was followed by cocoon production /ac/year (37.31%) and education level (24.52%). Jayaram & Indumati (2010) conducted a study with a linear discriminant function analysis and reported that extension variables discriminated the farmers in to high level and low level adopters of technologies in sericulture. The price per kg of cocoon was found to be one of the major determinants of adoption of technologies. Dhahira Beevi (2010) reported that under the cluster promotion programme 1,400 soil samples from their clusters of Gobi, Palani, Udumalpet, Sanarpatty, Uthankarai and Hosur areas in Tamil Nadu were analyzed and suitable recommendation given for corrective measures. Srinivasulu Reddy (2010) reported that all farmers (100%) in Anantpur, Chittoor and coastal districts of Andhrapradesh, had full knowledge about mulberry varieties. Regarding spacing 85% of farmers in Anantapur, 92% in Chittoor and 100% in coastal regions had full knowledge. The knowledge level with respect to disinfection, rearing hygiene, temperature and humidity in young age rearing, separate rearing house and shoot rearing (52-96%) was almost full in all the three regions. As regards adoption of technologies all the farmers (100%) in coastal area fully adopted improved mulberry varieties. It was found that 64% of farmers in Anantapur, 73% in Chittoor and 85% in costal area had fully adopted separate rearing house. All the technologies were either 25

11 fully or partially adopted by the farmers in all the regions. This may be due to the implementation of programmes by the JICA and IVLP. Jayaram and Qadri (2011) conducted a study in Shimoga in Malnad belt of Karnataka on the transfer of technology for sericulture development and reported a technology index gap of 40.57% which indicated that half of the technologies in sericulture were not adopted at the farmers level. The farmers were later exposed to various technological practices. It was found that the level of adoption of technologies was highest with respect to mulberry plant spacing 77% followed by irrigation 75%, use of bed disinfectants 68.50%, disinfection of rearing house 65%, control of Uzi fly 64%, shoot rearing 62%, V-1 mulberry variety 52%, farm yard manure application 51 % and separate rearing house 43%. The level of knowledge and skills acquired by the respondents was found to be significant. Meenal and Rajan (2011) conducted a study in Erode district of Tamil Nadu and revealed that knowledge and adoption indices had a direct relationship with the holding size. It was observed that the knowledge and adoption indices of silkworm rearing technologies were higher than that of mulberry cultivation technologies in all the farm sizes. Results revealed that 72.90% of farmers belonging to holding size VI had full knowledge about the mulberry cultivation technologies and 64.10% of them adopted the technologies fully. Similarly 94% of the farmers of holding size IV had full knowledge about silkworm rearing technologies as against 89% in holding size I. Though the farmers had knowledge on incubation and black boxing methods, the adoption rate was very low as they were purchasing chawki reared worms from the private CRCs. Srinath et al., (2011) conducted a study in Chittor district of Andhrapradesh and revealed that 100% of farmers had good knowledge and 67 to 72 % farmers had fully adopted the technologies like farm yard manure and tank silt application. Knowledge levels though more on composting technologies (60%), organic cakes (65%), vermicomposting (76%) and green manure (63%) the adoption levels were poor (21.5 to 26%) A range of 70 to 100% of the farmers had nil knowledge and 97.5% to100 % of farmers had not adopted the practices like Seri- residue composting, bio-fertilizers, VAM, PSB and panchagavya (A mixture of five natural products in a solution form). 26

12 Badhe (2011) reported that about % of the brinjal growers had medium level of adoption regarding recommended practices of brinjal followed by per cent and % of the brinjal growers had high and low level of adoption, respectively. Maryflora (2012) conducted a study in Salem district and revealed that 18-63% farmers fully adopted the silkworm disease control measures, 25-52% adopted partially and 12-21% did not adopt the technology. In Namakkal district, 8-75% of farmers fully adopted, 15-46% partially adopted and 3-15% did not adopt the disease control measures. The reasons for partial and non-adoption are lack of detailed knowledge, technologies were not demonstrated and health hazards encountered by the farmers Constraints in adoption of sericulture technologies In all the technology adoption and diffusion process the farmers do face some sort of constraints. The constraints faced by the farmers vary depending upon various factors such as socio-economic, situational, resource crunch, risk factors, and complexity of technologies etc.,. The constraints affect technology adoption which results in variability in production and affect the diffusion of technologies. The constraint analysis is essential for drawing suitable suggestions /recommendations to the technology developers and policy makers. The review of literature is as follows. Gopala (1991) reported that lack of knowledge on disinfection, disease control measures, capital for construction of rearing house, non availability of M5 variety, labour and chawki worms in time were the major reasons identified for non adoption of recommended sericultureal practices in Kolar district. Zeaul Ahsan (1994) reported that the main constraints for non-adoption of improved technologies by sericulturists in Malda district of West Bengal were lack of separate rearing house, non availability of inputs, non remunerative price for cocoons and sudden fluctuation in cocoon prices. Jagannathan (1995) revealed that inadequate marketing facilities, lack of control measures for silkworm diseases, non availability of labour and lack of credit facilities are 27

13 the reasons cited for non adoption of sericulture by farmers in Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu. Govindaiah et al., (1996) reported that lack of knowledge about disease control measures, fear of toxicity to silkworm, lack of finance and poor extension are the major constraints for non adoption of plant protection measures. Shreedhara (1997) reported that important reasons cited by farmers of Pavagada taluk in Tumkur district of Karnataka, were lack of knowledge, finance, water, non availability of cuttings, FYM and fertilizers in time, for partial and non adoption of improved practices. Srinivasa et al., (1998b) found that the factors such as lack of awareness (81.30%), redundancy of technology (77.3%), low price for cocoon (70.50%) and expensiveness of technology (63.60%) were the major constraints for the adoption of technologies among the farmers of Dharwad district in Karnataka. Lakshmanan et al., (1998a) reported that, among the sample farmers in the districts of Salem and Dharmapuri in Tamil Nadu, the major constraints for non adoption/poor adoption of mulberry cultivation technologies were lack of awareness, preference to traditional practices, high cost of inputs and also scarcity of water. In the case of silkworm rearing technologies lack of awareness, preference to the traditional method of silkworm rearing and high cost were the reasons for the non-adoption. In adoption, the heavy capital investments and high variability of yields under unpredicted weather conditions make the farmers not to accept the technology readily. Ganapathy et al., (1999) conducted a study in Mysore taluk and revealed that, lack of knowledge about disease control measures and fertilizer dose are the most important reasons for non-adoption of recommended practices. It was also reported that lack of capital, high cost of fertilizers, and non-availability of FYM in time, lack of knowledge about disinfection measures, mulberry variety and the non-availability of labour in time are also the reasons for non-adoption. 28

14 Saratchandra (2000) pointed out lack of knowledge as the major reason for low / non adoption. It was further stated that resource constraints, imbalance between the farm holding and the available man power, multiple crop pattern also affected the technology adoption. Kanimozhi (2001) reported that lack of awareness, interest, technical guidance, irrigation facilities high labour cost, high input cost, non availability of credit facilities, monsoon failure and poor marketing facilities were the major constraints faced by the IVLP farmers in adopting technologies. Rajan (2002) reported that the major problems in adoption of bivoltine sericulture technologies were timely supply of quality silkworm eggs in required quantity, organizing large number of chawki rearing centers, providing hygienic condition and supply of required equipments. Munikrishnappa et al., (2002) observed that lack of finance was the major constraint (42%) faced by the small farmers (up to 2.5 acres) and fluctuation in cocoon price was the major constraints faced by the medium (2.6 to 5.0) and large farmers (more than 5.0 acres) respectively in Mysore district in adopting improved sericultural practices. Madhu Prasad (2002) found that the pungent smell and high price were the major constraints experienced by the farmers in adoption of Vijetha bed disinfectant. Srinivasa et al., (2003) found that lack of awareness and non-availability of technological inputs are the major constraints for technology adoption in seed areas of southern states. Mallikarjuna et al., (2004) conducted a study during 2002 in irrigated areas of Karnataka and indicated that high cost was the major constraint for non-application of recommended doze of fertilizers. Availability of excess water (47%), lack of initial investment (24%) and delay in sanction of loan (22%) were the major constraints for non-adoption of drip irrigation technology. Lack of awareness (97%) was the major constraint for non-adoption of biological control for Uzi fly management. They 29

15 observed lack of awareness, preference of traditional practices, high cost, high investment and lack of facilities were the major constraints for technology adoption in sericulture. Dandin et al., (2004) reported that one of the major constraints for non-adoption of the technologies was non-availability of inputs at village level. Recommendations with regard to application of fertilizers, disinfectants and pest control measures were not adopted either partially or completely due to high cost. The limited use or non-use of FYM was mainly due to its non-availability. Further, lack of awareness about different technologies like new mountages, density in mounting correct time of harvesting, new system of pruning and thinning hindered the improvement in productivity. Philip and Qadri (2004) reported that expensive and cumbersome technologies, lack of awareness, and poor accessibility of technology were attributed as the major reasons for non adoption /partial adoption Deepa et al., (2005) The main reasons observed for partial and non adoption of recommended sericulture technologies by farmers of Mulakalacheruvu mandal of Chittoor district were lack of knowledge, strong belief to own ideas, reluctance on advanced practices, lack of extension participation and contact and financial constraints. Madhu Prasad (2006) reported that the major constraints faced in adoption of silkworm rearing technologies were difficulty in picking of worms, requirement of more inputs for chawki garden, tukra infestation, high cost and pungent smell of Vijetha, availability of duplicate disinfectants in the market with synonymous names. Non availability (100%) and complicated application procedure (77.08%) were the major constraints in adoption of bio fertilizer among the farmers of Kolar district. Sreenivas et al., (2005) observed that technologies which involve high cost were either partially adopted or not adopted and technology inputs which were supplied by DOS were fully adopted. Vijaprakash and Dandin (2005a) conducted a study on yield gaps and constraints in bivoltine cocoon production in Mandya district of karnataka and revealed that the 30

16 constraints faced by the small farmers (Non-availability of inputs 65%, rearing house 68%, dfls 39%, disinfectants 39% and mountages 39%) were more when compared with the large farmers (Non-availability of inputs 54%, separate rearing house 40% and disinfectant 32%). This is because of socio-economic factors and also as they expect the support from the government agencies. Dandin et al., (2005a) found that though large numbers of technologies were developed by research institutions, the field acceptance/awareness of these technologies is rather poor resulting in wide gap in yield realization. The reasons for poor adoption of new technologies were attributed to poor performance of the technology at field, lack of adequate information, defective approaches and one way traffic method of technology transfer. Meenal and Rajan (2006) reported that the major constraints for low or nonadoption of the improved technologies by the farmers of Sathyamangalam taluk, Erode district were non-availability of inputs (34%), lack of awareness (26%), lack of proper technical guidance (18%) and the high cost of inputs (22%) and preference to traditional practices (38%). Anandakumar et al., (2006) reported that low or no cost technologies were adopted fully by farmers of Bangalore rural district. Lack of awareness and non availability of technological inputs were listed as the major constraints for technology adoption. Deepa (2007) found that the constraints faced by the small farmers were on the higher side when compared to large farmers. The large farmers perceived labour problem, especially the large farmers, as one of the major constraints in realizing the potential farm yield. Materials such as dfls, mulberry leaf, mountages and disinfectants were the constraints for cross breed cocoon production. Deepa and Sujathamma (2007) observed that the reasons for the poor rate of adoption of bio fertilizer application by farmers of Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh were lack of awareness and high cost of inputs. 31

17 Dar et al., (2009) reported in their study on the constraints of silkworm rearers in Kashmir valley for adoption of rearing technologies that due to lack of technical information and timely supply of inputs they harvested low yields. Kumaresan and Geetha Devi (2009) in their study on the factors discriminating the adoption of separate silkworm rearing houses in South India indicated that the high cost of the construction of rearing house and problems in availing the Catalytic Development Programme (CDP) assistance and loan were the important constraints expressed by the farmers in construction of separate rearing house. Srinnivasulu Reddy et al., (2010) revealed in the study on the knowledge and adoption of bivoltine sericultural technologies by farmers of Anantapur, Chittoor and Coastal districts of Andhrapradesh, that non-availability of inputs in time, high cost of fertilizers, lack of finance, lack of proper knowledge, scarcity of labour, lack of technical guidance, traditional practice etc., were the main constraints for partial/non-adoption. Banuprakash (2011) revealed in the study on the adoption of improved technologies by bivoltine silkworm rearers of Bangarpet taluk of Kolar district that, majority of over 70% of the respondents had encountered the problems such as susceptibility of silkworm to the diseases, difficulty to manage rearing compared to existing cross breed (98%), high risk involved in practicing bivoltine silkworm rearing (90%), requirement of more bed disinfectants resulting in health hazardous (86%), nonavailability of quality disinfectants (82%) and non-availability of quality silkworm seeds (76%). Jayaram and Qadri (2011) revealed in the study in Malnad area of Karnataka that the field constraints were attributed to lack of knowledge about technology and skills (35.93%), followed by lack of availability of skilled labour (32%), lack of rearing house (24%), pest and disease incidence (21.50%), reeling and marketing problems (17.5%) and non-availability of rearing in-puts. Patel et al., (2011) revealed in the study in Vadodara district of Gujarat State that the main constraints experienced by trained and untrained cotton growers in 32

18 adoption of IPM technology were irregular supply of electricity and exploitation of farmer by shopkeeper. Shukla Ruchira (2011) found that among the constraints expressed by the farmers of two tehsils of Udaipur district of Rajasthan that in mulberry sericulture high input cost ranked first followed by lack of irrigation facilities whereas the constraint scattered field was ranked as last according to the responses obtained from mulberry sericulturists Yield gaps in mulberry leaf and cocoon production The technological revolution in agriculture and sericulture has resulted in appreciable productivity in food, vegetable, pulses and also in silk cocoon production. Yet the potential yield of the crop is not fully realized by majority of the farmers which resulted in yield gaps. Yield gap analysis is a new research technique extensively used to analyze and measure the gaps and determinants of gap in yield in different situations. It has gained wide popularity with researchers and policy makers. The review of literature on the subject is presented below. Maya (1989) observed that the yield gap between the best and ordinary farms in Luzon [Philippines] in the rice farm fields when compared to the experiment station yields, Best farmers have consistently had higher yields and higher net returns relative to the Ordinary farmers. The distinguishing features of the Best farmers relative to Ordinary farmers are (a) Better quantity and (b) Higher stock of technical knowledge (c) Greater supervision time (d) Timely access to inputs. Holikatti (1991) studied the yield gaps in chilli in Karnataka. He found that the estimated total yield gap in Byadagi chilli ranged from percent in large farms to percent in small farms. The size of yield gap I in chilli was generally small (25.32%) while the size of yield gap- II was large (38.07%). Yield gap II ranged from percent on small farms to percent on large farms. Vilas Kulkarni (1993) found that the yield gap-i and yield gap-ii were per cent and per cent respectively in his study on yield gap analysis of bivoltine 33

19 (NB4D2) cocoon production in Mandya district. The yield gap-i was attributed for the environmental conditions and other infrastructural facilities available in the multilocation trials and yield gap-ii was attributed for non-adoption of recommended package of practices. Benchamin (1993) informed that, leaf yield under field conditions are only 43.9% under non-irrigated conditions and 47.4% under irrigated condition. Cocoon yield is roughly 68% of the potential (37Kg Vs 54kg/100dfls). The existing gap between the technology and that of practices is quite large. The reasons are many like farmers unawareness, non-availability of mulberry variety and silkworm hybrids etc. Bambang-Sayaka (1994) in their studies under the soybean yield gap analysis project in West Java East Java and Indonesia revealed that generally the potential soybean yields were not achieved by SYGAP [Soybean Yield Gap Analysis Project] participants in both districts due to the following reasons : 1) not all the SYGAP participants adopted the whole packages of recommended technologies in both districts, 2) there was pest outbreak during the 1991 dry season in both districts (more serious in Karawang) and 3) drought in Jombang. Results of the comparative and covariance analysis showed that the mean yield levels of the SYGAP participants in Karawang were attacked by pests. Ramanuja Rao et al., (1996) observed that in Chamarajnagar area irrespective of the category of farmers, the average yield of cross breed cocoons under rain fed conditions was 21.2 kg per 100 dfls with a yield gap of 44.68%. It was also revealed that irrespective of the area, the yield gap was more in case of A category ( acre) which was attributed to the non adoption of recommended package of practices due to their socio- economic constraints Subba Rao et al., (1997) observed that irrespective of the category of farmers, the average yield in Hosur, Denkanikottai and Krishnagiri areas of Dharmapuri districts in Tamil Nadu was 37.3 kg with an yield gap of 26.3 kg (41.3%) when compared to the potential yield (63.64 kg / 100 dfls) at the research station. It was also reported that the 34

20 yield gap was more in case of small farmers and less with marginal farmers and the yield gap was still less with big farmers. Nagaraj (1999) observed that the yield of the traditional crops (PM x C.nichi) is less than 20 kg per 100 dfls which in comparison with the yield potential of the area was far from satisfaction. The yield gap of 49.5% in the traditional cross suggests the poor management in terms of nutrition, adequate space, adjustment in the climatic conditions in the rearing enclosures, hygiene and sanitary measures and skill in rearing. Subbaswamy et al., (2000) revealed that non application of fertilizers in adequate quantities adversely affected the soil fertility status at farmers level resulting in poor leaf quality which caused yield gap in cocoon yield. The gap can be reduced by applying adequate quantities of fertilizers to the mulberry garden. Lakshmanan and Geetha Devi (2002) in their study of production function analysis of mulberry leaf yield reported that fertilizer and irrigation were the two factors which played the major role in increasing the leaf yield in Salem district and labour was the key input in North Arcot district. Gaddi et al. (2002) reported that a total yield gap of kg/ha comprised a relatively higher Yield Gap-I ( kg/ha) than Yield Gap-II ( kg/ha) in their study on yield gaps in cotton production in North Karnataka. Venkataramana (2003) studied on potentials of improved mulberry leaf and silkworm cocoon production technologies in Telangana Region. Results showed that leaf yield was 30,371 kg / ha per year during and 31,526 kg / ha per year during , compared to the benchmark yield with the adoption of the full packages of moriculture. Silkworm cocoon yield was 51 kg / 100 diseases free laying during and 51.75kg/ 100 dfls during , compared to the benchmark yield. Vijayaprakash and Dandin (2005a) indicated that the methodology developed by the International Rice Research Institute (Gomez, 1977) was used to study the yield gaps in Mulberry and cocoon production. The results revealed that the yield gap I was found to be more for V-1 mulberry variety (22.31%) in case of small farmers and 14.82% in the 35

21 case of large farmers. High yield gap I implied that greater amount of potential yield was left untapped on the demonstration plots. The yield gap I was attributable to the significant environmental differences and partly due to the non-transferable component of technology like cultural practices. Hence the technology developed at research institute could not be fully replicated on the demonstration plots. The yield gap II is 27.18% for small farmers and 22.31% for large farmers which is more when compared to the K2 variety which was 14.39% and 16.13% for small and large farmers respectively. The total yield gap was estimated to 43.32% and 39.53% for small and large farmers in V-1 variety implying that only 56.68% and 60.47% of the potential mulberry leaf yield was realized by the respective category of sample farmers in V-1 variety. In respect of yield gap in cocoon production it was revealed that the average demonstration yield obtained by the small farmers and large farmers was 2290kg/ha/year and kg/ha/year respectively which were more than that of laboratory yield 2, kg/ha/yr. This implies that the potential yield of CSR2 x CSR4 was realized by the progressive farmers in Mandya district. However the yield gap II was very wide ranging from 30.01% in the case of small farmers and 45.56% with respect to large farmers. This implies that there is scope to improve the yield levels of bivoltine hybrids to the extent of % by following the production techniques of the demonstration farmers. The total yield gap which was attributed only by the yield gap II was estimated to 21.79% and 39.17% for small and large farmers respectively. It should be noted that significant portion of yield gap in cocoon production was contributed by yield gaps in mulberry leaf production as 25% of the potential mulberry leaf yield was not utilized for cocoon production. In order to find out the factors influencing the cocoon production, a log-linear regression was fitted. The regression coefficients of mulberry leaf, disinfectants, human labour, mountages and transport and marketing expenditures were positive and statistically significant which significantly increased the quantum of cocoon production in Mandya district. The coefficient of multiple regressions R 2 was found to be higher with The higher the R 2 testified the adequacy of the model used in the present 36

22 study. The values of regression coefficient (elasticity of production) were less than one. This shows that each input followed diminishing marginal productivity. Lakshmanan (2007d) conducted a study to assess the yield gaps in mulberry sericulture in six villages of Malavalli and Srirangapatana taluks of mandya district of Karnataka during The sample farmers were 120 comprising of 60 bivoltine and 60 cross breed cocoon producers. The mulberry varieties considered for the study was V-1 and K2. In silkworm PM x CSR2 and CSR2 x CSR4 were considered for the study. The potential yield was obtained from the Central Sericultural research & Training Institute, Mysore. The potential farm yield was collected from the leading farmers where demonstrations under the (PPPBST) project for Promotion of Popularizing Practical Bivoltine Sericulture Technology conducted by the (JICA) Japanese International Cooperation Agency. Under irrigated condition the potential yield of V-1 variety is 65 MT/ha/year. The potential farm yield was MTt/ha/year. The average farm yield was MTt/ha/yr. The study revealed that the yield gap I for V-1 mulberry variety was to the extent of 23.92% while at gap II level, it was 18.31%. The total yield gap was observed to be around %. The index of potential yield realization was %. The yield gap I exists as a result of differential environment factors prevailing in the research station that could not be replicated at demonstration field under farmers condition. However, the yield gap II could be narrowed down as the farmers move from traditional practices to of new technologies. The potential yield for K2 at the research station is estimated to be 35 MT per hectare/year while the demonstration site, the potential farm yield was reported to be MT. It is estimated that the average farm yield was MT. The yield gap I is calculated to be 7.23%. The yield gap II was calculated to be 12.38%. The total yield gap was estimated at 18.71%. The index of potential yield realization was to the extent of 92.77%. The potential yield of bivoltine (CSR2 x CSR4) is 80 kg and 70 kg for cross breed (PM x CSR2). The potential farm yield is 70 kg /100 dfls for CSR2XCSR4 and 65 Kg for PM x CSR2. The average farmers yield was kg/100dfls for bivoltine and 37

23 56.336kg/100dfls for cross-breed. The total yield gap of bivoltine was %. The yield gap I for bivoltine was estimated to be 12.50% and 7.14% for cross-breed. The yield gap II for bivoltine was 12.21% and 13.32% for cross breed. The magnitude of potential yield realization for bivoltine was 87.50% and 92.86% for cross breed cocoon production. The study showed that the cross breed rearers had almost achieved near to the potential yield as compared to bivoltine rearers. Bivoltine races are not always preferred by the farmers due to high investment and it needs more care during rearing than that of cross-breed races. In terms of yield there is not much difference between bivoltine and cross-bred races, however cocoon price makes all the difference to prefer bivoltine races by the farmers in the study region. The factors contributing to production of V-1 mulberry leaf revealed that irrigation, chemical fertilizer and experience of farmers in mulberry cultivation were positive and significant in increasing the production of V-1 mulberry yield. It is further observed that the human labour and farm yard manure coefficients were negative but significant. It was reported during the field investigation that most of the sample farmers used excess of quantity of farmyard manure and engaged more family labour than the recommended level. The R 2 value indicates that 73% of the variation was captured from the variables included in the model. In the study to find out the factors contributing to production of bivoltine cocoon it was revealed that family labour, quantity of mulberry leaf fed, separate rearing house with required rearing equipments and number of dfls brushed were significant and positive. The only factor disinfectant was negatively associated with the production of bivoltine cocoon as most of the farmers did not know the proper use of disinfectants in rearing of silkworm. The R 2 value indicates that 93% of the variation was captured from the variables included in the model. Anil Kumar Yadav (2008) indicated that the yield gap I was the gap between experiment stations and the potential farm yield as obtained by an efficient farmer or in demonstration plots as the conditions in experiment station cannot be duplicated on farmers fields. The yield gap called Gap-II mostly arises because farmers use inputs or 38

24 practices other than optimal, resulting in lower yields. This non-optimal use of improved practices may be due to inefficient or inadequate extension activities, besides other physical or socio-economic factors affecting the farming community in the area. It is this gap that is the focus of this study. Raveendra mattigatti et al., (2009) reported that a wider total yield gap was observed in four sample districts in Karnataka in mulberry (V-1)leaf production (47.46 %) compared to silkworm rearing (mainly Multivoltine hybrid ) and cocoon production (14.46%). In the case of mulberry yield gap-i was higher (33.40%) compared to yield gap-ii (9.92%) and yield gap-iii (12.42%). Thus, yield gap in mulberry is mainly due to variation in climatic factors and water resources. Yield gap in silkworm rearing which is the crucial part of sericulture is mainly due to uncertain factors (9.24%) indicating that silkworm are sensitive to environmental factors. Hengsdijk and Langeveld (2009) reported that five interacting production constraints such as sub-optimal availability of water, nutrients, crop protection, labour/mechanization and knowledge were recognized by the FAO expert for yield gap analysis. The results for maize suggests that in the advanced economies (N-America and W&N Europe) a relatively larger part of the yield gap is explained by suboptimal knowledge systems compared to other areas where physical production constraints are relatively more important such as the water availability in Middle & South America Socio-economic factors and their relationship with knowledge, adoption, cocoon yield and income The socio-economic, personal, communication and psychological characters of the farmers have a sound relationship with the knowledge and adoption of technologies. Socio-economic conditions of farmers are the most cited factors influencing technology adoption Feder et al., (1985). The review of literature carried out on the socio economic characteristics of the farmers and their relationship with the knowledge, adoption of technologies, cocoon yield and income are given below: Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) indicated that scientific orientation is the forerunner of farmers Innovativeness. 39