BASIC AGRICULTURE. NSQF Level 2. Student Handbook CLASS

Transcription

1 BASIC AGRICULTURE Student Handbook NSQF Leve 2 CLASS X

2 Basic Agricuture Student Handbook, Cass X Price: ` First Edition: Copies: Paper Used: 80 Gsm CBSE Water Mark White Mapitho This book or part thereof may not be reproduced by any person or agency in any manner. Pubished By : Designed & Layout by : Printed By : The Secretary, Centra Board of Secondary Education, Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Dehi India Offset Press, A-1, Mayapuri Ind. Area, Ph-I, N.D M/s.

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5 Preface Agricuture is the backbone of Indian economy, as we are growing hundreds of cereas, puses, oi seeds, fruits and vegetabes. In addition, rearing of mich animas, fishes, honeybees and sik worms has become an integra part of our economy. By virtue of hard work of the Agricutura Scientists and farmers, we have attained green revoution, white revoution, brown revoution and goden revoution. Now, we are taking of rainbow revoution and it is hoped that we are approaching towards it with great sincerity and the day is not far when we wi achieve it. Now, mushroom growing, honeybee rearing (Apicuture), sericuture, aquacuture, dairying, piggery, ornamenta fish cuture, processing of fruits and vegetabes are few important areas where our poicy makers and panners are giving utmost attention. Therefore, our students shoud have some preiminary knowedge on these aspects. Considering the importance of Agricuture, CBSE has introduced some preiminary courses entited Basic Agricuture for cass X students under NSQF. So that students coud understand something about Agricuture at entry eve. This course has been introduced with the foowing objectives: u To create awareness about cereas, puses, oiseed crops, important fruits, vegetabes and fowers. u To create awareness about various breeds of animas, poutry, fushes and their importance. u To impart knowedge about package of practices for growing various crops. u u u To impart basic knowedge on major insect-pests and diseases of various crops, animas and measures to protect them by various means. To create awareness about post-harvest management, vaue addition and its importance in our daiy ife. To provide basis knowedge on entrepreneurship ski in different Agri-Business. I am fuy confident that after getting basic knowedge, students wi get severa ideas and opportunities which Agricuture can offer them in their future ife. They can aso think of joining this sector in their future ife and can deveop themseves as successfu entrepreneurs in severa such areas. It is hoped that this book wi be an asset for the students. Chairman, CBSE

6 Acknowedgements Advisors Sh. R.K. Chaturvedi, IAS, Chairman, CBSE Sh. K.K. Choudhury, Controer of Examinations, CBSE Convener r. R.R. Sharma, Principa Scientist (Hort.), Division of Food Science and D Postharvest Technoogy, IARI, New Dehi Contributors Dr. R.R. Sharma, Principa Scientist, Division of (Hort.), Division of Food Science and Postharvest Technoogy, IARI, New Dehi Dr. B.S. Tomar, Principa Scientist, Seed Production Unit, IARI, New Dehi Dr. Shruti Sethi, Senior Scientist, Division of Food Science and Postharvest Technoogy, IARI, New Dehi Dr. Ani Kumar Chaudhary, Senior Scientist, Division of Agronomy, IARI, New Dehi Co-ordination Dr. Biswajit Saha, Additiona Director, (V.E.), CBSE

7 Contents Chapter-1 Agricutura Production and Management Chapter-2 Production and Management of Horticutura Crops Chapter Anima Husbandry and Dairying Chapter-4 Post Production Handing, Packaging and Processing of Anima Products Chapter-5 Seed Production and Nursery Management Chapter-6 Entrepreneuria Ski Deveopment vii

8 Learning Outcomes Unit Code: 01 Unit Tite: Agricutura Production and Management Location: Cassroom, aboratory and fied Learning Outcome Understanding about our major foodgrain crops incuding cereas, oiseeds, puses and commercia crops. Knowedge Evauation Gain a science-based overview of agricuture and food systems. What are major agricutura crops of India and their cassification? What are major crop production seasons in India? What are major Kharif season crops of India? What are their soi and cimate requirements? What are major Rabi season crops of India? What are their soi and cimate requirements? What are major Zaid season crops of India? What are their soi and cimate requirements? What are major crops and cropping systems of India? What are their major varieties and soi and cimate requirements? viii Performance Evauation Enist the major states producing cerea, puse, oiseed and other commercia crops. Enist soi and cimate requirements of different crops. Teaching and Training Methods Interactive ecture: Different crop management practices of agricutura crops. Activity: Demonstrate major crop management practices in fied crops. Demonstrate appication of various herbicides, fungicides and pesticides in some seected crops. Visit some viage nearby to schoo premises. Aso interact with farmers and earn about crop production practices. Enist seed rates and fertiizer requirements of various fied crops. Enist major weeds, diseases, insect-pests of crops. Enist major crops and cropping systems in India and their important varieties. Interactive ecture: Different cutura requirements of cerea, puse, oiseed and other commercia crops grown in India.

9 BASIC AGRICULTURE Enrich themseves about production technoogy of major food crops of India. What are major cerea crops of India? What are their major cutura practices? What are major puse crops of India? What are their major cutura practices? What are major oiseed crops? What are their major cutura practices? What are commercia crops? What are their cutura hints? What is the recommended crop production technoogy for major crops of India? What is the recommended crop production technoogy for major cereas of India? What is the recommended crop production technoogy for major puses of India? What is the recommended crop production technoogy for major oiseeds of India? What is the recommended crop production technoogy for major commercia crops of India? ix Enist major puses of India and their major probems. Enist major oiseed crops of India and their major cutura practices. Activity: Enist major commercia crops and their major cutura practices. Enist sugar producing crops. Enist major crop management practices of various agricutura crops. Tabuate fertiizer management technoogy of major agricutura crops. Demonstrate pudding and transpanting operation in rice. Demonstrate top dressing of N fertiizers in agricutura crops. Demonstrate seed treatment operations in crops. Demonstrate herbicide appication methods in crops. Identification of major weeds, diseases and pests. Pan a visit to some viage and interact with farmers for identification of crops, weeds, pests, diseases and disoders. Aso earn about transpanting of rice seedings. Interactive ecture: Different crop management practices of various agricutura crops. Activity: Interact with farmers of your area and earn crop management practices of various agricutura crops.

10 Disseminate the knowedge about agricutura production and management at househod and viage eve. What are the major production constraints of major agricutura crops of your area/viage and at househod eve? Unit Code:02 Enist crop-wise Interactive ecture: production Enist major constraints of crop production major agricutura constraints, crops of your technoogy area/househod. gaps and ack of Enist the awareness about potentia crop management technoogies for practices tacking these of various constraints. agricutura crops of your area and Prepare the charts at househod on technoogy eve. interventions in reation to above Activity: context in your Interact with area/househod farmers of your eve. area and aso at househod eve and earn about major crop production constraints, technoogy gaps and ack of awareness about crop management practices of various agricutura crops. Unit Tite: Production and Management of Horticutura Crops Location: Cassroom and fied Learning Outcome Cutura hints for growing major fruits grown in India Knowedge Evauation Performance Evauation What are major temperate fruits of India? What are their soi and cimate requirements? What are major tropica fruits? What are their major varieties and insect-pests and diseases? What are major sub-tropica fruits? What are their major probems? x Teaching and Training Methods Enist the major Interactive ecture: states producing Different cutura tropica and subrequirements tropica fruits. of temperate, Enist major tropica and subpropagation tropica fruits. methods of fruits. Demonstrate training in grape and appe. Demonstrate foiar appication of pesticides in some seected fruits.

11 BASIC AGRICULTURE Cutura hints for growing major vegetabes grown in India. What are major Soanaceous vegetabe crops of India? What are their major varieties and soi and cimate requirements? What are major Cucurbitaceous vegetabes of India? What are their major cutura practices? What are major Coe vegetabe crops of India? What are their major cutura practices? What are major eafy vegetabes? What are their major cutura practices? What for peas and beans are known? What are their cutura hints. xi Enist major varieties of fruits. Activity: Enist major insect-pests of fruits. Enist major diseases and disorders of fruits. Enist the major Soanaceous vegetabes grown in India and their important varieties. Enist major Cucurbitaceous vegetabes of India and their major probems. Enist major Coe vegetabe crops of India and their major cutura practices. Enist major eafy vegetabes and their major cutura practices. Enist major beans and their diseases. Visit some orchards of temperate, tropica or subtropica fruits and earn training and pruning etc. Aso interact with gardener and earn propagation techniques of fruits such as budding, grafting, air ayering etc. Interactive ecture: Different cutura requirements of Coe, Soanaceous, Cucurbitaceous, and eafy vegetabes and peas and beans grown in India. Identification of major diseases and pests. Activity: Pan a visit to some vegetabe growing areas and interact with growers for identification of pests, diseases and disoders. Aso earn about transpanting of seedings.

12 Cutivation of major fower crops. Cutivation of spices. What are important fower crops of India and their cutura requirements. What major spices and their cutura requirements? Unit Code: 03 Enist major varieties of rose, tuberose and marigod. Demonstrate pruning in rose. Demonstrate disbudding in fowers. Interactive ecture: Different cutura requirements of fowers ike rose, marigod, tuberose etc. Activity: Interact with gardener of your area and earn budding, pruning, disbudding in roses and other foricutura crops. Enist major spices Interactive ecture: grown in India. Different cutura Enist ateast one requirements of variety of major spices such as spices grown in coriander, back India. pepper, turmeric etc. Enist major probems of seed Activity: spices. Interact with some grower and earn how to pant these crops. Unit Tite: Anima Husbandry and Dairying Location: Cassroom and fied Learning Outcome Nutritiona requirement of ivestock. Knowedge Evauation What are different types of nutrients required by ivestock? What are different factors affecting nutritiona requirement of ivestock? xii Performance Evauation Enist important nutrient required by ivestock. Enist factors affecting nutritiona requirement of farm animas. Teaching and Training Methods Interactive ecture: Study of different nutrients required by ivestock and factors which affect it Activity: Visit some dairy/ goat/sheep/ poutry farm and earn about feed and fodder given to them. Aso note down the nutrients and their compositions of

13 BASIC AGRICULTURE Breeding of ivestock. Product and byproducts of ivestock and their untiization. Major diseases of ivestock and their management. What are different breeding methods of ivestock? What are advantages and disadvantages of inbreeding and outbreeding? What are major byproducts of ivestock? What are major nutrients present in byproducts of meat? How best the byprodcuts are utiized? What are major diseases of ivestock and how these are managed? xiii Describe different methods of breeding of farm animas. feed in the dairy. Aso interact with anima owners/ rearers to earn about water and feeding requirements of cow, buffao, sheep, goat and poutry. Interactive ecture: Study of different breeding methods of ivestock and their advantages and disadvantages. Enist advantages and disadvantages of inbreeding and Activity: outbreeding. Visit some ivestock farm and earn about semen coection for breeding of ivestock. Interactive ecture: Study different byproducts of meat, fish and poutry Enist major industry and nutrients avaiabe their nutritiona in the meat composition. byproducts. Activity: Discuss the utiization of meat Visit some unit/ industry which byproducts. is utiizing the byproducts of meat, fish or poutry industry. Enist major byprodcust of meat industry and poutry. Enist major Interactive ecture diseases of Study of ivestock and symptoms of their management major diseases methods. of cow, catte and poutry and methods to contro them.

14 Unit Code:04 What are major diseases of poutry and how these are managed? What vaccines and what do s and don ts are required in immunization of ivestock? Enist major diseases of poutry and their management methods. Vaccination of ivestock. Activity: Vaccination of ivestock and do s and don ts in vaccination. Pan a visit to dairy/goat/ sheep/poutry farm and observe symptoms of different diseases Aso interact with anima owners/ rearers and earn about the vaccination of ivestock. Unit Tite: Post Production Handing, Packaging and Processing of Anima Products Location: Cassroom, aboratory and fied Learning Outcome Understanding about major food products obtained from animas. Overview of mik and mik products. Knowedge Evauation What are major food products obtained from animas? Performance Evauation Importance of foods of anima origin. What is mik? Why is it termed as a compete food? What are the factors that govern the cassification of different types of mik? xiv Enist the major products obtained from animas. Nutritiona importance of anima foods. Enist various animas from where mik can be procured. Give the cassification of mik. Teaching and Training Methods Interactive ecture Foods obtained from anima sources. Activity: Visit a market and find out the various foods avaiabe of anima origin. Find out the preferences of individuas for these foods. Interactive ecture: Cassification of mik. Processes invoved in iquid mik handing. Major processed dairy products.

15 BASIC AGRICULTURE Technica know how of the processing steps invoved for deveoping various dairy products. How is iquid mik processed? What are the major mik products? What are basic steps of cheese manufacture? How is ice cream made? Discuss the steps invoved in mik powder manufacture. Which are the indigenous dairy products? What is paneer and how is it made? How are dahi and shrikhand made? What are the steps invoved in butter and ghee manufacture? How do you cassify khoa? xv Enist the major steps invoved in mik handing. Activity: Give different ways of therma processing of mik. Enist the major mik products. Define cheese and ice cream. Enist the major steps invoved in manufacture of cheese. Give a fowsheet for the ice cream manufacture. Give detais of mik powder manufacture. Describe the technoogy of paneer manufacture. Differentiate between sweet and sour dahi. Describe the BIS standards for these products. Enumerate the steps invoved in butter and ghee manufacture. Cassify khoa on basis of its usage. Pan a visit to a mik coection centre at the viage eve. Observe the mode of transportation of the mik to the processing pant and observe the various unit operations invoved in mik handing. Interactive ecture: Deveopment of different mik products. Activity: Pan a visit to a mik processing pant and observe the scheme of operations invoved for deveopment of various dairy products.

16 Understanding the processing technoogy for meat and meat products. Unit Code: 05 What is the importance of meat in the diet? What are the steps invoved in chicken production? What is mutton? Discuss the steps invoved in its manufacture. Highight the significance of meat in the diet. Enist the steps invoved in chicken production. Draw a fowsheet for the manufacture of mutton. Interactive ecture: Importance of meat and the major meat products avaiabe. Activity: Visit a meat processing pant and observe the various unit operations invoved in its manufacture. Unit Tite: Seed Production and Nursery Management Location: Cassroom and fied Learning Outcome Quaity seed. Knowedge Evauation Fower bioogy. What is seed? Quaity seed and its roe in agricuture. What is the difference between seed and grain. Wheat are the part of fower, types of fower and poination. xvi Performance Evauation Defined the seed. Attributes of quaity seed and major roe of quaity seed in agricuture. Different aspect of seed wi be compared with grain. Part of the fower, perfect or imperfect fower. Definition of poination and types of poination. Teaching and Training Methods Different definition of seeds. Expanation of various attributes of quaity seed and importance of quaity seed in different situations. Discussion on vitaity, purity, objectivity and treatment etc. Different part of the fower wi be demonstrated. Poination and its different types with suitabe exampe wi be discuss. Activity: Visit of fowering pants in garden and fieds to demonstrate the attributes of the fowers.

17 BASIC AGRICULTURE Mechanism favored sef and cross poination. Stage of seed mutipication. What are the different mechanism favored sef poination? What are the different mechanism favored cross poination? Different stage of seed mutipication. Different mechanism responsibe for sef poination with exampe. Different mechanism responsibe for cross poinate with exampe. Mutipication and tag of different stage of seed. Interactive ecture: Different mechanism favored sef and cross poination wi be expained with appropriate exampe. Activity: Pan a visit to some crop growing area. Interactive ecture: Different stage of seed mutipication in practice sha be discussed with the responsibiity of production and coour/size tag etc. Activity: Requirement quaity seed production. Different steps invoved in seed production and quaity contro. Enist major steps in seed production. Interactive ecture: Enist methods of drying. Seed testing. Rearing of honeybees. What are major types & castes of honeybees and which is best suited for domestication? xvii Enist major species & castes of bees. Enist major items required for bee rearing. Various steps invoved in quaity seed production under fied condition wi be discussed. Activity: Pan a visit of seed production farmer or seed processing unit. Pan a visit of seed testing aboratory Different types & castes of honeybees and materia required for rearing of honeybees.

18 Unit Code: 06 Unit Tite: Entrepreneuria Ski Deveopment Location: Cassroom and fied Learning Outcome Knowedge Evauation Rearing of ac insects. Rearing of sik worms. Rearing of fishes. What are the major requirements for apicuture? What are major ac insects and host pant for their rearing? What are the major ac products? What are major host pants for sikworm rearing? What are the major steps for sik worm rearing? What are major fishes seected for piscicuture? What are important points to be considered for piscicuture? xviii Performance Evauation Demonstrate extraction of honey from beehive. Teaching and Training Methods Activity: Visit some Apicuture unit and earn about extraction of honey from a beehive. Enist major ac Different species insects and their and host pants host pant used for for ac insect. ac cuture. Activity: Enist major ac If possibe products? arrange visit for Demonstrate extraction of ac from ac-infected twig. some ac cuture unit and earn about extraction of ac. Demonstrate extraction of sik from sikworm cocoon. the how worms eat and make cocoons which are at ast used for extraction sik. Enist sik worms Different steps of and host pants for sericuture. sericuture. Activity: Enist steps Arrange a visit invoved in sik of sericuture worm rearing. farm and earn Enist major fish species used in piscicuture. Enist major points considered during piscicuture. Different requirements for piscicuture. Different points to be remembered for pisicucture. Activity: Pan a visit to a pisicicuture unit and earn about feeding, ceaniness, egg aying etc.

19 BASIC AGRICULTURE Growing of mushrooms. Importance of biogas & biofertiizers. Vaue addition in horticutura produce What are different types of mushrooms and their cutivation requirements. What are different methods of preservation of mushrooms. What are major advantages of using biogas. What is the importance of biofertiizers & their different types. What are different vaue products of horticutura produce and how they differ from each other. xix Enist major species of mushrooms grown in India. Enist major methods of preservation of mushrooms. Demonstrate preparation of compost and sowing of mushroom seed. Enist major advantages of using biogas. Enist different types/sources of biofertiizers. Enist different vaue added products which can be made from different produced from different fruits & vegetabes. Differentiate between jam and jey, preserve and candy; and gazed fruit and crystaized fruit. Demonstrate making of jam in the cass. Different steps for growing mushrooms. Activity: Pan a visit to a mushroom growing unit and earn the process of compost making and sowing seeds of mushrooms. Different microbes used in making biofertiizers. Activity: Take the students to an institute which makes biofertiizers and try to earn the process of using microbes for making biofertiizers. Activity: Go to market and make a ist of vaue added products seen there. Activity: Go to a processing unit and earn to make jam, jey, preserve, candy, picke and suace etc.

20 Terrarium and ornamenta fish farming What are different components of a terrarium? What are advantages of ornamenta fish farming? xx Enist the components of terrarium. Activity: Pan a visit to garden where terrarium is avaiabe and earn how to make it. Enist major countries of word and cities of India where ornamenta fish farming is Activity: an emerging Go to Aquarium enterprise. where ornamenta fishes are avaiabe. Make a ist of ornamenta fishes avaiabe there and the basic requirements for their farming.

21 BASIC AGRICULTURE CHAPTER 1 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT Learning objectives After reading this chapter, students wi be abe to: Understand about major food grain crops incuding cereas, oiseeds and puses as we as fodder and commercia crops. Gain a science-based overview of agricuture and food systems. Enrich themseves about production technoogy of major food crops of India. Disseminate the knowedge about agricutura production and management at househod and viage eve. Contribute in agricutura production at househod and community eve. Introduction Agricutura production and management emphasizes the appication of the principes of science and management to agricutura production operations. Agricutura production and management invoves the combination of and, water, abour, and other inputs such as seeds, nutrients, pesticides, and machinery in the production of food and fiber crops. Agricutura production and management deas with how the farmers combine and, water, farm inputs, abour, and their management skis into practices to produce agricutura crops. During post green revoution era, India has become sef-sufficient in food-grain production when considerabe advances in crop improvement and crop production were made by the agricutura scientists. In the nutshe, agricutura production and management has a vita roe in food production, farm income enhancement, food security, nutritiona security poverty aeviation, rura empoyment and sustainabe agricuture in the deveoping word. Crop Production Practices Crop production practices are of utmost importance for successfu and economic cutivation of fied crops and nationa food security at arge. Current agricuture direy needs scientific and rationa crop production practices to enhance farm productivity with ong-term sustainabiity. Crop production practices can be divided into various categories that farmers make to produce food, fodder and fiber, etc. The major ones are: Soi and crop management: It deas with deciding what crops and varieties to grow and in what sequence to utiize the soi s productive capacity, and what tiage, cutivation, and soi conservation measures to undertake to physicay ti and preserve the soi and conserve moisture in a particuar agro-ecoogy. 1

22 Nutrient management: It deas with determining the additiona nutrients the soi needs for crop growth, and appying agricutura resources, anima manure, compost, or commercia fertiizers in appropriate forms, amounts, and ways that foster crop yieds and farm profitabiity, whie reducing nutrient oss to the environment. Water management: It deas with determining the water needed for crop growth and appying that water efficienty, considering water avaiabiity, drainage, and offsite water quantity/quaity impacts. Weed management: It deas with determining the weed threats to crop growth, yied, and quaity and the management practices to contro them in fied crops. Pest management: It deas with determining insect-pest and disease threats to crop growth, yied, and quaity and the preventive or remedia measures to contro them besides keeping the food and environmenta safety. Crop Production Seasons Primariy, there are three crop production seasons in India viz. Kharif, Rabi and Zaid. Kharif season crops: The Kharif crop is the summer crop or monsoon crop in India. Kharif crops are usuay sown with the beginning of the first rains in June-Juy, during the south-west monsoon season. Major Kharif crops of India incude: rice, maize, sorghum, mungbean, groundnut, cotton, soybean, etc. Rabi season crops: The Rabi crop is the winter season crop in India. It is sown in October-November and harvested in March-Apri every year. Major Rabi crops in India incude: wheat, barey, oats, mustard, peas, etc. Zaid season crops: This crop is grown in some parts of the country during March to June. Major Zaid crops in India incude: frenchbean, muskmeon, watermeon, bittergourd, pumpkin, ridgegourd, etc. Cassification of Agricutura Crops The broader cassification of the agricutura crops on the basis of their economica use is described as under: Cerea crops: Rice, wheat, maize, sorghum. Oiseed crops: Soybean, rapeseed & mustard, groundnut, sunfower, sesame, saffower, etc. Puse crops: Pigeonpea, urdbean, mungbean, kidneybean, cowpea, chickpea, enti, pea, etc. Fodder crops: Berseem, red cover, ucerne, etc. 2

23 BASIC AGRICULTURE Fibre crops: Cotton, jute, mesta, etc. Commercia crops: Sugarcane, tea, coffee, etc. Production and Management of Cerea Crops Cereas crops are members of the grass famiy and refer to crops which are harvested for dry grains ony For exampe, rice, wheat, maize and sorghum. Among these cereas, rice, wheat, maize are the major cerea crops of India. Cereas are high in carbohydrates and protein aong with traces of mineras and vitamins. The agricutura production and management of three major cerea crops viz. rice, maize and wheat is described as under: RICE Rice (Oryza sativa) is the stape food for more than 3 biion peope in the word. Gobay, rice is grown in more than 100 countries, with an area of 154 miion ha and production around 600 miion tonnes and productivity is 3.9 tonnes/ha. Among the rice growing countries (Fig. 1), India has the argest area under rice in the word. In respect of production, however, India takes second position with miion tonnes of coarse rice. In India, rice is cutivated on 44.6 miion ha area with a production of 132 tonnes and average productivity of 2.97 tonnes/ha. It is grown in amost a the states in India, with Uttar Pradesh, West Benga and Punjab being eading states in area, production and productivity, respectivey (Fig. 2). Punjab has the highest productivity of rice among a the states. Around 90% of the rice in the Word is grown in Asia. Rice provides about 29.4% of tota caories/capita/day in Asian countries. Mied rice contains usuay 6-7% protein. The fat content in rice is ow ( %) and much of fat is ost during miing. Fig. 1. Goba rice growing areas. Fig. 2. Major rice growing states of India Cimatic and Soi Requirements Rice cutivation extends from sea eve to as high as 3000 m above mean sea eve (ams) in India. High temperature, high humidity and high rainfa have considerabe effect on growth and deveopment of rice pant. Rice crop is grown during Kharif season in 3

24 north-western pains zone, but in south and north-eastern parts of the country, it is grown in a the three seasons, as these areas do not have very cod weather during winter. Rice crop needs a hot and humid cimate. It is essentiay a C3 pant. The wide range of agro-cimatic conditions suggests an equay wide variety of sois. As regards texture, rice is grown on oamy sands in Punjab to heavy cay oams or cays in Andhra Pradesh and some other states. Sois having good water hoding capacity with good amount of cay and organic matter are idea for pudded rice. Rice Eco-systems in India Rice farming is practiced in severa agro-ecoogica zones in India. No other country in the word has such diversity in rice ecosystems than India. Rice cutivation in India is done in four distinct types of ecosystems: Irrigated rice eco-system Rainfed upand rice eco-system Rainfed owand rice eco-system Food prone rice eco-system A view of rice based cropping systems in India Rice cropping pattern in India vary widey from region to region and to a esser extent from one year to another year depending on a wide range of soi and cimatic conditions. Some of the rice based cropping patterns being foowed in the country are: Rice-wheat, rice -wheat-mungbean, rice-toria-wheat, rice-toria/chickpea, rice-wheat/ barey/potato, rice -potato-backgram, rice -pea-greengram and rice-rice-rice Recommended Varieties A good number of rice varieties/hybrids having resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses and grain quaity have been deveoped in India (Tabe 1). Some of the improved cutivars of rice are described as under: 4

25 BASIC AGRICULTURE Tabe 1. Important rice cutivars recommended for different states. Cutivar type Rice cutivars Hybrids APHR 1, DRRH-3, PA 6201, Pusa RH 10, HRI 120, Sahyadri-2, UPRH 27, Rajaaxmi, Pant Sankar Dhan 1, Pant Sugandh Dhan-17, PHB 71 Other improved varieties Mahamaya, GK 5003, Pusa 33, Pusa 169, Mehsuri, JKRH-401, Gurjari, GR-6, Dandi, HKR-127, Bhrigu Dhan, Himaaya 2216, SKAU 23, SKAU 27, GK 5003, Gauri, Sweta, Ratnagiri 24, Rajeshwari, PR 108, PR 109, PMK 2, Pant Dhan 10, Pant Dhan 11, VL Dhan 221, IR 20, Jayanthi Basmati / Basmati 370, Pusa Basmati 1, Taraori Basmati (Karna oca), Pusa scented varieties Sugandh 3, Pusa Sugandh 4, Pusa Sugandh 6, PRH 10, Pant Dhan 15, Punjab Basmati-1, Pusa Basmati 1121, Pusa Basmati 6, Pusa Basmati 1509 Methods of Cutivation Rice is generay grown under dry or wet cutivation methods, which are briefy described beow: a. Dry cutivation 1. Direct seeded rice Rice is sown directy in dry soi (dry seeding) or wet soi (wet seeding), and irrigation is given to keep the soi sufficienty moist for good pant growth, but the soi is never fooded. Dry system of rice cutivation is foowed in upands. Sowing of rice is usuay done in May-June in the case of the crop dependent on south-west monsoon and in September for the crop dependent on north-east monsoon. Three methods are commony foowed in sowing dry and semi-dry crop. These are broadcasting, driing or sowing in furrows behind country pough, and dibbing in genera, a seed rate of kg ha-1 is required for driing, whie kg ha-1 is required for broadcasting. A row spacing of cm is optimum for upand rice. There are mainy two methods of direct seeding. 2. Dry seeding: In dry seeding, seed is directy sown in dry soi either by seed dri or broadcasting of un-sprouted seed in we prepared and eveed dry soi. Wet seeding: In wet seeding, seed is directy sown in pudded soi either by drum seeder or broadcasting of sprouted seed in wet soi. Aerobic rice It is a high-yieding rice, grown in non-pudded, aerobic sois under irrigation and high externa inputs. Irrigation is appied when the soi becomes dry, and the quantity of 5

26 appied water is sufficient to bring the soi to fied capacity. The reaization of water savings combined with high yieds depends on good water management. Dry seeding of rice can be done by driing the seed into a fine seedbed at a depth of 2 3 cm. Weed management is a critica factor in aerobic rice. Timey appication of herbicides and two or three hand-weeding may provide effective contro. Seeding under dry situations is done in three different ways viz. driing, dibbing, and broadcasting. b. Wet cutivation Conventiona rice cutivation The conventiona rice cutivation is a wet system of cutivation and rice is grown under wet season right from the start. In this system, the fied is brought to a soi pudde by repeated poughing with 5-7 cm standing water. After getting the requisite pudde, rice seedings are transpanted or sprouted seeds are direct seeded. The seedings of rice are grown in nursery before transpanting. Transpanting operation Time of panting is the most important factor infuencing the yied of the crop. In genera, timey transpanting of days od seedings in wet season is idea. In genera, 20 cm 10 cm, 20 cm 15 cm or 15 cm 15 cm spacing is idea in transpanted rice. For reaizing the yied potentia of high yieding varieties of rice, 2-3 seedings per hi is generay recommended. In rice hybrids where the tiering is more profuse, 1-2 seedings per hi is sufficient. Depth of transpanting rice seedings is 2-4 cm. System of Rice Intensification (SRI) SRI is an unusua innovation that can raise productivity of and, abour, water, and capita invested in irrigated and rainfed rice production. SRI has evoked considerabe interest among Agronomists over ast decade and posed interesting research issues. SRI may prove as a boon to enhance productivity whie using ess seed and irrigation water than conventiona rice farming. The SRI essentiay comprises the foowing methodoogica components: Shaow (1 2 cm) transpanting of young seedings at the two-eaf stage into a moist seedbed. Transpanting of singe rice seeding at 25 cm 25 cm spacing. A minimum of three hand weedings at 10 12, and days after transpanting. Farmers may use mechanica weeding too caed weeder to remove weeds and aerate soi surface. Aternation of wetting and drying of the fied for soi aeration during vegetative growth. 6

27 BASIC AGRICULTURE Addition of organic manures to suppy adequate nutrients and to improve soi structure. If necessary, chemica fertiizers may be used as a suppement. A view of fied showing system of rice intensification (SRI) Nutrient Management Adequate suppy of a the essentia pant nutrients is a must for getting good yied of rice. A dose kg N/ha is generay recommended for high yieding varieties of rice. A dose of kg P2O5/ha and 40 kg K2O/ ha is generay recommended for rice. Zn deficiency in rice-growing areas of India is widespread. Zinc kg/ ha is generay recommended in zinc-deficient sois. Water Management Rice is the argest consumer of water; about itres water is required to produce 1 kg rice. The principa water oss processes from paddy fieds are via runoff, percoation, seepage and evapotranspiration or consumptive water use. The submergence (2-5 cm) throughout the crop growth period is conducive to higher yieds. Under water scarcity, the practice of intermittent submergence during the critica stages (tiering, fowering) and maintenance of saturation or fied capacity in rest of the growth stages is recommended. Weed Management Hand weeding is most widey used method for controing weeds in rice. Normay two weedings are done. Time of weeding sighty varies in different regions but weedings are generay done within 15 to 45 days after sowing. Weeding with some impements such as hand hoes, weeders and buock drawn desi pough can be done to contro weeds in rice. Use of herbicides is graduay increasing in rice cuture. Herbicides are expensive to sma farmers but not to the arge farmers who face the probem of abour shortage (Tabe 2). 7

28 Tabe 2. Chemica weed management in rice Rice Rice nursery Herbicides Butachor Dose (kg a.i./ha) Appication time and remarks Pre-emergence at 5-6 days after sowing (DAS); If moisture is ess in soi, irrigation shoud be done immediatey. Pendimethain Pre-emergence at 5-6 DAS; If moisture is ess in soi, irrigation shoud be done immediatey. Pretiachor (S) Pre-emergence at 3-5 DAS. Direct-seeded Butachor To be appied before emergence of upand rice crop; One hand weeding at DAS wi suppement herbicide treatment. Pendimethain To be appied before emergence of crop; One hand weeding at DAS wi suppement herbicide treatment. Pretiachor (S) Pre-emergence at 3-5 DAS. Metsufuron Post-emergence at DAS; basicay methy a broad-eaved weed kier and recommended as a substitute of 2,4-D. Direct-seeded Butachor Pre-emergence at 3-5 days after pudded and transpanting (DAT) on saturated transpanted soi; No irrigation or standing water rice impounded for at east 3 days after treatment. Pendimethain Pre-emergence at 3-5 DAT on saturated soi; No irrigation or standing water impounded for at east 3 days after treatment. Pretiachor (S) Pre-emergence at 3-5 DAT. Metsufuron Post-emergence at DAS; methy basicay a broad-eaved weed kier and recommended as a substitute of 2,4-D. Disease Management To overcome the diseases, the seed shoud be disease free. For funga and bacteria diseases, seed shoud be treated with 2g kg-1 seed. Fungicides can be sprayed to contro a diseases (Tabe 3). 8

29 BASIC AGRICULTURE Tabe 3. Symptoms and management of important diseases of rice in India Disease and its causa organism Symptoms Management Leaf and neck bast Initia symptoms on the eaves are white to grayish green circuar esions/spots with dark green borders, which may enarge and coaesce to ki the entire eaves. Lesions on the neck cause the girding of the neck and the panice to fa over. Eary sowing of seeds and baanced use of fertiizers. Panting resistant varieties against the rice bast is the most practica and economica way. Systemic fungicides are effective against the disease. Bacteria eaf bight Water-soaked to yeowish stripes on eaf bades or starting at eaf tips. Severey infected eaves tend to dry quicky. Pest Management Fied sanitation such as removing weed hosts, rice straws, ratoons, and vounteer seedings. Use of resistant varieties. Seed treatment with beaching powder (100µg/m) and zinc sufate (2%) reduce bacteria bight. Most of the rice pests are distributed throughout India, however, ony a few pests are economicay important in different regions. Agronomic practices and use of resistant cutivars shoud be given preference for pest management. The use of seective pesticides shoud aso be stressed for efficient pest management (Tabe 4). Tabe 4. Important insect pest, nature of damage and pest management in rice Insect-pest Nature of damage Management Stem borer Symptoms of stem borer Adopt seeding root dip treatment (yeow) damage are deadhearts and in 0.05% chorpyriphos emusion whiteheads. Whiteheads are for one minute before transpanting discoored panices with empty in endemic areas. or partiay fied grains. Larvae Appy carbofuran 20 kg ha-1 feed on the tissues around the or phorate kg ha-1 or node. fenitrothion 0.1%. 9

30 Leaf foder Caterpiars fod a rice eaf Use cutura practices ike crop around them and attach the rotations, reduced panting density eaf margins together with sik and baanced nutrition. strands. Foded eaves restrict photosynthesis. Harvesting, Threshing and Yied The pant shoud be cut cose to the ground at ripening and eft for drying. Threshing can be accompished by manua methods, peda threshers or power driven stationary threshers. Combine machines can be empoyed for combined harvesting and threshing. The produce shoud be propery sun-dried. The optimum moisture content for storage of rice grains is 12%. A we managed crop of mid-ate duration ( days) varieties and hybrids yied about 6 7 t/ha, whereas short duration cutivars yied about t/ha. WHEAT Wheat (Triticum aestivum) is the main Rabi cerea crop in India. The tota area under the crop is about 29.8 miion ha in the country. The production of wheat in the country has increased to an a time record high of miion MT in The productivity of wheat is 3140 kg/ha in Cimatic and Soi Requirements Wheat is grown over a wide range of atitudes ranging between 60oN and 60oS and atitudes ranging from sea eve to 3500 m ams in the tropics and subtropics. Normay, the most idea conditions for wheat cutivation are coo and moist weather during the vegetative growth period and warm and dry weather during grain formation. The optimum temperature for the germination of wheat is between 20-22oC, though wheat grain can aso germinate at 4oC. The optimum temperature for vegetative growth ranges from 16 to 22oC. During the grain deveopment, wheat requires a mean maximum temperature of about 25oC for at east four to five weeks. Wheat grows we in those areas where annua rainfa ranges between 250 and 1800 mm. Wheat crop aso cannot withstand extended periods of soi moisture stress. Rainfed wheat requires a minimum eveny distributed winter rainfa of 15 to 20 cm. Wheat is grown on a wide variety of sois. Major Cutivated Species of Wheat Common wheat or bread wheat (T. aestivum): A hexapoid species that is the most widey cutivated in the word. Durum wheat (T. durum): The tetrapoid form of wheat and the second most widey cutivated wheat today. 10

31 BASIC AGRICULTURE Major Wheat Producing Areas of India PA K T IS A CHINA TIBET N NE PA L BHUTAN BANGLADESH MYANMAR Arabian Sea Bay of Benga Major Areas Other Areas Andaman & Nicobar Isands Lakshadweep SRI LANKA km km Seed and Sowing Under irrigated timey sown condition, wheat sowing may be done in the first fortnight of November in north India and the midde of November in north-east and centra India. Under ate sown conditions, the wheat is sown in first fortnight of December. Rainfed wheat is generay sown from second fortnight of October to eary-november to get maximum benefit from residua soi moisture. Seeds can be sown through broadcasting or in ines in rows 20 cm apart. Under norma conditions, a seed rate of 100 kg/ha is sufficient. Under ate sown conditions, seed rate shoud be increased by 25 per cent. Irrigated wheat is spaced 22.5 cm between rows and 8-10 cm between pants. Rainfed wheat is spaced cm between rows and 5-6 cm between pants. Seed depth shoud be around 5 cm. A wheat fied 11

32 Nutrient Management The genera N+P2O5+K2O recommendations for irrigated and rainfed wheat are kg/ha and kg/ha, respectivey. Fu dose of phosphorus and potassium and haf of nitrogen shoud be appied at the time of sowing, whie remaining haf dose shoud be top dressed in two equa spits one at first irrigation and other at fowering stage. Farmyard manure (FYM) or organic 10 t/ha at the time of sowing is beneficia for ong-term fertiity maintenance. Water Management Wheat requires about cm of irrigation water (4-6 irrigations), depending upon cimatic factors, soi characteristics and the duration of the variety. If irrigation water is a constraint, then appy irrigation at critica stages (Tabe 5). Tabe 5. Number of irrigations based on the avaiabiity of water. No of irrigations Critica stages for irrigation 1 CRI 3 CRI + B + M CRI + LJ CRI + LT + F + M CRI + LT + LJ + F + M CRI + LT + LJ + F + M + D CRI Crown root initiation (21 DAS), LT Late tiering (42 DAS), LJ Late jointing (60 DAS), F Fowering (80 DAS), M Mik (95 DAS), D Dough (115 DAS). Weed Management The critica period of weed competition in wheat is days after sowing (DAS). Hand weeding with a khurpi or hand hoe after DAS is used as conventiona practice. A pre-emergence appication of pendimethain (Stomp 30 1 kg a.i./ha in L/ha of water within 3 DAS provides a broad spectrum contro of weeds in wheat. However, post-emergence appication (25-30 DAS) of herbicides ike 25 g/ha or fenaxaprop-p g/ha is necessary for effective weed contro. Disease Management Rusts: Wheat is infected by brown, yeow and back rusts. Brown or eaf rust is caused by a fungus known as Puccinia recondite tritici. Yeow or stripe rust is caused by the fungus, Puccinia striiformis. Back or stem rust of wheat is caused by the fungus Puccinia 12

33 BASIC AGRICULTURE graminis tritici. For controing rusts, treat the seed with Trichoderma 4 g/kg seed. Late sown crop is more susceptibe to rust. Hence avoid ate sowing of wheat. High nitrogen dose favours rust infection, whereas high potash dose reduces rust infection. Hence there is need for baanced fertiization. Spray the crop with propiconazoe (Tit % at yeow rust initiation. This spray wi aso hep in the contro of powdery midew and Karna bunt diseases. Second and third spray may be repeated with an interva of days. Yeow rust Loose smut Karna bunt Loose smut: Loose smut is caused by fungus Ustiago nuda tritici. Termina symptom of oose smut is the production of back powder in pace of wheat grains in the ears. As the ear formation starts, fungus accumuates in the fora parts, which are competey destroyed due to formation of the back powder. Loose smut can be controed by growing oose smut resistant varieties. Seed treatment shoud be done with carboxin (Vitavax g/kg seed. Uproot the infected pants, bury them underground or burn to avoid further fied infection. Karna bunt: Karna bunt or partia bunt is caused by fungus Neovossia indica. A portion of infected grain aong its groove is converted into a back powdery mass. The back powder gives a fou sme due to presence of trimethyamine. Do not grow highy susceptibe wheat varieties. One spray of propiconazoe (25 0.1% at ear head emergence stage can be given to attain near compete contro. Pest Management Termites: The damaged pants dry up competey and can be easiy pued out. Infestation is heavy under unirrigated conditions and in the fieds where undecomposed FYM is appied before sowing. Termites can be controed by seed treatment with fiproni (Regent 0.3 g a.i./kg seed). Harvesting, Threshing and Yied The most suitabe stage for harvesting wheat is when pants are compety dry and the grains becomes hard and contain 20-25% moisture. Wheat crop harvested manuay or by reapers, is dried for 3-4 days on the threshing foor and then threshing is done by threshers. A we managed crop may yied about 3.5 to 4.5 t grains/ha. 13

34 MAIZE Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most versatie emerging crops having wider adaptabiity under varied agro-cimatic conditions. It is the ony grain crop with many types and grown for diverse purposes ike norma yeow/white grain, sweet corn, baby corn, popcorn, quaity protein maize (QPM), waxy corn, high amyase corn, high oi corn, fodder maize etc. Gobay, maize is known as queen of cereas because it has the highest genetic yied potentia among the cereas. In India, maize is the third most important food crops after rice and wheat. According to atest data of , it is cutivated in 8.78 m ha mainy during Kharif season which covers 80% area. Predominant maize growing states coectivey contributing to more than 80% of tota nationa maize production are Andhra Pradesh (20.9%), Karnataka (16.5%), Rajasthan (9.9%), Maharashtra (9.1%), Bihar (8.9%), Uttar Pradesh (6.1%), Madhya Pradesh (5.7%) and Himacha Pradesh (4.4%). A view of maize fied Cimatic and Soi Requirement Maize is grown gobay from 50 N to 40 S, and from sea eve up to 4000 m atitude. Maize crop requires good amount of moisture and can be grown in areas receiving we distributed rainfa of 500 to 1000 mm. It uses water more efficienty and reativey drought resistant from estabishment to tasseing stage of the crop where it can stands with ess moisture. Maize is reativey we adapted to a wide range of sois with ph 5.0 to 8.0. Maize can be grown successfuy in a variety of sois, ranging from oamysand to cay-oam. Being a sensitive crop to excess soi moisture; it is desirabe to have provision of proper drainage in maize. 14

35 BASIC AGRICULTURE Maize Based Cropping Systems in India Maize-wheat is the 3rd most important cropping systems after rice-wheat and rice-rice that contributes about 3% in the nationa food basket. The other major maize systems in India are maize-mustard, maize-chickpea, maize-maize, cotton-maize etc. Time of Sowing Maize can be grown in a seasons viz; Kharif (monsoon), post monsoon, Rabi (winter) and spring. The optimum time of sowing are given beow: Season Kharif Rabi Spring Optimum time of sowing Last week of June to first fortnight Juy Last week of October for inter cropping and up to 15th of November for soe crop First week of February Seed Rate and Pant Geometry The seed rate depends on purpose, seed size, pant type, season, sowing methods etc. The foowing crop geometry and seed rate shoud be adopted. S. No Purpose Seed rate (kg/ha) Norma grain maize Quaity protein maize (QPM) Sweet corn Pop corn Green cob (norma maize) Fodder maize Tiage and Crop Estabishment Pant geometry (pant row in cm) Generay, the raised bed panting is considered as best panting method for maize during monsoon and winter seasons both under excess moisture as we as imited water avaiabiity/rainfed conditions. Maize can aso be successfuy grown without any primary tiage under no-ti situation with ess cost of cutivation, higher farm profitabiity and better resource use efficiency. Nutrient Management Appication of t FYM/ha aongwith NPK kg N, kg P2O5, kg K2O and 25 kg ZnSO4 /ha is recommended in genera for getting higher yied of HYV/hybrid maize. Fu dose of P & K and haf of N shoud be appied at the time of sowing, whie remaining haf N dose shoud be top dressed in two equa spits one dose at around knee high stage and other dose at tasseing stage of the crop keeping in view moisture avaiabiity in the fied. 15

36 Water Management The irrigation water management depends on season as about 80% of maize is cutivated during monsoon season particuary under rainfed conditions. In genera, the irrigation shoud be appied in furrows up to 2/3rd height of the ridges/beds. Young seeding, knee high stage, fowering and grain fiing are the most sensitive stages for water stress and hence irrigation shoud ensured at these stages. Weed Management Weeds are serious probem in maize particuary during Kharif season and they cause upto 35% yied osses. Thus, timey weed management is must to achieve higher yieds. Pre-emergence appication of atrazine (Atratraf kg a.i./ha in 600 L water or pendimethain (Stomp kg a.i./ in L is effective way for weed contro. One-to-two hoeing are recommended for aeration and uprooting of the remaining weeds, if any. Disease Management The major diseases of maize and their management practices are described beow: Turcicum eaf bight: The disease is prevaent in cooer conditions or with high humidity. Long, eiptica, grayish-green or tan esions ( cm) appear on ower eaves progressing upward. Resistant varieties aongwith need-based sprays of 2.5 g/l (with 0.05%) at 8-10 days interva decreases its incidence. Maydis eaf bight: It is a major disease in the areas having warm humid temperate to tropica cimate. Lesions on the eaves eongated between the veins, tan with buff to brown or dark reddish brown borders. Growing of resistant varieties with need based sprays of mancozeb or 2.5g/L of water are recommended to contro this disease. Turcicum eaf bight Maydis eaf bight Pest Management Stem Borer: Major pest of maize in India is stak borer. Its attack occurs during monsoon season. It ays eggs days after germination on ower side of the eaves. The arva of the Chio enters in the whor and cause damage in the eaves. 16

37 BASIC AGRICULTURE Maize stem borer Termites Termites: Termite is aso an important pest in many areas especiay zero-tied maize. For contro of termite, fiproni 20 kg/ha on termite appearance foowed by ight irrigation is the recommended practice. If the termite incidence is in patches, the spot appication of 2-3 granues/pant shoud be done. Harvesting, Threshing and Yied The crop acquires physioogica maturity when back ayer starts forming on the tip of the grains. The crop must be harvested at ess than 22 to 25% moisture in grains with husk coour turning pae brown. The harvesting of the cob is done manuay. After decobbing and threshing, the maize grains must be dried upto 12% moisture eve for safe storage. A we managed maize HYV s and hybrid maize may yied about 4-5 and 5-7 t grains/ha, respectivey. CHICKPEA Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is commony known as gram or benga gram in Engish and Chana in Hindi. It is predominanty grown as a rainfed crop, but irrigated in areas where irrigation faciities are avaiabe. Chickpea is mosty consumed in the form of processed whoe seed or da or as da four (besan). Chickpea is a good source of protein (18-22%), carbohydrate (52-70%), fats (4-10%), mineras (cacium, phosphorus, iron) and vitamins. Chickpea is known to have originated in western Asia (probaby eastern Turkey). Desi types are grown predominanty in Indian sub-continent, East Africa and Austraia. India ranks first in area and production of chickpea at word eve. Chickpea in India occupies 7.89 miion ha area, producing 7.06 miion tonnes and a productivity of 895 kg/ha. The major chickpea producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar and West Benga. 17

38 Different types of chickpeas A view of Chickpea fied Cimatic and Soi Requirements Chickpea is essentiay a subtropica crop; it grows we in a wide range of cimates. Chickpea is grown between 10oN to 32oN atitude in the country in the winter season. This crop with deep rooted system can be grown on residua soi moisture in areas with mm annua rainfa. Heavy rains at germination and fowering are detrimenta to the crop. Chickpea is a ong day pant requiring hrs bright sunshine per day. Chickpea is grown practicay on a variety of soi types ranging from very ight to heavy ones. In north India, it is cutivated on sandy-oam to cay-oam sois whereas in south on Deccan pateau and centra India or Maharashtra, gram is raised on back cotton sois. The cay-oams are the best. Cropping Systems Gram is grown mixed with wheat, barey, rapeseed and mustard crop. It is grown mixed with toria in tarai region. Gram is sown after the harvest of Kharif crops ike paddy, maize, sorghum, pearmiet etc. Gram in rotation with severa crops heps in controing soi-borne diseases. The most common rotations are: paddy-gram; pearmiet-gram; sorghum-gram; maize-gram; kharif faow-gram (in dryands). Improved Varieties Some of the recenty reeased varieties have resistance/toerance to major diseases ike wit (Avrodhi, KWR 108, JG 74, JG 315, Visha, Vijay, Pusa 391, Bharti, ICCC 32, Pusa 244) and Ascochyta bight (C 235, Pusa 261, Gaurav, GNG 146, GNG 469) besides being more productive. Eary maturing varieties (PBG 1, Udai, Pusa 372) amenabe for ate panting under rice production system have been deveoped. Emphasis has aso been aid on deveoping bod seeded genotypes both of Kabui (Pusa 1003) and desi types (K 850, Pusa 256, Vishwas, Visha, Pusa 362). Other important varieties of chickpea for different zones are: toerance to sat (Karna chana 1) and non-odging under high input management (DCP 92-3) have aso been reeased. 18

39 BASIC AGRICULTURE Land Preparation Gram needs coddy and rough seed-bed for good aeration in root zone. Hence, itte and preparation is required. Desired seed-bed may be obtained by a deep poughing foowed by two harrowing. A deep summer poughing is essentia for higher retention of moisture in sois where, the crop is grown on residua soi moisture as in Havei system of Madhya Pradesh. Seed Rate and Spacing Optimum pant spacing is 30 cm 10 cm. The seed rate varies from and kg/ha in kabui and deshi chickpeas. Under ate sown conditions, the seed rate may be increased by 25-40%. Kabui types are sown in rows 45 cm apart, whie deshi types and ate sown chickpeas are sown in 30 cm rows. Normay, 2-3 g fungicide (Carbendazim/ thiram/captan) per kg seed is recommended for seed treatment. The seed treatment of egumes is aso done with Rhizobium cuture to capitaize upon their intrinsic capabiity and potentiaity to trap atmospheric nitrogen in the root nodues through bioogica nitrogen fixation (BNF). Time of Sowing Panting time is the most important non-monetary input having profound effect on crop growth, phenoogica deveopment, occurrence of pests and crop productivity. The sowing time varies in different states as given beow. State Rainfed Irrigated Punjab and Haryana Second to third week of Fourth week of October to October 15 November Bihar and Gujarat 15 October to first week of First fortnight of November November Rajasthan Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Jammu-Kashmir and Tami Nadu First to 15 October First fortnight of October October in south and south-eastern Rajasthan; 25 October-15 November in Ganganagar district End of October to first week of November Nutrient Management Chickpea requires about kg N, kg P2O5 and kg K2O/ha as basa dose. Being egume, it fixes atmospheric nitrogen in association with Mesorhizobium ciceri. In order to meet the initia N requirement, a starter dose of kg N is sufficient at the 19

40 time of sowing. Phosphorus is the most critica nutrient imiting chickpea production. In genera, kabui types require more P fertiizer than deshi chickpeas. Appication of kg/ha gypsum in acidic sois and suphur in non-acidic sois is aso necessary. Soi appication of 20 kg ZnSO4/ha is necessary for better crop performance in Zn deficient sois. Dua inocuation with Rhizobium and phosphate soubiizing bacteria (PSB) is beneficia in chickpea cutivation. Bacius poymixa and B. megaterium cutures are being commerciay produced for inocuation. The symbiotic association between pant roots and mycorrhiza fungi has received greater attention in recent years. Dua inocuation with Rhizobium and VAM further increases root noduation and yied. Water Management Gram is mosty sown as a rainfed crop and is capabe of extraction moisture from a depth >1 m, with most of its roots confined to top 2 feet soi. However, where irrigation faciities are avaiabe, give a pre-sowing irrigation (paewa). If winter rains fai, give one irrigation at pre-fowering stage and one at pod deveopment stage. In no case, first irrigation shoud be given earier than 4 weeks after sowing. The water requirement of the crop varies from mm. Based on critica stages of irrigation, irrigate the crop at 4-6 eaves stage, at branching and pods formation stage. Nipping To get maximum yied from irrigated gram crop, the nipping (remova of the top auxiary buds) is an essentia operation. In this process, the apica buds of the crop is pucked, when the pants get height of cm i.e. 50 days after sowing. By doing this, vegetative growth of pant stops and atera branching is enhanced, thus the pants become more vigorous and produce more fowers and pods. Weed Management Gram suffers severey by infestation of weeds. Panting time consideraby infuences the occurrence and manifestation of weed species. The initia four-to-eight weeks are most critica for weed competition and the first mechanica weeding has been advised DAS, and the second at DAS. Chemica weed contro with pendimethain as pre 1.0 kg a.i./ha foowed by one hoeing it 45 DAS has been proved effective. Intercropping chickpea with mustard reduces weed menace drasticay. Disease Management Some important diseases causing substantia oss in chickpea production in India are as foows: Wit: The disease generay appears after three weeks of sowing. Interna tissues from the coar region downwards become dark and discoored. The petioes and rachis 20

41 BASIC AGRICULTURE aongwith eafets droop down. Dropping starts from the upper part of the pant but soon the entire pant droops down. Sometimes ony partia witing of pants may occur. Crop rotation, rouging out the infected pants from the fied, and treating the seeds before sowing with 0.2% thiram or captan or bavistin 250 g/q seed minimizes disease infestation. Ascochyta bight: It is an air-borne funga disease caused by Ascochyta rabiei. Sma circuar brown spots appear on the eaves. These spots have discooured margin. Later back minute dots appear on necrotic esions arranged in circes. High humidity favours this disease. Use of toerant varieties, rouging out the infected pants, seed treatment and spraying the crop with 0.2% captan or dithane Z-78 are the recommended contro measures. Seed treatment with 2.5 g/kg seed or with Trichoderma 4 g + 1 g by making a paste in 5 m of water per kg seed is aso effective for root rot and bight. Pest Management Gram pod borer: The young arvae feed for a short period on tender organs of the pant. With the pod formation, arvae feed on deveoping seeds after cutting a round hoe in the pod and pushing its head inside the pod. Pod borers generay feed on the eaves, buds and pods. Spraying of the crop with insecticides such as chorphyriphos 0.07% or with botanica pesticides ike neem seed kerne extract 5%, nimbecidin, neemex, achook or other neem based products or microbio products ike NPV 250 LE per hectare provides effective contro against gram pod borer. Cutworm: The insect remains hidden during day and becomes active during night. The caterpiar cut the pants at the base, beow or just above the soi surface or may even cut branches. Cut worm and pod borer are major pest of chickpea. The cutura practices invove poughing up the fied after harvesting the crop to expose hibernating pupae of Agrostis and Heicoverpa, cean cutivation, removing pant debris, eary panting, intercropping with mustard, inseed, saffower etc. Need based appication of insecticides at appropriate time is necessary. Harvesting, Threshing and Yied In north Indian pains, crop matures in days, whereas in centra and south zone crop matures in 120 to 125 days. Crop becomes ready for harvest when eaves turn reddish-brown and start shedding. Pants are either pucked out by hand or cut with sicke. The crop is aowed to dry in sun and on threshing foor in about 5-6 days. Therefore, threshing is done either by beating the pant with stick or by tramping under the feet of buocks. A we managed deshi chickpea yieds about q grain/ha, whie Kabui types yied q/ha under irrigated conditions. Under rainfed conditions, the crop yieds 30-50% of that of irrigated crop. 21

42 PIGEONPEA In India, pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) occupies about 90% of goba area and 85% of word production. Pigeonpea or redgram is commony known as arhar or Tur in Hindi. It is the second most important puse crop in India next to chickpea with respect to area and production. Pigeonpea seeds used as da are rich in protein (21%), iron and iodine. They are aso rich in essentia amino acids ike ycine, tyrocene, cystine and arginine. Pigeonpea being a egume possesses vauabe property as restorer of nitrogen in soi. It is mainy a kharif crop. With the deveopment of short duration varieties, the cutivation of pigeonpea in summer season is aso receiving attention particuary in the intercropping systems in north and north-eastern states. India has the argest area (3.38 miion ha) under pigeonpea. Maturity duration of pigeonpea varies from about 90 days for extra-eary varieties to more than 260 days for ate maturing varieties that fit we in various niches and cropping systems. A view of Pigeonpea fied Cimate and Soi Requirements Pigeonpea is a crop of arid and semi-arid cimates grown between 30oN and 35oS atitudes and thrives we in areas with mm of rainfa. Its drought hardy nature due to deep tap root system makes it a crop of ow rainfa situations. It is grown in the temperature ranges of 20-40oC and can withstand a minimum temperature of 10oC and maximum temperature of 40oC. Sandy-oam to oam soi with sufficient organic matter content is idea for cutivation of pigeonpea. The soi shoud be deep, we-drained and free from soube sats. It can be grown on sois with a ph range of successfuy, but most favourabe ph for its growth and deveopment is

43 BASIC AGRICULTURE Varieties Based on time required for maturity, a the varieties have been cassified into 3 groups viz. (i) (ii) (iii) Short duration ( days) Medium duration ( days) Long duration ( days) Seection of varieties shoud be done carefuy keeping in mind the cimate, water retention capacity of the soi, water avaiabiity and irrigation conditions. In case of rain-fed conditions with ow to no moisture avaiabiity beyond October and poor sois, eary maturing varieties ( days) shoud be preferred over medium and ong duration. Some of improved pigeonpea cutivars are: Pusa 855, Pusa 991, Pusa 992, Pusa 2001, Pusa 2002, UPAS 120, Manak, AL-15, and AL 201. For arhar -wheat rotation, Pusa 991, Pusa 992, Pusa 2001 and Pusa 2002 are suitabe cutivars. Sowing Time Redgram is grown during June to Juy. Idea time for sowing is second week of June to second week of Juy. Under deayed monsoon conditions, it can be sown up to end of August. Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride (8 g/kg of seed). Dry the seeds in shade. Then again treat the seeds with redgram Rhizobium and PSB biofertiizer (5 g/ kg seed) and dry the treated seeds in shade. Such treated seeds shoud be sown within 4-6 hour of treatment. Seed Rate and Sowing In genera, a seed rate of 8-10 kg for ong duration, kg for medium and kg/ ha for short duration varieties is sufficient in pigeonpea. Seeds are sown 4-6 cm deep, when the soi is wet. In short duration varieties, a row spacing of cm and intrarow spacing of cm is optimum. Whie ong duration varieties require cm inter-row and cm intra-row spacing. Quantity of seed and spacing depending upon the variety and its crop duration are as foows: Very eary maturing: Eary maturing: Medium duration: Long duration: Cutura Operations Monocrop: Monocrop: Monocrop: Intercrop: Monocrop: Intercrop: 20 kg/ha, spacing cm 20 kg/ha, spacing cm 15 kg/ha, spacing cm 5 kg/ha, spacing cm kg/ha, spacing cm 5 kg/ha, spacing cm Between 50 and 60 days of germination, the main shoot tip and the secondary branch tips are pruned. This promotes deveopment of arge number of tertiary shoots, which bear more number of pods, thus increasing the yied by 30-50%. 23

44 Nutrient Management As redgram is a deep-rooted crop, it requires at east one deep tiing up 1 to 1.5 feet and one shaow tiing. Appication of 5-10 t FYM mixed with 5 kg PSB during ast tiing, when soi is wet is highy beneficia. Appy 20 kg nitrogen, 50 kg P2O5, kg K2O + 20 kg suphur per ha as a basa dressing. Fertiizer shoud be broadcasted eveny and mixed thoroughy in the soi at the time of fina preparation of and before sowing. Water Management Redgram requires cm water during its entire growth period. Optimum moisture is necessary during budding, fowering and pod formation stages. Red gram grown in assured rainfa areas, usuay it does not require any irrigation. If there is water stress, protective irrigation may be given in aternate rows at these three stages. Use harvested intercrops biomass as much to preserve soi moisture and to maintain microbia activity. Weed Management Weed management is required ony up to 60 days of crop growth, as this is the time when weeds compete with the crop for nutrients. First weeding is done at DAS, whie second hoeing is done at DAS. Pre-emergence appication of 1.0 kg a.i./ha is quite effective in controing weeds. Disease Management During the growing phase, incidence of yeow mosaic can be seen. The affected pants show yeow motted symptoms. These pants can be rouged out as and when they appear. White fy is known to spread this disease; hence after remova of the affected pants, an insecticide spray is important. Apart from this, redgram is aso affected by root rot and wit, where the affected areas are sprayed with 0.1% bavistin soution. Pest Management Pod borer: Pod borer survives on many host pants across different seasons, incuding cotton and egumes. Redgram is its preferred choice. Monocrotophos (0.04%) spray at pre and post-fowering stage is effective in controing this pest. Harvesting, Threshing and Yied When most of the eaves are shed and 80% pods turn brown, is the best time for harvest. A grain yied of q/ha as rainfed intercrop and q/ha as irrigated monocrop can be obtained. Very eary and eary varieties yied 20-30% ess. Dry cean seeds in sun to ensure moisture beow 8%. Beetes affect redgram in storage. Mix crushed neem eaves with grain and store in gunny bags. Gunny bags can aso be treated with 5% neem oi. 24

45 BASIC AGRICULTURE PEA Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is an important puse crop in India. There are two types of cutivated pea i.e. gardenpea (Pisum sativum var. hartamse) and fiedpea (Pisum sativum var. aiense). The fied pea is generay grown for dry seeds, which are used for a variety of snack preparations and da. The mature pea is highy nutritive containing high proportion of digestive proteins (22.5%), carbohydrates (62.1%), fats (1.8%), mineras (cacium, iron) and vitamins (ribofavin, thiamin etc). In India, fiedpea occupies an area of 0.62 miion ha with an annua production of 0.56 miion tonnes. The average productivity is 906 kg/ha. The major fiedpea growing states are Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Maharashtra. Improved Varieties Some prominent varieties of fiedpea recommended for cutivation in different states of India are Pant P 5, DMR 11, VL-1, T 163, Rachna, PG 3 and Pusa Prabhat. A view of garden pea and fied pea Cimate and Soi Requirements Peas require a coo growing season with moderate temperatures and reativey high humidity. Most cutivars have ight frost toerance, however, temperature > 27 C adversey affects the crop. Peas are most sensitive to moisture stress at fowering stage. High humidity associated with coudy weather resuts into spread of funga diseases ike damping off, powdery midew etc. A we-drained sandy-oam or sandy cay oam is required for successfu production of peas. It prefers soi with ph Cropping systems Peas are generay grown mixed with wheat, barey, oats, rapeseed and mustard crops. It is aso raised as an intercrop in autumn sugarcane. The most popuar rotations invoving pea are: paddy-pea, maize-pea, sorghum-pea, pearmiet-pea, cotton-pea, maize-eary pea-sugarcane, and maize-pea-okra etc. 25

46 Seed and Sowing Method The optimum time for sowing fied peas in north Indian conditions is second fortnight of October. Seed rate for pea varies with the varieties, sizes of seeds and method of sowing. A seed rate of kg/ha is required when the crop is sown for grain crop. Before sowing, the seed shoud be treated with 0.25%. For good noduation, seed shoud be treated with Rhizobium eguminosarum cuture. Fiedpea is sown at a spacing of cm apart. Nutrient Management Being a egume, it requires a starter dose of about 20 kg N/ha, besides kg P2O5 and kg K2O/ha at the time of panting. Water Management Drought is major constraint for pea pantation in India. The crop is generay sown after irrigation. Specia precaution shoud be taken whie irrigating a pea crop, ight and uniform irrigation shoud be given. Irrigation at branching and fowering stages is critica for optimum yieds. Weed Management The crop suffers from a severe weed competition in its eary growth with DAS as critica period of crop weed competition. The fied shoud be kept free from weeds by giving 2 weedings and hoeing after 3 and 6 weeks of germination. Pre-emergence appication of 1.0 kg a.i./ha is quite effective in controing weeds. Disease Management Powdery midew: White powdery growth or fungus myceium and spores deveop on eaves, branches, stems, tendris, petioes and pods. Pods get oose, bright green, have shiny surface and ook du. Severa powdery midew resistant varieties such as Rachna, Pant Matar 5, DMR 7, HUP 2 are avaiabe. In case of occurrence on susceptibe varieties, spray wettabe suphur 70 WP (Sufex) 0.3% at 10 days interva on the susceptibe varieties. Pest Management Major insect-pests causing damage to pea crop are eaf miner and pea pod borer. For pea pod borer, crop may be sprayed with monocrotophos 0.04% at 10 to 15 days interva beginning with pod formation. Harvesting, Threshing and Yied Fied peas shoud be harvested when they are fuy ripe and threshed after sufficient drying in the sun. By adopting improved package of practices, the crop can yied t green pods/ha. Fied peas can yied about 2-3 t grains/ha. 26

47 BASIC AGRICULTURE LENTIL Lenti (Lens cuinaris Medik.) is commony consumed as da. Dehued enti seeds contain 24-26% protein, 1.3% fat, 2.2% ash, 3.2% fibre and 57% carbohydrate. It is a rich source of Ca (68 mg/100 g seed), P (300 mg/100 g seed) and Fe (7 mg/100 g seed). In India, major enti producing areas are situated in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Benga. In India, enti is the second most important winter puse crop after chickpea. The area, production and productivity of enti is around 1.34 miion ha, 0.88 mt and 660 kg/ha, respectivey. Cimatic and Soi Requirements Lenti does not respond to temperatures above 27 C, hence it is grown as a winter season crop in semi-arid tropics. It can be raised with the moisture conserved in the soi during the monsoon season. It is very hardy pant and can toerate frost and severe winter to a great extent. It is moderatey drought toerant crop. A view of enti fied Soi shoud be made friabe and weed-free so that seeding coud be done at an uniform depth. In the case of ight sois, ess tiage is required to prepare an idea seed-bed. On heavy sois, one deep poughing foowed by 2-3 cross harrowings shoud be given. Improved Varieties Some of the prominent enti cutivars are Vipasha, WBL 58, Pant L 406, Pant L 639, Maika, VL Masoor 4, Sapna, Pant L 4, DPL 15 and DPL 62. Cropping Systems Lenti is grown mixed with barey, toria, rape and mustard crops. It is aso raised as an intercrop in autumn sugarcane. Intercropping of inseed + enti (2:1), enti + mustard (4-6:1) in Bundekhand region of Uttar Pradesh is aso promising. Rice-enti is the most common rotation. Other rotations are groundnut enti, sorghum enti, 27

48 pearmiet enti, maize enti, cotton enti, kharif faow enti (rainfed areas), riceenti + mustard maize (fodder). Seed and Sowing Method Optimum seed rate for norma sown crop is kg/ha. Seed rate shoud be increased to kg in case of ate sowing. Treat the seed with 2 kg/kg seed before sowing. The enti seed shoud be treated before sowing with Rhizobium cuture. Crop is sown at a spacing of 30 cm apart in rows using seed dri. The crop may be sown in the second fortnight of October. Deay in panting causes reduction in yied. Lenti seeds shoud be sown at a depth of 3-4 cm. Nutrient Management Appy kg N/ha as starter dose, besides kg P2O5 and kg K2O/ha as basa dose in enti. The crop aso responds to 20 kg suphur/ha both under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Water Management The crop requires 200 mm of water depending on soi and cimate. Lenti requires 1-2 irrigations during the growing season. Appy first irrigation at 6 weeks after sowing and second at fowering or pod formation stage. Weed Management The period from 30 to 60 DAS is most crucia for competition with weeds. Two weedings at 30 and 60 DAS are enough. Pre-emergence appication of 1.0 kg a.i./ha in 750 itres of water is quite effective in controing weeds. Pest Management Aphid is major pest of enti. In case of severe infestation, eaves and shoots get deformed and stunted and sticky honeydew may be deposited over the eaf surface. Usuay, ony one spray of cypermethrin 0.004%, is sufficient to contro aphid damage. Disease Management The major diseases of enti are wit and rust. Seed treatment with systemic fungicides such as thiram + carbendazim 2.5 g/kg seed and crop rotations hep in minimizing incidence of wit, root rot and coar rot. Foiar spray of mancozeb at 50 DAS has been found very effective against rust. Harvesting, Threshing and Yied Lenti crop shoud be harvested when the pants dry up and pods are mature. Threshing is done either by beating the pants with sticks. Cean and dry the seeds in sun to bring moisture content down to 12% for safe storage. A we-managed crop yieds about t grains/ha. 28

49 BASIC AGRICULTURE BLACKGRAM Back gram (Vigna mungo) is popuar as Urad da. India is major producer and consumer of back gram in the word. It is an important puse crop and serves as a major source of dietary protein for majority of peope. It contains about 25-28% protein, % oi, % fiber, % ash and 62-65% carbohydrates on dry weight basis. Main use of backgram is to make Da. Apart from this, it is aso used in making uttappa, dosa, idai, vada, da makhhani etc. It is grown a over the country in Kharif and summer seasons. It is cutivated over an area of about akh ha with tota production of akh tonnes. In India, backgram is very popuary grown in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, West Benga, Punjab, Haryana and Karnataka. A fied view of backgram Cimatic and Soi Requirements Most suitabe cimate to cutivate backgram is C with heavy rainfa. It is grown as rainfed crop in the warm pains as we as in the coo his, up to an atitude of 2,000 metres. It is highy drought resistant but susceptibe to frost, water ogging and sainity. A we distributed cm rainfa is highy suitabe. It prefers water retentive, stiff oamy or heavy sois, and does we on both back cotton sois and brown auvium. Cropping Systems It is cutivated in three different seasons viz. Kharif, Rabi and summer; but maximum area is occupied under Kharif season mosty as intercrop with sorghum, pear-miet, maize, cotton, castor, pigeonpea etc. Some suitabe intercropping systems are: Paddywheat-urdbean, Maize-rapeseed- urdbean, Urdbean-wheat-mungbean, Urdbeanmustard-mungbean/urdbean, Potato-wheat- urdbean, etc. 29

50 Varieties The resistant varieties to yeow mosaic virus are Uttara, Narendra urd 1, Pant U 19, Pant U 30, UG 218 and WBU 108. The resistant varieties to powdery midew are LBG 402, TPU 4 and LBG 17. Other varieties are Pusa-1, UPU-1, UPU-2, T.P.U.-4, T.A.U.-1, T.A.U-2 etc. Seed and Sowing Method The seed treatment with fungicides ike captan, thiram or 2-3 g/kg seed before sowing effectivey contros diseases. Seed treatment with Rhizobium has been found to improve yieds of puses. A seed rate of kg/ha for kharif and 25 kg for summer season has been recommended for backgram. Sown with the onset of monsoon i.e., June-Juy. Nutrient Management The starter dose of kg/ha besides kg P2O5 and kg K2O/ha as basa appication has been found optimum for backgram. Seed treatment with Rhizobium is aso beneficia. Water Management Irrigations during fowering, pod formation and seed deveopment are must. In heavy rainfa areas, crop needs proper drainage as the crop is very sensitive to water ogging. Weed Management One or two hand weeding at and DAS give better weed contro. Among chemica weed contro method, pre-emergence appication of 1.0 kg a.i./ha in 750 itres of water is quite effective. Disease Management Cercospora Leaf spot : Anguar brown or red spots, with grey or brown centre and reddish-purpe border on eaves, stak and pods. Spray with Bordeaux mixture (5:5:50) or 0.2% ziram. Powdery midew : White powdery patches on eaves and other green parts, ater becoming du cooured and are studded with back dot. Dust the crop with finey powdered suphur 20 kg/ha. Vira diseases : These diseases can be minimized by controing their vector through spraying metasystox (0.01%) and uprooting and destroying the infected pants. Pest Management Pod borer : Caterpiars feed on tender foiage and young pods. They make hoes in the pods and feed on deveoping seeds. Spraying the crop with 0.05% quinaphos can successfuy contro the pest. 30

51 BASIC AGRICULTURE Harvesting, Threshing and Yied Crop is harvested before it is dead ripe. The pants are cut with sicke, dried for 7-10 days and threshed by beating with sticks and then winnowed. The seeds shoud be dried to around 10-12% moisture. A good crop of backgram may yied t grains/ha. GREENGRAM Greengram (Vigna radiata) is the third most important puse crop after chickpea and pigeonpea. Green gram or moong is a protein rich stape food. It contains about 25% protein. It is a drought resistant crop and suitabe for summer cutivation, dryand farming and predominanty used as an intercrop with other crops being a short duration crop. In India, it is grown on 3.11 miion ha area in amost a the states. Greengram Cimate and Soi Requirements Greengram is a tropica crop, but can aso be grown in subtropica region and cutivated in areas between 30 N and 30 S atitude. It is cutivated a the year round in peninsuar India, and during Kharif, spring and summer seasons in north-india. It is grown in the areas having an annua rainfa of cm. It can be grown from sea eve to an atitude of 2,000 m. A we drained oamy to sandy-oam soi is the best soi for its cutivation. The crop does not grow we on saine and akaine soi or waterogged sois. Water ogging affects the crop adversey. Varieties Some promising varieties are CO 4, Pant Moong 2, TAP 7, BM 4, MUM 2, LGG 407, LGG 450, TARM 1, TARM 2, PDM 11, PDM 54, PDM 139, Pusa 105, Pusa Baisakhi, Pusa Visha, SML668, Pusa 672 and Pusa

52 Seed and Sowing Method The quantity of seed required is about 12 kg/ha for Kharif crop and 20 kg/ha for Rabi crop. Seed shoud be treated with captan or 2.5 g/kg seed as precaution against any seed borne disease. In north India, this crop is sown with the onset of monsoon i.e., second fortnight of June to first fortnight of Juy. In south India, it is sown during the month of Oct.-Nov. In summer season, it is sown from March-Apri. The ine sowing is done at a spacing of cm. Weed Management One or two weedings or hoeings are done at about 20 and 25 DAS depending on weed growth. Pre-emergence spray of pendimethain kg a.i./ha is recommended for chemica weed management. Nutrient Management The crop requires 20 kg nitrogen and 50 kg phosphorus/ha at the time of sowing. Water Management Normay, greengram is grown under rainfed conditions. The right stages of irrigation are branching stage, fu boom stage and pod formation stage. Excess irrigations resut in deayed maturity and poor yied. About 4-5 irrigations are enough during whoe crop period. Water ogging in the fied shoud be avoided. Disease Management Cercospora Leaf spot: Anguar brown or red spots, with grey or brown centre and reddish-purpe border on eaves, stak and pods. Spray with Bordeaux mixture (5:5:50) or 0.2% ziram. Spray dithane 2 kg or dithane 2 kg in 750 itres of water/ha. Yeow mosaic: This disease is caused by a virus. It is more common in northern India. Yeow, diffused round spots scattered in the eaf amina are initia symptoms. These spots expand rapidy. Vira disease can be minimized by controing the vector through spraying metasystox (0.01%). Pest Management Pod borer: Caterpiars feed on tender foiage and young pods. They make hoes in the pods and feed on deveoping seeds. Spraying the crop with 0.05% quinaphos can successfuy contro the pest. Harvesting, Threshing and Yied Shattering of pods is a great probem in this crop. Thus, picking shoud be done as the pods mature. Harvesting shoud be competed in 2 3 pickings. The pods after compete drying shoud be threshed manuay. A good crop of greengram may yied about tonnes of grain/ha. 32

53 BASIC AGRICULTURE SOYBEAN Soybean (Gycine max L.) is the most important oiseed crop of India and the word. Soybean contains 20-25% oi and 40-45% poteins. India ranks fourth in acreage and fifth in production of soybean in the word. It contributes greaty to the edibe oi poo of the country and aso earns sizeabe amount of foreign exchange. Soybean production in India at present time is restricted primariy in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. Fig. 1. Soybean production areas in India. Cimatic and Soi Requirements Soybean grows we in warm and moist cimates from sea eve to an eevation of 3,000 m. The crop cannot toerate frost and water ogging. It is grown in areas receiving 4075 cm annua rainfa. It is a short day pant and requires a photoperiod of hours. Soybean performs better in we-drained sandy-oam to cay soi with medium water hoding capacity. Acidic and akaine sois inhibit the germination of seed. Water ogging is injurious to the crop. Soi depth shoud be adequate. Cropping Systems Soybean-wheat, soybean-chickpea, soybean-potato, soybean-mustard, soybeanenti are major crop rotations. Soybean can be grown in intercropping systems ike soybean+pigeonpea, soybean + sorghum, soybean + maize, soybean + pearmiet, soybean + cotton. 33

54 Varieties Some promising varieties are Pusa 9712, VL Soya 2, Paam Soya, PS 1241, VLS 65, Pusa 22, Pusa 16, Pusa 24, Pusa 37, Gujarat Soybean 1, and Birsa Soybean 1. Yeow Soybean Seed and Sowing Method Optimum seed rate is the pre-requisite to have good yieds of soybean. Seed can be treated with thiram 75 WP + carbendazim 50 WP 3 g/kg seed or Trichoderma 4-5 gm/kg seed for reducing the incidence of insect-pests and diseases. Foowing seed rates shoud be used in soybean cutivars: Bod seeded varieties Medium seeded varieties Sma seeded : kg/ha : kg/ha : kg/ha Timey sowing is very important to harness fu yied potentia of soybean. Sowing of rainfed soybean shoud start with the onset of rainy season. Generay, soybean is pated during June Juy. Recommended sowing time for kharif season soybean in different parts of the country is June Juy. Soybean shoud be panted in ines at distance of 4060 cm and pant to pant distance of about 5 cm. Seeding depth shoud be 3-4 cm. Nutrient Management Soybean is a heavy nutrient feeder and requires kg N, kg P2O5 and kg K2O/ha besides kg Suphur/ha as basa dose. About 5-10 t/ha we decomposed FYM shoud be incorporated we in advance to sowing. Seed shoud be treated with reevant Rhizobium cuture. 34

55 BASIC AGRICULTURE Water Management Soybean is grown as rainfed crop during rainy season in northern India, as summer irrigated crop in centra India and post rainy season crop on stored soi moisture in back cotton sois and as irrigated crop during summer in northern parts of the country. Adequate soi moisture is vita at critica growth periods for soybean specificay at sowing, fowering; and pod formation stages. Weed Management Soybean is a very vigorous crop that can compete many weeds whie achieving fu canopy. Two hand weedings at and DAS are sufficient for contro of weeds. 1 kg a.i./ha or 1 kg a.i./ha are used as pre-emergence herbicides in 750 L water/ha. 75 to 100 g a.i./ha or 50 g a.i./ha are used as post-emergence (15-20 DAS) herbicides in 750 L water/ha. Disease Management Downy midew: Sma chorotic spots appear on the upper surface of the eaves, which ater turn greyish to dark brown with downy growth on the ower surface of the eaves. For contro, the seed shoud be treated with 3.0 g/kg seed before sowing. Spraying the crop with copper oxychoride g/l water has been found effective in controing the disease. Yeow mosaic virus: Yeow mosaic is an important virus disease. It is transmitted by white fy. The affected eaves become yeow with a sight crinking and reduction in size. Reguar spraying of the crop with methy demiton 25 EC (Metasystox m/l water starting from third week onwards at an interva of days keep the white fy popuation under contro and the crop becomes free from the incidence of yeow mosaic virus. Pest Management Gram pod borer: The caterpiar makes hoes in the pod and feeds on the ripening grains. The caterpiar, as it grows, bores into green pods and destroys the seeds competey. It can be controed by dusting the crop with monocrotophos m/l water. The insecticide is appied at the fruiting stage and it may be repeated at the interva of 10 days. Harvesting, Threshing and Yied The pant is harvested when the eaves turn yeow and finay drop and ony the pods remain on the stak. Harvesting is done either by cutting the pants cose to the ground with sickes. The harvested pants are carried to the threshing foor and dried in the sun about a week. It can aso be threshed by wheat thresher after some adjustments. A moisture content of 13-14% is idea for threshing with thresher. A good crop of soybean may yied about t grains/ha. 35

56 RAPESEED AND MUSTARD The rapeseed-mustard group broady incudes Indian mustard, yeow sarson, brown sarson, raya, and toria crops. Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) is predominanty cutivated in Rajasthan, UP, Haryana, MP and Gujarat. Brown sarson is cutivated in Assam, Bihar, Orissa, and West Benga. Gobhi sarson (B. napus L.) and karan rai (Brassica carinata) are the new emerging oiseed crops. In India, rapeseed-mustard is grown on an area of 5.53 m ha with production and productivity of 6.41 mt and 1157 kg/ha, respectivey. A view of mustard fied Cimatic and Soi Requirements Rapeseed-mustard crops are basicay cutivated in temperate region, however they have wider adaptabiity. Rainfa, high humidity and coudy weather are not favourabe for the crop. Rapeseed and mustard are ong day pants. They require an annua precipitation of cm. Rapeseed and mustard may grow under sandy-oam to cay oam-sois but they thrive we on ight-oam sois. These crops aso do not toerate water-ogging. Cropping Systems Rapeseed and mustard are generay grown mixed with rabi crops ike wheat, barey and chickpea. Some of cropping sequences in major rapeseed mustard cutivated states are: Rice-toria, rice-toria-mungbean, maize-toria-wheat, groundnut-mustard, cottonmustard/gobhi sarson, rice-gobhi sarson-mungbean, maize-toria-sugarcane, ricemustard/yeow sarson, back gram-sarson or raya, guar-sarson or raya, maize-sarson or raya. 36

57 BASIC AGRICULTURE Varieties Some promising varieties of rapeseed and mustard group are as under: S. No. Crop Varieties 1 Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) RH 9304, RH 9801, RH 30, RH 819, T-59 Karan rai (Brassica carinata) Pusa sawarnim, Pusa Aditya 4 Toria TH 68, Sangam and TL 15, Bhawani Gobhi sarson (Brassica napus) Neeam, Sheeta, ONK-1, Hyoa 401 (Hybrid) Brown sarson (Brassica rapa var. BSH-1, Pusa Kayani, KBS-3 brown sarson) Yeow sarson (Brassica rapa var. YST 151, Type 42, K-88, YS 24, PS 66, NDYS yeow sarson) 842 Back mustard (Brassica nigra) Seed Rate and Sowing Method Surya Generay, under irrigated condition, 3-4 kg seed is sufficient for sowing of one ha area whereas, the seed rate can be increased to 5 kg/ha under rainfed condition depending upon the avaiabiity of soi moisture. The rapeseed-mustard is sma seeded crop. Therefore, the fied shoud be we prepared for uniform germination. Rapeseedmustard seedings are very susceptibe to crusted soi. It requires fine seed bed. Fied shoud be poughed by moud board pough or tractor drawn harrow. Before pre-sowing irrigation foowed by two poughing with cutivator are required to prepare good seed bed. There shoud be no cod or weeds at sowing time. The crop of toria is to be sown in the ast week of August to mid-september. Whereas, 25th September to the first fortnight of October is the most appropriate time of sowing mustard crop in conserved moisture. Under irrigated conditions, the sowing of raya shoud be competed by 20th October. Rapeseed-mustard crop shoud be sown in ines 30 cm apart with pant to pant distance of cm and at a depth of 4-5 cm under irrigated conditions; whereas a row spacing of 45 cm is beneficia and practica in rainfed conditions. In order to maintain the proper pant popuation, thinning is to be done after days of sowing. Nutrient Requirements For rainfed crop, appy 40 kg N and 20 kg P2O5/ha. In irrigated areas appy 60 kg N, 20 kg P2O5 and 25 kg K2O/ha for toria and mustard, 80 kg N, 40 kg P2O5 and 25 kg K2O/ha for raya. Appy haf dose of nitrogen and fu dose of P & K at sowing time and remaining haf N is top dressed at the time of first irrigation. Rapeseed-mustard is highy responsive to P, S, Zn and Boron. It is advisabe to appy phosphorus through singe super phosphate because it contains 12% suphur, which is required for increasing the oi content. Seed treatment with Azotobacter has been found beneficia to the crop. 37

58 Water Management Two irrigations, one at fowering and another at siiquae deveopment stage, are recommended. If irrigation water is avaiabe for one irrigation ony, then the crop shoud be irrigated at the time of fowering. Frost Management Occasionay, frost prevais from ast week of December to January end in north and north-western parts of the country resuting into considerabe yied oss. Irrigate and smoke the fieds when the temperature is ow. Usuay days after anthesis is most sensitive. Weed Management Hand weeding twice at 30 and 45 DAS and appication of pendimethain at 0.75 to 1.0 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergence is effective in weed management. Disease Management White rust (Abugo candida): The dangerous stage is fora infection in which the fora parts are maformed and become thick eathery green. The branches become zig-zag in structure and white growth of the fungus can be seen on these affected branches. Aternaria bight: Sma ight brown round spots deveop on the ower eaves first and then on upper eaves after 40 DAS. Later on, these spots deveop into big circuar dark cooured with concentric rings ceary visibe in these spots. When the temperature ranges from C with high humidity (80%), dense crop canopy and rains during February increases the disease at faster rate. Downey midew: At fowering stage, the whoe inforescence is maformed and becomes thick green, twisted and covered with white cottony growth. Disease deveopment is favoured by a temperature C and wet weather. For the contro of white rust, Aternaria and downy midew spray mancozeb 1.5 kg/ha at initia appearance of white rust or Aternaria and repeat the spray 1-3 times after 15 days. Pest Management Mustard aphid: This is the most important pest of rapeseed and mustard. Spray the crop with 625 to 1000 m oxydemeton methy (Metasystox 25 EC) or dimethoate (Rogor) 30 EC after diuting it in 625 to 1000 L water/ha. Harvesting, Threshing and Yied Usuay rapeseed-mustard crops are harvested as soon as 75% of the pods turn yeow and moisture content of the seed is around 30 to 40%. Bundes of the harvested pants are staked and dried in the sun for a few days. Threshing is done by the usua method of threshing by buocks or running a tractor over the dried pants. Moisture 38

59 BASIC AGRICULTURE content of the seed must be ess than 8% at the storage time. Under norma conditions, rapeseed yieds about t/ha of seed, whie mustard may give t/ha. Average yied in rapeseed & mustard group are: toria (12-15 q/ha), yeow or brown sarson (12-15q/ha) and rai (15-20 q/ha). GROUNDNUT Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L) is aso caed peanut or mungfai. Groundnut seed contains about 45% oi and 26% protein. Peanuts are a good source of niacin, foate, fiber, magnesium, vitamin E, manganese and phosphorus. Gobay, India occupies the first pace in acreage and second in production. In India, groundnut occupies an area of 5.86 m ha with production and productivity of 8.26 mt and 1411 kg/ha, respectivey. The main groundnut growing states are Gujarat, Tami Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Rajasthan. Morphoogicay, groundnuts have been divided into two groups: (i) erect or bunch type (Arachis hypogaea subspecies fastigiata; (ii) traiing or spreading type (Arachis hypogaea subspecies procumbens). Groundnut pant Cimatic and Soi Requirements Groundnut is grown in the tropica and subtropica countries and up to an atitude of 1000 m. The crop can be grown successfuy in paces receiving a minimum rainfa of 500 mm and a maximum of 1250 mm. The rainfa shoud be we distributed during fowering and pegging stages. The groundnut cannot withstand ong and severe drought 39

60 or water stagnation. During ripening period, it requires about a month of warm and dry weather. Most suitabe sois for groundnut production are we-drained, ight-textured, oose sandy-oam or sandy cay oam with good drainage. Sois shoud have reasonabe high cacium, ph 5.5 to 7.0 and a moderate organic matter. Cropping Systems Groundnut is grown in rotation with wheat, enti, chickpea, pea, barey, etc. It is grown as a mixed crop with pearmiet, maize, sorghum, castor and cotton. The most common cropping systems are: groundnut-wheat/barey/chickpea/fied pea/enti. Varieties Some promising varieties recommended for different states are ICGS 76, Tirupati 2, Girnar 1, ICGS 37, ALR 3, ICGS 11, HNG 10, Punjab Mungphai 1, Mukta, Chitra, Jyoti, RS-1, M-335, MH-4, BG-2, TG-1, and TMV-6. Seed Rate and Sowing Method A seed rate of kg/ha is enough for bunch type and kg/ha for spreading type groundnut cutivars. In bunch types, the row to row distance is kept cm and in spreading types cm. Pant to pant distance woud be 15 and cm for bunch and spreading types, respectivey. Sowing can be done through tractor-mounted groundnut panter. The depth of sowing shoud be 5 cm. One poughing with soi turning pough foowed by two harrowings woud be sufficient to achieve a good surface tith up to cm depth. In India, groundnut is grown over four seasons. Sow the rainfed crop with the onset of monsoon in the ast week of June to first week of Juy. In irrigated conditions, sow in ast week of June. In rabi, groundnut is sown during NovemberDecember. Summer groundnut is sown during mid-february. For seed purposes, pods shoud be sheed by hand one week before sowing. Hand sheing ensures itte damage to seeds. Treat the seected kernes with thiram or captan or 5 g/kg kernes to check seed and soi borne diseases. Nutrient Requirement Groundnut, being egume, needs more phosphorous, and being an oiseed requires more suphur. Seed shoud be inocuated with efficient strains of Rhizobium cuture. We decomposed FYM or 5-10 t/ha shoud be appied about days before sowing. Appy 15 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 25 kg K2O/ha at the time of sowing. Use of kg/ha during fied preparation can add to the yied. Cacium too has pronounced effect on proper deveopment of pods and kernes. Water Management Being a rainy season crop, groundnut does not require irrigation. The fied shoud be we drained. Fowering and pegging are the most critica stages for irrigation. 40

61 BASIC AGRICULTURE Weed Management Two weedings 20 and 45 DAS are recommended. Pre-emergence appication of 1 kg a.i./ha in L water/ha aong with 2 intercutures at 30 and 45 DAS have been recommended in irrigated conditions. Disease Management Tikka disease or eaf spot (ansa organisation): The spots on eaves are circuar to irreguar and are surrounded by a yeow hao. The spots on the upper surface ook ike reddish brown to back, whereas on ower surface these spots are smooth and ight brown in coour. Spray the crop two to three times with dithane M- 45 or kg/ha at days interva starting from the first appearance of spot. Pest Management White grub: The young grubs are white and transucent. Fuy grown arvae are arger than a thumb. The arvae feed on soi organic matter for a few weeks and then they eat roots. They aso damage pods. The grubs cut and eat the pant roots, and consequenty the pants wits and dies. White-grub is a menace in the ight sois, which can be controed effectivey by treating seed with chorpyriphos m/kg seed. Harvesting, Threshing and Yied Harvesting of groundnut shoud be done at backening of inner she and deveopment of testa coour. Harvest the crop at 80% pod maturity. After harvesting, the pods are dried in sun to reduce moisture content to 20-25% for threshing. After threshing, kernes are dried to reduce the moisture content to 8-10%. Under norma conditions, groundnut yieds about q pods/ha with sheing percentage of SUNFLOWER Sunfower (Heianthus annuus L.) aso known as Surajmukhi is an important oiseed crop of India. It is a rich source of high quaity edibe oi (40-43%) and aso suitabe for edibe refined oi and vanaspati because of high degree of poyunsaturated fatty acids, peasant odour and nutritiona vaue. Its oi has anti-choestero properties and contains vitamins A, B, D and E. During , sunfower was grown on 0.73 miion ha in India with a production of 0.54 mt with an average yied of 739 kg/ha. Sunfower hods great promises because of its short duration, photo-insensitiveness and wide adaptabiity. Cimatic and Soi Requirements The crop requires a coo cimate during germination and seeding growth. It requires warm weather from the seeding stage up to fowering stage and warm and sunny days during fowering to maturity. Sunfower can be grown successfuy in any season viz. kharif, rabi and spring throughout India. It takes about days in kharif, days in rabi and days in spring season. 41

62 A Sunfower fied Sunfower can be grown on a wide range of sois and toerates a moderate ph range and some sainity. It thrives best on deep oam sois having good drainage and irrigation faciities. Cropping Systems Sunfower is grown in rotation with severa crops. Some of the important crop rotations are: maize-sunfower, maize-potato-sunfower, paddy-sunfower, maize-potatosunfower, arhar (ageti)-sunfower, sunfower-saffower, maize-toria-sunfower, cottonsunfower, maize-toria-sugarcane-ratoon-sunfower, basmati rice-sunfower etc. Varieties/Hybrids A good cutivar shoud be high yieding and exhibit stabe performance across a range of environments with uniform growth behaviour. Some of promising HYVs/hybrids of sunfower are as under: Varieties CO-5, TAS-82, DRSF-113, DRSF-108, TNAU SUF-7, GAU SUF-15 Hybrids KBSH-41, KBSH-42, NDSH-1, RSFH-1, APSH-11, Suryamukhi, BSH-1, MSFH-1, MSFH-8, MSFH-17, LSH-1, LSH-3, PSFH-67 Seed Rate and Sowing Method Seed rate of 8-10 kg/ha is sufficient to ensure good crop stand. Sunfower shoud be sown 60 cm apart in ines with a pant to pant spacing of 20 cm. The seed shoud be sown at 3-4 cm depth for better stand. The seed shoud be treated with captan or 3 g/kg seed. Sowing can be done by corn panter in the furrows. After days of germination, extra seedings shoud be uprooted to provide a space of 20 cm between pants in rows. Sunfower requires a we puverized and weed free and with adequate moisture suppy. The optimum time of sowing of sunfower in north India for 42

63 BASIC AGRICULTURE kharif, rabi and zaid crops is the first fortnight of Juy, second fortnight of October and the first fortnight of March, respectivey. Nutrient Management Sunfower is an exhaustive crop and responds we to NPK. A dose of kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O/ha has been found optimum for sunfower. Two-third N and whoe P & K is appied as basa dose. Remaining N shoud be top-dressed at the time of second irrigation (fowering stage). Water Management Usuay, no irrigation is needed for kharif crop. Pre-sowing irrigation is necessary for rabi and zaid crops to get uniform germination and better stand. Rabi crop may be irrigated thrice after 40, 75 and 110 DAS coinciding to 4-5 eaf stage, fowering and grain fiing stages, respectivey. Weed Management Weed-free conditions ti 60 DAS resut in better yied performance. When the pant attains a knee high stage, earthing up shoud be done aong the rows. Use of 4 kg/ha as pre-emergence in L water/ha has been found effective in controing weeds in sunfower. Disease Management Stem rot: The pathogens attack basa part of the stem, incuding the head with white cottony growth. Treat the seed with 2g/kg seed. Pest Management Cutworms: The insect may be serious during March-Apri in fieds where sunfower foows potato. Caterpiars cut the seedings at the ground eve. Appy 5 L/ha mixed in 10 kg fine soi and broadcasted uniformy before sowing in the fied after ast poughing but before panking. Harvesting, Threshing and Yied The sunfower crop is ready when back of the head turns yeowish-brown and the moisture in seed is 20%. The harvested heads shoud be dried we in sun and then threshed manuay or using threshers. Further, sun-drying of the seed is desirabe before storage or oi. A good crop of sunfower yieds about 2 t grains/ha. BERSEEM Berseem (Trifoium aexandrinum L.) is a most important winter forage egume in India, commony cutivated as winter annua in the tropica and subtropica regions. It provides nutritious, succuent and paatabe forage for mich animas. Berseem forage contains about 20% crude protein with high digestibiity (up to 65%) and paatabiity. 43

64 A view of berseem fied Cimatic and Soi Requirements Berseem is adapted to coo and moderatey cod cimate. Such conditions prevai during winter and spring seasons in north India, which is considered as favourabe and productive zone for this crop. It can be grown successfuy in areas which receive annua rainfa of cm or even ower but the irrigation must be assured. Berseem can be grown on a types of sois except very ight sandy sois. We-drained cay to cay-oam sois rich in humus, cacium and phosphorus are suitabe for berseem. Varieties Some of the promising cutivars of fodder berseem are Pusa Giant, Mescavi, Berseem Ludhiana-1, Jawahar Berseem-1, Wardan, BL-10, BL-22, UPB-10, Bunde Berseem-2, Bunde Berseem-3, BL-180, Hisar Berseem-1 and JB-5. Seed Rate and Sowing Method The optimum seed rate is 25 kg/ha, which may be increased up to 35 kg in eary or ate sown conditions. For yied compensation in first cutting, 1.5 kg mustard shoud be sown aongwith berseem. Being a egume, berseem enriches the soi with bioogica nitrogen fixation. Therefore, berseem seed shoud be inocuated with Rhizobium trifoii. The seeds being very sma, berseem requires a fine seedbed. After the arrest of rains, sowing of berseem can be done from ast week of September to first week of December in north-west to eastern and centra India. Nutrient Management Top dressing of 10 kg N/ha is done after each cut in addition to 30 kg N/ha basa dose to encourage good regeneration, quick growth and high yied. In genera, the crop responds significanty upto kg P2O5/ha. The potassium requirement of berseem has been found to be 30 to 40 kg K2O/ha in ow potassium sois. 44

65 BASIC AGRICULTURE Water Management Berseem requires huge quantities of water for producing high succuent biomass. Normay, the crop shoud be irrigated after each cutting. About irrigations wi be needed during the entire crop season. Weed Management The major associated weed of berseem is chicory (Chicorium intybus). Chicory infestation can be minimized by seed ceaning in 10% soution of common sat, besides deep summer poughing. Cutting Management and Forage Yied The first cutting shoud be taken at days after sowing of crop. The subsequent cuttings shoud be taken at days interva. The number of cuts depends upon rate of growth and temperature during the ife cyce of the crop. The crop is capabe of producing 100 to 120 t/ha of green forage and tonnes/ha dry fodder under improved agronomic management practices and favorabe weather conditions. COTTON Cotton (Gossypium spp.) considered as white god, is one of the most important commercia crops in India. It is a major fibre crop, but its seeds are used as source of oi. Cottonseed oi is a cooking-oi extracted from the cotton seeds. Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum are grown for cotton fibre. The genus Gossypium beongs to Mavaceae famiy and has 52 species in which 4 are commerciay grown wordwide viz. Gossypium arboreum, G. herbaceum, G. hirsutum and G. barbadense. In India, G. hirsutum and G. arboreum are grown in a the major cotton growing states. India has the word s argest acreage of m ha with production of 6 MT and average yied of 512 kg/ha. A view of cotton fied 45

66 Cimatic and Soi Requirements Cotton is a warm season oving shrub, adapted to a wide range of cimate. A frostess season of days is required for successfu cotton production. The cotton-picking period from mid-september to November must have bright sunny days to ensure a good quaity of the produce. Abundant sunshine during the period of bo maturity and harvesting is essentia to obtain a good quaity produce. It is raised mainy as a rainfed crop in the back cotton and medium sois and as an irrigated crop in the auvia sois. Proper drainage of excess water during rains is essentia. Sois with a ph >9.0 and <6.5 and CaCO3 content>10% are not suitabe for cotton cutivation. Cropping Systems Cotton faow, cotton wheat/barey, cotton sunfower, cotton senji/barseem/oats, cotton sunfower-paddy-wheat, cotton raya. Varieties Cotton varieties recommended for different zones are as under: Zone G. arboreum G. herbaceum North Zone Lohit, Shyamai, Digvijay RG 1, LD 230, HD 11 South Zone Nardium, Srisaiam, Mahanandi Centra Sanjay, G 22, Zone AKH 4, AKA 1 Hybrids F 46, V 797, Digvijay, CNH 36 G. hirsutum Ganganagar Ageti, Pusa 31, Pusa 8-3, H 1117 G. barbadense - Laxmi, Badnawar 1, Suvin Nimbakar 1, Deviraj Jayadhar, Raichur Laxmi, Mysore Vijay, Suvin, Sujata, 51, Ajanta Hampi, Krishna, TNB 1 Supriya The currenty cutivated hybrids incude H6, H8, H10 in Gujarat; DCH 32, DHB 105 and DHH 11 in Karnataka; Savita, TCHB 213, Surya and Sruthi in Tami Nadu, LAHH 4 and JKHy-1 and JKHy-2 in Madhya Pradesh. Seed Rate and Sowing Method The seed rate varies with species, growing zone and irrigation avaiabiity. The genera seed rate for different specis/ctivars is as under: Varieties/hybrids Seed-rate (kg/acre) American Cotton Bt Hybrids Non Bt Hybrid: LHH

67 BASIC AGRICULTURE Varieties: LH 2108, LH 2076 and F 1861 Desi Cotton Hybrid Varieties Time of sowing is first Apri to 15th May. Sowing during this period ensures better yied and escapes the attack of insect pests and diseases. Sowing shoud be done in morning and evening hours. Sow in ines 67.5 cm apart with a cotton sowing dri. The pants within rows be kept cm apart by thinning. However for hybrids (both Bt and non-bt), the pant to pant distance shoud be kept at 75 cm. It may be done after first irrigation or heavy shower. For desi cotton hybrid, the pant to pant spacing shoud be kept at 60 cm. A fine seed-bed is essentia for securing a good pant stand. Weed Management A deep summer poughing is desirabe once in 3 years to ki perennia weeds, pests and disease propagues hibernating in the soi. For this, hoeing shoud be done two or three times. The first hoeing shoud be done before first irrigation. For chemica weed contro, appy 1.0 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergence spray. Nutrient Management Appy 75 kg N/ha, 30 kg P2O5/ha in HYVs and 150 kg N/ha, 60 kg P2O5/ha in Bt and non-bt hybrids. Appy whoe P & K as basa dose whie haf N is appied at thinning and the remaining haf N at fowering. Appy 20 kg muriate of potash in sois medium in avaiabe potassium and 25 kg zinc suphate heptahydrate (21%) per ha to cotton on ight sois. Water Management Cotton requires four to six irrigations, depending upon the seasona rainfa. The first irrigation shoud be given 4 to 6 weeks after sowing and the subsequent ones at interva of two or three weeks. Sowing of cotton on ridges and irrigation in furrows save considerabe amount of water. In cotton, four critica stages of irrigation have been identified viz. commencement of sympodia branching (60-70 DAS), fowering ( DAS), bo formation (125 DAS) and bo bursting (140 DAS). Drain out the stagnant water, if such a situation arises. Disease Management Root rot: The oss in yied occurs due to reduction in sudden death of pants. Due to this disease, heathy pants may wit within 24 hr with eaves drooping without showing any discooration. Soi shoud be drenched with 0.2% carbendazim. Fusarium wit: In young as we as od pants the initia symptoms are stunning foowed by yeowing, witing and dropping of most of the eaves. Soak 4 kg seed in 8 L water containing 8 g of bavistin for 6-8 hr and 2-3 hr in case of deinted cotton. 47

68 Pest Management Pink bo worm: It is a notorious pest of cotton in a cotton growing areas. Bt cotton provides effective protection against a cotton boworms. Harvesting Threshing and Yied Cotton is harvested in 3-4 pickings by hand as the bos mature. By adopting improved technoogy, it is possibe to harvest about t/ha of seed cotton (kapas). However, much higher yieds may be obtained from hybrid cottons. Cotton int production is 33% of kapas production, whie cotton to seed production is 66% of kapas production. Oi to seeds crushed is 14-18% and cake to seeds crushed is 82-86%. JUTE Jute (Corchorus spp.) is a fibre crop beonging to famiy Sparrmanniaceae with two major species: white jute (Corchorus capsuaris) and Tossa jute (Corchorus oitorius). White jute fibre is superior quaity fibre used to make Hessian or gunny coth. Jute is one of the most affordabe natura fibers. The fibers are off-white to brown, and 1 4 m ong. Jute production in India is concentrated mosty in Assam, Odisha, Bihar and West Benga. A woman harvesting jute Cimate and Soi Requirements Jute is the crop of hot and humid cimate. It requires high temperature varying from 24 C to 35 C and heavy rainfa of 120 to 150 cm with 80 to 90 per cent reative humidity during the period of its growth. Auvia sandy oam, cay oamy sois are best suited for jute production. Capsuaris jute can grow even in standing water especiay towards the atter part of its growth. 48

69 BASIC AGRICULTURE Oitorius jute wi not thrive in standing water. The atter is more drought resistant and is therefore grown on ighter sois. Varieties Capsuaris varieties: JRC 212, JRC 321, JRC 7447 Oitorius varieties: JRO 524, JRO 878, JRO 7835 Seed Rate and Sowing Method Capsuaris jute requires 7-10 kg seed/ha and sown at a spacing of 30 5 cm. Oitorius jute requires 5-7 kg seed/ha and sown at a spacing of 25 5 cm. It is sown in February month. Fine tith is required since the seeds are very sma. Crop duration is120 to 140 DAS. Nutrient Management We decomposed 5 t/ha shoud be appied during ast poughing. Besides, 20 kg/ ha each of N, P2O5 and K2O is appied basay. Beds and channes are formed depending on water resources. Appy 10 kg N/ha at days after first weeding and then again on days after second weeding as top dressing. During periods of drought and fertiizer shortage, spray 8 kg of urea as 2% urea soution on jute foiage on as we as DAS. Water Management Jute crop requires 500 mm of water. First irrigation is given fourth day after sowing. Afterwards, irrigation can be given at 15 days interva. Weed Management Hand weeding twice on and DAS. 1 kg a.i./ha can be sprayed as pre-emergence herbicide. Post-emergence appication of 75 g ha-1 or quizaofop 50 g ha-1 at 21 DAS (when the grass weeds are 3-4 eaf stage) is effective against grassy weeds. Harvesting Threshing and Yied Jute crop can be harvested from 100 to 110 DAS but can be extended from DAS depending on oca cropping systems. Jute pants are eft in the fied for 3-4 days for eaf shedding. Then thick and thin pants are sorted out and bunded in convenient size. Green pant weight yied is t/ha. Fibre yied is t/ha. Retting Retting is the process of extracting fibre from the ong asting ife stem. The avaiabe retting processes are: mechanica retting (hammering), chemica retting (boiing & appying chemicas), steam/vapour/dew retting, and water or microbia retting. Among them, the water or microbia retting is a century od but the most popuar process in extracting fine bast fibres. 49

70 SUGARCANE Sugarcane beongs to genus Saccharum, which has five important species viz. Saccharum officinarum, S. sinense, S. barberi, S. robustum, and S. spontanuem. The first three species are the cutivated species and the ast two are wid ones. Highy prized cane is S. officinarum because of high sucrose content. Sugarcane is a ta perennia pant growing erect even up to 5-6 m and produces mutipe stems. Sugarcane is a C4 pant having high efficiency in storing soar energy and most efficient converter of soar energy to sucrose. Brazi is major sugarcane producing country foowed by India. A view of sugarcane Sugarcane harvesting in progress Cimatic and Soi Requirement In the tropica region, sugarcane gets more or ess idea cimatic conditions for its growth. The different critica stages are germination, tiering, eary growth, active growth and eongation. Optimum temperature for sprouting (germination) of stem cuttings is 32 to 38 C. For ripening, however, reativey ow temperatures in the range of 12 to 14 C are desirabe. Sugar recovery is highest when the weather is dry with ow humidity; bright sunshine hours, cooer nights with wide diurna variations and very itte rainfa during ripening period. A we drained, deep, oamy soi with ampe avaiabe water hoding capacity is considered idea for sugarcane cutivation. The optimum soi ph is about 6.5 but sugarcane can toerate considerabe degree of soi acidity and akainity. Hence, it is found growing in sois with ph in the range of 5 to 8.5. Seed Rate and Sowing Method Seed rate in sugarcane varies from region-to-region. In north India, seed rate generay varies from 35,000 three budded sets/ha whie in south it ranges between 25,000 to 40,000 three budded sets/ha. The row spacing in subtropica part ranges from 60 to 120 cm whereas, it is cm in tropica regions. 50

71 BASIC AGRICULTURE Sugarcane take generay one year to mature in subtropica states caed Eksai however in some tropica states, it matures in 18 months caed Adsai. In India panting seasons of sugarcane in subtropica regions are September to October (Autumn) and February to March (spring). Whereas in tropica regions, it is June to August (Adsai) and January-to-February and October-to-November (Eksai). Sugarcane can be panted by improved method of panting ike, deep furrow, trench methods, ring pit method and paired row method instead of furrow system. Cutivars Some of the promising sugarcane cutivars are: COS 687, COS 8436, COS 767, BO 106, BO 108, BO 90, CO 7508, CO 7704, CO 1108, COJ 83, CO 89003, CO 29, CO 997, CO 527, CO 775, CO 419, CO 775, CO 8021, CO 8011, CO 671, CO 8208, COG Nutrient Management The NPK recommendation for sugarcane crop varies from region-to-region. The recommendation of N is from kg/ha, P2O5 is kg/ha and K2O is kg/ha. Appy FYM or t/ha. Recommended dose of bio-fertiizers for sugarcane crop is kg/ha. Acetobacter, Azotobacter, Azospirium and PSB are the major biofertiizers, which are being used in sugarcane crop. Water Management In tropica area, irrigations are to be given once in 7 days during germination phase, once in 10 days during tiering phase, again in 7 days during grand growth phase and once in 15 days during maturity phase, adjusting it to the rain fa pattern of the area. About 30 to 40 irrigations are needed. Whereas in subtropics, about 7-10 irrigations are being given to the sugarcane crop. Sugarcane is a high water requirement crop. About 250 tonnes of water is needed to produce one tonne of sugarcane. Methods ike aternate furrow irrigation, drip irrigation and trash muching coud be of use to economize irrigation water during water scarcity periods. Weed Management In pure crop of sugarcane spray atrazine 2 kg or oxyfurofen 750 m/ha mixed in 500 L water as pre-emergence herbicide on 3rd day of panting. Pre-mergence appication of 1.25 kg a.i./ha under intercropping system in sugarcane with soybean, backgram or groundnut gives effective weed contro. Pant Protection Sugarcane is iabe to be attacked by a number of insect-pests and diseases. Due to diversity in agro-ecoogica conditions, the importance of insect-pests and diseases varies and therefore, management strategy shoud be adopted accordingy. Top borer and stak borer are found pre-dominanty in sub-tropica areas whereas eary shoot borer and among diseases rust & eye spot are prevaent in tropica region. 51

72 Harvesting and Yied Harvesting and coection of cane shoud either be mechanica or manua. In subtropica India, it has been shown that spring harvested crop woud resut in a better ratoon than that obtained by harvesting in the autumn. Sugarcane crop is harvested after attending maturity, generay it starts from the month of October and continue ti the month of May in sub-tropica states whereas in Tropica states, it starts from the month of December and continues ti the month of May. Cane tonnage at harvest with best management practices can vary between 120 and 150 t/ha, which depends on the ength of the tota growing period and whether it is a main or ratoon crop. The sugar recovery in sugarcane varies from state-to-state. Average sugar recovery in the country is 10.25%. COFFEE Coffee (Coffea spp) is the second important beverage, ranking second among traded commodities. Its dried beans are roasted, ground and brewed to make a stimuating and refreshing beverage. Neary 80% of the word coffee is produced from Coffea arabica, 20% from Coffea camephora and 1% from Coffea iberica. There are approximatey 250,000 coffee growers in India; 98% of them are sma growers. India grows both Arabica (around 1/3 of production) and Robusta (around 2/3 of production) varieties of coffee. The tota panted area of coffee covers around 380,000 ha mainy in the traditiona coffee growing states of Karnataka (58%), Keraa (22%) and Tami Nadu (8%). Fu bearing a tree of coffee Coffee beans Cimatic and Soi Requirements The Coffea arabica is grown at an eevation of m atitude and requires high annua rainfa of mm than Coffea robusta, which can be grown at ower eevations ( m atitude). Soi shoud be deep, friabe, and rich in organic matter with a ph of In Apri, pits of cm may be dug at an appropriate spacing (2-3 m). In June, the pits are 52

73 BASIC AGRICULTURE covered with top soi and staked. In poor sois, 250 g of FYM or compost per pit may be added before fiing. Cutivars The four main botanica cutivars of India s coffee incude Kent, S-795, Cauvery and Seection 9. Propagation and Panting In coffee, generay the propagation is done through seeds and of ate in robusta, the cona propagation is aso done. Disease-free and vigorous seedings are seected for panting. Rooted pants (aged months) with and without ba are panted during June and bag pants are generay panted during September-October. The seedings are provided with cross stakes to prevent wind damage and muched propery. Panting Shade Trees Dadap (Erythrina ithosperma) is generay used as a ower canopy shade-pant. Stakes of 2 m ength are panted for every two pants of coffee. Siver oak and dadap are panted during June when the southwest monsoon commences. Training and Pruning The coffee pant is trained either on singe stem or mutipe stem system. Under south Indian conditions, periodica handing and pruning are essentia. Centering and desuckering are to be carried out for about 5-6 years after panting. Usuay coffee, both arabica and robusta, is trained on singe stem. When the pants reach a desired height of 75 cm for arabica and cm for robusta, they are topped. Water Management Wherever water is avaiabe, overhead irrigation by sprinker system is adopted to a greater advantage during November-January to keep the soi moisture eve and in February-Apri for ensuring bossom as we as backing, if necessary. Fruit Ripening Hastening of fruit ripening in coffee coud be achieved by spraying ethephon (Ethre) on mature berries when 10% natura ripening is observed. The foowing concentrations are standardized for arabica and robusta pants. Arabica: 100 to 120 m per 200 itres of water per 400 pants. Robusta: 40 to 54 m per 200 itres of water per 267 pants. Harvesting Two harvesting systems are used most widey in coffee growing. Picking: Coffee picking is a totay manua process in which the ripe cherries are seected and picked one-by-one, requiring pickers to rotate through the crop severa times. This yieds a more uniform high-quaity crop. 53

74 Stripping: Coffee stripping is a process that may be manua or mechanised in which a the fruit is removed in one go when it is of average ripeness. It often requires a further check to eiminate impurities and under-ripe or aready fermented cherries. Disease Management Disease Dieback Leaf rust Symptoms Contro measures Dieback refers to death of 1. Remova of dead and whippy wood. younger tertiary branches 2. Providing judicious shade. starting from apex progressing 3. Conservation of soi moisture with downwards. thick much. 4. Foiar appication of nutrients. 5. Correcting the soi acidity by appication of ime. This disease cause economic Spray with 0.5% Bordeaux mixture or oss particuary in arabica 0.03% oxycarboxin 20 EC, 3-4 times a coffee. Lower eaves have year. sma pae yeowish spots. Pest Management Pest Symptoms Contro measures Coffee berry borer The femae beete bores into the berries through the nave region and makes tunnes in the hard bean and ays eggs. A typica pinhoe at the tip of the berries indicates the presence of the pest, and it damages young as we as ripe berries. Timey and compete harvest, burying the infested berries and maintaining optimum shade and good drainage can contro the pest. Spraying quinaphos 0.05% aong with wetting agent days after fowering can contro the pest. White stem borer The aduts have two fight periods as they emerge from the pupae during Apri-May and in September to December/ January. As the beetes are active and femaes ay eggs in the crevices on the main stem of coffee. 54 Swabbing the main stem and the thick primaries with carbary 50 4 kg in 200 L water once or twice in Apri-May or October to December.

75 BASIC AGRICULTURE TEA Tea (Cameia sinensis) beongs to famiy Cameiaceae or Theaceae, is the most popuar and the cheapest beverage consumed by two-thirds of the word popuation. Majority of the tea producing countries are ocated in the continent of Asia where China, India, Sri Lanka are the major producers. In India, It is mainy grown in Assam, West Benga, Tami Nadu, Keraa and Karnataka. Some of tea is produced in Uttarakhand and in Kangra Vaey and Mandi district of Himacha Pradesh. Harvesting of tea in progress Cimatic and Soi Requirements Tea bush is a tropica and subtropica pant and thrives we in hot and humid cimate. There is a very cose reation between cimate, the yied and the quaity of tea. The idea temperature for its growth is C and temperatures above 35 C and beow 10 C are harmfu for the bush. It requires cm annua rainfa, which shoud be we distributed throughout the year. Tea is a shade-oving pant and deveops more vigorousy when panted aong with shady trees. Tea bush grows we in we-drained, deep, friabe oams. However, virgin forest sois rich in humus and iron content are considered to be the best sois for tea pantations. Reativey arge proportion of phosphorus and potash in the soi gives specia favour to tea as is the case in Darjeeing. The soi shoud be acidic (around ph 5.0) having good drainage faciity. Varieties Cones: UPASI-2, UPASI-8, UPASI-9, UPASI-17, BSS-1, BSS-2. 55

76 Propagation and Panting The seed viabiity extends up to 6 months. Before sowing, seeds are put in water and ony the sinkers wi be used and foaters rejected. Seeds germinate in 4-6 weeks and the cracked seeds are transpanted in poythene seeves. The pants wi be ready for panting in the main fied in 9 months. In the case of new panting, in order to avoid the incidence of root diseases, after feing the trees, remove the root system to the extent possibe. Cear the junge growth but do not burn, the ash being akaine wi increase the ph. Pits of size cm are dug one. Keep the top and bottom soi separatey. In cayey soi and drought-prone areas, deeper pits (60 cm) or trench panting wi be advantageous. In south-west monsoon areas, June-Juy and in north-east monsoon areas, the September-October are idea months for panting. Nutrient Management Appy 100 g of powdered auminium suphate per pit and thoroughy mix with soi. Seect seedings of 12 months od. After panting the seeding, compact the soi surrounding the pant and appy 25 t ha-1. The 4 year od and above pants are appied with 300: 300: 50 kg NPK/ha, respectivey in 6 spits. Specia operations in tea garden Training of young tea pants Centering Tipping Pucking Proper training of young tea pants is essentia to encourage good spread of the bushes, proper deveopment of frames and high density of pucking points. Cut the eader stem of the pants with secateur to arrest the apica dominance and to induce the secondary branches. Cut as ow as possibe eaving 8-10 mature eaves beow the cut. Ensure proper recovery. Centering shoud be done 4-6 months after panting during humid weather when there is adequate moisture in the soi. First pucking of the periodic shoot is done after centering/ pruning. Two-tier tipping ensures proper spread. First tipping at 35 cm height wi induce the tertiaries. Second tipping at 50 cm height wi increase the density of pucking points. Tipping shoud be done at green, semi-hardwood branches. Tipping shoud be done in shoots having 3-4 eaves and a bud. Mother eaf / step-up pucking is practiced during ean seasons. Leve pucking is done during high cropping months. This is essentia for better frame deveopment. 56

77 BASIC AGRICULTURE Shade management Poarding Annua opping Pucking The best permanent shade tree for tea pantation in south India is siver oak (Greviea robusta). Tea requires ony sparse shade. So retain optimum stand of shade-based on the growth of the tree, atitude of the garden and aspect of the fied (south and west sopes require more shade). Aways thin out shade prior to pruning. Cutting the main stem with the objective of deveoping atera branches is caed poarding. Commence poarding when the trees attain a girth of around 50 cm at ebow eve. Poarding depends on atitude (8 m height for higher atitude, 9 m for ow eevation). Leave one branch in each direction and 3 to 4 tiers of branches, beow the poarding height. Cutting the erect growing branches on the ateras is caed opping, which shoud be done before the onset of monsoons and op ony the erect branches and retain the ateras. Harvest 2-3 eaves and a bud. Puck the mother eaf during January-March. Puck the new eve during rest of the month. Puck at 7-10 days interva during high cropping months. Puck at days interva during ow cropping months. Do not puck beow the eve. Leave immature shoots. Shear-harvest during rush periods. Cut anes in oder fieds. Harvesting in tea Freshy harvested tea eaves 57

78 Important disease and their management Disease Back root disease Symptoms Contro measures The common symptoms are Remove surface muches around 10 m. witing, chorosis, drying Drench soi with mancozeb 30 g/10 L without defoiation and water. Foow phytosanitary measures. death of bush. Coar canker The main symptoms are Remove affected portion by pruning chorosis, cessation of the heathy wood and appy copper growth, profuse fowering fungicide to cut ends. and canker on stem. Bister bight The fungus affects ony Spray of copper oxychoride 350 g + tender eaves and stems. pantomycin 70 g/ha at 3-4 days interva Stem infection eads to can contro the disease. goose-neck shape, dieback and snapping at the point of infection. Important pest & their management Pests White/ cockchafer grubs (Hootrichia sp.) Root meay bug (Dysmicoccus sp.) EXERCISES Symptoms Contro measures The creamy white grub eats away Heat treatment of soi is effective. the roots. Main symptoms are Drench 0.05% chorpyriphos or ring barking of stem, chorosis quinaphos. and defoiation. The pest is a serious probem in areas where un-decomposed FYM is used. The pest is a probem in nursery. It sucks sap from the causing region, mother eaf petioe and axiary buds. This arrests root deveopment; eads to mothereaf fa and finay death of pant. It can be controed by spraying and soi drenching with chorpyriphos or quinaphos 0.05 per cent. Activities 1. Go to a nearby viage and make a ist of crops grown by the viage farmers. Aso, cassify them as cerea crops, puse crops, oiseed crops, fodder crops, fiibre crops and commercia crops. 58

79 BASIC AGRICULTURE 2. Make a season-wise ist of crops grown in your viage/ocaity (kharif season crops, rabi season crops and zaid season crops) 4. Pan a visit to a nearby State Agricutura University/ICAR institute of your area or Krishi Vigyan Kendra of your district. Make a technoogy inventory (report) of recenty deveoped crop production technoogies of major crops of your area by these institutes Go to a nearby viage and make a ist of major pests and diseases of the major crops. Aso, make chart for their management: List the major puse crops of India. Discuss their seed rate, fertiizer and water management practices. Check Your Progress Write a paragraph in your own words on each of the foowing: (a) Sowing, (b) Nutrient management, (c) Weed management, (d) Disease management, (e) Pest management. Write a short note on crop production technoogy in wheat. Define harvesting, threshing and winnowing. Why does time and frequency of irrigation vary from crop to crop? Write major rice based cropping systems of India. Write a paragraph on the various methods used to repenish the nutrients in the fieds. What are weeds? How can we contro them? List the major coffee and tea growing states in India. List major fiber crops of India and their production areas/states. Write a short note on berseem fodder crop. What is the significance of nipping in chickpea? What is the significance of retting in jute? What is the significance of cimatic and soi requirements in crop production? Mention the seed rate and nutrient management in maize. 15. List the major oiseed crops of India. Discuss their fertiizer and water management practices. 1. Promising basmati rice cutivars are. 4. Soybean contains % protein and..% oi content. Fi in the banks Wheat is a season crop. Exampes of speciaty maize types are. 59

80 Critica stages of irrigation in wheat are.. Legume root nodues contain Rhizobium bacteria, which are responsibe for India ranks.. in area and production of chickpea at word eve. Botanica name of pigeonpea is White grub is a major pest of. Average sugar recovery from sugarcane in India is Match the statement given in coumn A with the statement of coumn B. Coumn A Coumn B Kharif crops Wheat, gram, pea Organic manure FYM, compost Rabi crops Urea and super phosphate Chemica fertiisers Rice, maize, soybean Coumn A Coumn B Rice Crown root initiation (CRI), tiering, fowering, miking, grain fiing Puses Knee high stage, tasseing, siking, eary grain formation Wheat Maize Tiering, panice initiation, heading, fowering, grain fiing Fowering and pod deveopment Suggested Further Readings Textbook of Fied Crops Production-Foodgrain Crops (Vo-I), ICAR Pubication, New Dehi. Handbook of Agricuture, ICAR Pubication, New Dehi. Textbook of Fied Crops Production-Commercia Crops (Vo-II), ICAR Pubication, New Dehi. Rana, K.S., Choudhary, A.K., Sepat, S. and Bana, R.S Advances in Fied Crop Production. [ISBN: ]. Post Graduate Schoo, IARI, New Dehi. pp 475. Choudhary, A.K., Rana, D.S., Bana, R.S., Pooniya, V., Dass, A., Kaur, R., Rana, K.S Agronomy of Oiseed and Puse Crops. [ISBN: ]. Post Graduate Schoo, IARI, New Dehi & ICAR, DARE, New Dehi, India. pp

81 BASIC AGRICULTURE CHAPTER 2 PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, students wi be abe to: Know important fruits and their cutivation hints Identify the probems of fruits and their management Identify the major insect-pests and diseases of temperate fruits and their integrated contro measures Start agribusiness in horticutura crops Introduction Whenever you go to a market, you might have seen severa types of fruits, vegetabes, fowers, condiments and spices. Have you ever thought about their areas of production, and specific cimate or sois in which they grow? I don t think you have ever thought about it. You may have severa such queries in your mind. In this chapter, you wi come to know about major fruits, vegetabes, fower crops and some pantaion crops, condiments and spices and their cutura hints. A. Cutura Hints for Major Fruits Grown in India APPLE Appe (Maus domestica Borkh.) Appe is the most important fruit among the temperate fruits grown throughout the word. It beongs to genus Maus, famiy Rosaceae with basic chromosome number, x = 17 and commony caed as king of temperate fruits. In India, appe is cutivated in Jammu and Kashmir, Himacha Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunacha Pradesh, Nagaand and Sikkim. Some ow chiing varieties are aso cutivated in Nigiri his and eastern Himaayan ranges. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Appe can grown on a wide range of sois. We-drained, deep, fertie, sighty acidic, cay oam sois with ph are considered idea for appe cutivation. Sites with gente sope are generay more suitabe than too steep areas. Appe requires about 1,000 to 1,500 hours of winter chiing for breaking the bud dormancy. 61

82 Panting The systems of panting appe in fat areas are square, rectanguar, quincunx and hexagona. However, in hiy areas, contour or terrace panting is convenient. A panting distance of 8 x 8 m for vigorous and 5 x 5 m for dwarf cutivars is recommended in India. In genera, pits of 1 x 1 x 1 m size are dug and fied at east one month before panting by mixing kg FYM or compost, 500 g superphosphate and 50 g insecticida dust ike metacid dust or foido dust at the time of pit fiing. Eary panting shoud be done preferaby in December. Commercia Varieties According to the time of harvesting, appe varieties can be categorized as eary, mid and ate. Eary Mid season Late Red June, Tydeman s Eary Worcester, Kings Pippin, Summer Queen Starking Deicious, Red Deicious, Richared, Back Ben Davis, Red God, Mcntosh, Goden Deicious, Lord Lambourne Granny Smith, Ruspippin Yeow, Winter Banana Fowering, Poination and Fruit set Most of the appe cutivars especiay of the Deicious group are sef-infertie and hence require cross poination for satisfactory fruit set. Therefore, poinizing varieties such as Tydeman s Eary Worcester, Red God and Goden Deicious shoud aso be grown aong with commercia variety. Rootstocks and Propagation Traditionay seeding rootstocks are used.standard cona rootstocks such as Maing (M) series (M9, M27) and Maing Merton (MM) series rootstocks (MM106, MM109, MM111) are used. Training and Pruning Modified centra eader system of training is most suitabe for deveoping framework of the tree in standard pantations on seeding rootstock. The proportiona heading back and thinning out system of pruning is adopted to maintain the baance between the reproductive and vegetative growth. Appe requires reguar moderate annua pruning. In the aged pantations, spur pruning is advisabe to encourage the vegetative growth and new spur deveopment. Manures and Fertiizers In genera, 10 kg FYM, 70 g N, 35 g P2O5 and 70 g K2O shoud be appied to one-year-od pants. FYM, P2O5 and K2O shoud be appied during the winter before snowfa at the time of basin preparation whereas nitrogenous fertiizers shoud be appied one month before bud break. 62

83 BASIC AGRICULTURE Maturity and Harvesting It is important to harvest the fruits at proper stage of maturity. Immature fruits are of poor favour and quaity and shrink during storage. Over mature fruits are aso poor in quaity and are more prone to storage disorders. The important picking indices for appe are, change of seed coour to brown, change of ground coour from green to pae or red, TSS of 11 to 14.5, firmness of fesh (16-18 b/square inch), easy separation of fruit from the spurs, T stage,starch index and days from fu boom to maturity depending on variety. Grading and Packaing The harvested fruits are graded according to size and coour. In India, appes are graded in seven size grades viz. super arge (85 mm diameter), extra arge (80 mm), arge (75 mm), medium (70 mm), sma (65 mm), extra sma (60 mm) and pittoo (55 mm and beow). The fruits can be packed in teescopic fibre board cartons or wooden boxes for transportation and storage. Appe fruits can be stored at -1.1 to 0 C at per cent reative humidity for 4-6 months. Pant Protection a. Insect Pests and their Contro Insect-pest Contro measures San Jose Scae Appication of 2 per cent miscibe oi or 5 per cent summer oi during February-March efficienty contros the pest. Root borers Drench tree basins with chorpyriphos (0.04) or dusting with foido dust at the rate of 25 kg/ha during September is quite effective for the contro of root borers. Wooy appe aphid Soi appication of phorate or carbofuran granues during May and October-November checks its incidence and spread of this pest. The foiar spray of chorpyriphos (0.02%), fenitrothion (0.05%), dimethoate (0.03%) or phosphamidon (0.03%) aso contros the pest effectivey. Diseases and their Contro Appe scab The disease is caused by a fungus, Venturia inaequais. It is most serious disease of appe and causes serious osses to the growers. It mosty affects eaves, buds and fruits. On the affected parts oive cooured spots appear, A spray schedue of different chemicas has been recommended for its effective contro. 63

84 Powdery midew MANGO In this disease, whity powdery mass grows on eaves and other arie parts. It can be kept under contro by pruning and destroying affected terminas and spraying of wettabe suphur ( %), carbendazim (0.05%) or karathane (0.05%) during ate dormancy, bud swe, peta fa and two weeks ater. In nursery, spraying of fungicides at 7 days interva is recommended. Mango (Mangifera indica L.), beongs to famiy Anacardiaceae and genus Mangifera with basic chromosome number, X = 20. The choicest fruit of India, ambasedor fruit of India, is said to be the king of fruits. It is an outstanding source of vitamin A, a good source of vitamin C, apart from norma mineras and other vitamins. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Mango can be grown in a variety of sois but cay-oam, we-drained sois with a ph range of 5.7 to 7.5 are considered to be the best for its cutivation. A temperature range of C throughout the growing season is the best for its cutivation. Commercia Varieties In India, there are severa varieties of mango but ony are grown commerciay. For exampe, Dashehari, Langra, Chausa and Bombay Green are grown commerciay in north, Banganpai/Baneshan, Neeum, Totapuri in south, Aphonso and Kesar in west and Langra, Himsagar etc. in the east. On the basis of embryos, mango varieties have been cassified as monoembryonic (Most of the varieties) and poyembryonic (Bapakai, Veary, Chandrakaran, Kurrukan, Goa, Oour, Carabao, Paho, Peach, Apricot, Strawberry etc.) Propagation Mango can be propagated both by sexua and asexua means but it is mainy propagated by veneer grafting, stone grafting and soft-wood grafting in different parts of India. Panting Distance and Time Panting distance varies from variety-to-variety and ocaity-to-ocaity. In genera, a panting distance of 10-12m is recommended for commercia varieties ike Dashehari, Langra, Chansa, Aphonso, Banganpai etc. Pits of 1 x 1 x 1 m size are dug out and kept open during May, which are refied by the end of the June with the mixture of top soi and Farm Yard Manure in the ratio of 1: 1. The best time for panting mango is the monsoon season. 64

85 BASIC AGRICULTURE Manures and Fertiizers In genera, ammonium suphate, super phosphate and suphate of potash shoud be mixed in the ratio of 1: 3: 1 and ½ kg in the first year, which shoud be increased by kg every year up to 15th year, and then 6-10 kg afterwards. Farm yard manure (FYM) is generay appied in September-October every year. Irrigation Young pants shoud be irrigated at weeky intervas in summer and at fortnighty intervas in winter. However, the bearing pants shoud be irrigated at days interva from fruit set stage to maturity. It is, however, advised to withhed irrigation during fowering as it may resut in shedding of fowers. Pant Protection Insectpest Contro measures Mango eaf hopper Mango hoppers can be controed by two sprays of carbary (0.1%) or diazinon (0.2%) during January-February at fortnighty intervas. Stone weevi Difficut to contro, however, bagging of fruits, destruction of affected faen fruits and disposa of debris, etc., can bring out reduction in the insect number. Mango meay bug Fruit fy Diseases Powdery midew Ki nymphs and femaes by spraying metasystox (0.2%). Foow banding of tree trunks with 30 cm wide akathene. Coect and destroy the affected fruits. Use baits (maathion (0.05%) + jaggery+eugeno) at 4-5 paces in open containers to attract the adut fies, and contro them effectivey. Raking of soi in May-June is equay usefu as it heps in the kiing of pupae. Two sprays of karathane (0.1% ) at fortnighty interva competey contro this disease. One preventive spray of karathane (0.1%) as soon as coudy weather appears during fowering time. Anthracnose Spray zineb (0.2%). However, a preventive spray of Bordeaux mixture (4:4:50) is aways usefu in humid areas before panice emergence. Physioogica Disorders Maformation: It is most dreaded disorder of mango in northern parts of India, the causa agent of which is sti unknown. Most of the commercia varieties in subtropica parts of India are affected by maformation and southern parts are virtuay free from it. Pants both in nursery and fied are affected by this maady. The symptoms of this 65

86 maady are characterized by the transformation of inforescence into compact mass with predominating mae fowers. This disorder is commony reated to the prevaiing environmenta temperature. Panices emerging during ate-december or earyjanuary (when the environmenta temperature is comparativey ow) are worst affected by maformation. The foowing contro measures reduce the incidence of maformation: Remove and burn a the affected maformed panices and branches as and Maformed mango panice when they emerge. Mango maformation is the most dreaded maady of mango in north Foow up de-bossoming in January. Appication of methano eaf extract of India; its causes are not yet known, Rueia tuberosa (12 g eaf per itre soution) however, temperature pays a vita reduces maformation in cv. Dashehari. roe. De-bossoming of maformed However, the concentration is variety panices during December-January specific, which needs to be standardized. is most usefu soution. Spray NAA (200 ppm) in October. Spongy tissue: Spongy tissue disorder accounts Spongy tissue is one of the most for more than 30 per cent oss in Aphonso mango. serious disorders of Aphonso In this disorder, a non-edibe, sour, yeowish and mango, which hinders its export sponge ike patch deveops in one part of the fruit from India. during ripening. The fruit pup remains unripe but the fruits ook norma in externa appearance. On cutting, the fruits emit bad odour and are unfit for human consumption. The precise cause of this maady is sti unknown. However, recent studies indicate that fruits ow in Ca content are worst affected by spongy tissue disorder and the convecteric heat of the soi adds more to this disorder. Use of sod cuture, green vegetation, eguminous crop cover or muching at pre-harvest stage are some measures to reduce this disorder to some extent. Maturity and Harvesting Depending on variety and growing environment, mango fruits take days to reach harvest maturity. Various indices have been suggested to determine the harvest maturity of mango, e.g., change of pee coour, natura faing of some fruits from the tree (tapka) formation of abscission ayer at pedice joint, specific gravity of fruits ( ), etc. Harvesting is done manuay. The most usefu too for this purpose is a ong bamboo poe fitted with a cutting shear and a coecting net beow it at the disti end of the poe. 66

87 BASIC AGRICULTURE BANANA Banana beongs to famiy Musaceae and genus Musa with basic chromosome number, X = 11. On the basis of genomic constitution, banana has two species, Musa acuminata and M, babisiana. A edibe bananas have been deveoped from these two species. Banana is one of the odest and most popuar fruits. It is a good source of carbohydrates and mineras ike potassium and sodium. It is widey used as a fresh fruit, but severa vaue added products ike chips, puree etc. can aso be made from it. India ranks second among the banana growing countries after Brazi. In India, Keraa, Maharashtra and Tami Nadu account for major share in area and production of banana. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Cay to sandy cay-oam soi is the most suitabe for banana cutivation. However, the best soi is medium textured soi, having ph between It enjoys an annua rainfa ranging from 100 to 325 cm. Banana is we adapted to areas with temperature between C, and annua rainfa between 1,000-2,000 mm. Commercia Varieties/Cones The major varieties are Poovan, Basrai, Monthan, Haricha, Rasthai, Hi Banana, Nendran, Sevazhai and Kunnan. Propagation Bananas are propagated from offshoots (suckers) or rhizomes. Panting System Square, rectange and triange system are recommended systems for banana panting. For mono-cutured cropping system, the recommended panting distance is 3.0 x 1.5 m. For high-density panting, distance is reduced significanty. Thinning of Suckers or Desuckering Thinning of suckers invoves remova of unwanted suckers; normay weak unheathy, mainy water sucker using sharp knife at the ground eve, eaving 1 bearer, one foower and one sucker per cump at any time. Fertiizer Appication Banana requires high fertiization due to its rapid and vigorous growth and high fruit yied. It removes neary kg N, kg P and kg K, kg Ca, kg Mg and kg S per hectare. Usuay, 300 Kg N, Kg P and K shoud be given per ha. Water Management Banana pant shoud be irrigated to encourage deveopment and heathy growth especiay in the eary years of growth. Micro-sprinker or drip irrigation system is 67

88 recommended. Areas with frequent fash food, construction of in-fied drainage is recommended. Pant Protection Insect-pests Contro measures Corm weevi Use heathy materias and treat rhizomes with hot water for 5-10 minutes. Ensure good sanitation. Drench with diedrin. Nematode Hot water treatment. Sanitation. Drench with fenamiphos. Wrapping of fruit with poyethyene bags. Stem borer weevi Diseases Ensure good sanitation. Spray with diedrin. Contro measures Leaf spot Used resistant cutivar. Spray with benomy (0.03%). Bunchy top Adoption of strict quarantine measures, destroy infected pant materia. Contro aphid by spraying metasystox or dimecron (0.01%) Panama disease (Fusarium wit) Use resistant variety. Ensure good sanitation. Use disease free panting materia. Maturity, Harvesting and Yied Depending on the variety, banana starts to bear fruit in 6-8 months after panting. It is ready for harvesting in about 7-11 weeks ater. GUAVA Guava (Psidium guajava L.), beongs to famiy Myrtaceae and genus Psidium with basic chromosome number (n) = 11. It is aso known as the appe of tropics and poor man s fruit in India. It is a rich source of vitamin C and pectin, and good source of vitamins, mineras ike cacium and phosphorus. Being rich in pectin, exceent jey is made from guavas. In India, it is mainy grown in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Maharashtra. In Uttar Pradesh, Aahabad region has the reputation of growing the best quaity guavas in the word. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Guava is a hardy fruit pant and can thrive on a types of sois, ranging from heavy cay to ight sois. However, the cay oam, deep, friabe and we-drained sois are best. It can be grown in sois having ph up to 9.0, though the optimum range is 4.5 to 7.5. Under highy waterogged, saine and akaine conditions, its cutivation is adversey affected. However, both yied and fruit quaity are better in areas with distinct winter. 68

89 BASIC AGRICULTURE Commercia Varieties Important varieties of guava are Aahabad Safeda, Sardar (Lucknow-49), Behat Coconut, Seedess, Appe Coour, Banarasi Surkha, Chittidar, Arka Kiran, Swetha. Propagation Guava can be propagated both by seed and a sexua means. Most important methods of vegetative propagation are air ayering/gootee, stooing, softwood grafting and budding. Now-a-days, stooing is preferred. Panting The pits of 1 x 1 x 1 m size shoud be dug out at appropriate distance in a square system before monsoon. The pits are refied with kg we decomposed farm yard manure, mixed with top soi and irrigated. The best panting time is onset of monsoon. Guava is usuay panted at a distance of 7 to 8 m. Irrigation Guava is a hardy fruit pant and requires very ess water. However, in the eary stages of orchard estabishment, pants require frequent irrigation. Later, more frequent irrigation (fortnighty interva) is required from Apri to June for good growth and fruit yied. Due to reguar growth, fowering and fruiting in south India, guava requires irrigation throughout the year. Manuring and Fertiization Ten-year-od guava tree shoud be given about 80 kg of FYM, 1 kg of ammonium suphate or 800 g of cacium ammonium nitrate, 3kg of super-phosphate and 2 kg of potassium suphate.the fertiizers shoud be appied in two spit doses (June and October) when there is sufficient moisture in the soi. Fowering and Crop Reguation Guava fowers twice a year in north India. First Under certain cimatic conditions, fowering takes pace in Apri-May, which gives guava pants may fower twice fruits in rainy season. The second fowering takes or thrice a year. Under these pace in August-September to give fruiting in conditions, reguation of fowering winter season. The rainy season crop is generay is required, to get fruits of desirabe avoided as most of the fruits are infested by quaity. Reguation of fowering can fruitfy and the fruits are insipid and of very poor be achieved by exposure of roots, quaity. The winter crop is virtuay free from root pruning and with chemicas, fruitfy and the fruits are of high quaity. Winter which is caed as bahar treatment. crop is therefore, preferred as it gives very high returns to the farmers. In centra-southern India, guava fowers thrice a year, with fowers appearing in October aso. In West Benga, guava fowers once in Apri-May and again in September-October. 69

90 In areas where guava fowers twice or thrice a year, we need to reguate crop in such a way that ony quaity crop is harvested. In this process, winter and rainy season crop is avoided. This can be done by forcing the pants to take rest in the undesired season by stopping irrigation, and then appying fertiizers and manures in the desired season. De-bossoming can be done by spraying NAA (100 ppm) or 2,4-D (30 ppm) in summer. Pant Protection Insect pests Damage Fruit fy Most serious pest of rainy season crop, renders whoe crop unfit for consumption. Maggots on hatching, enter the fruits, and feed inside. Meay bug Causes damage by sucking ce sap from tender eaves, shoots, fowers and fruits. The affected eaves dry up and the fruits drop off, resuting in poor yied. Diseases Wit Symptoms This disease is characterized by yeowing of eaves, foowed by drying of the eaves. The twigs start drying from tip downwards. The pant may coapse sowy in severa or within days. Contro measures Soi raking, destruction of infected fruits, use of baits (sugar + maathion) and spraying pants with maathion (0.05%) or dimecron (0.03%) during oviposition period are some usefu measures. The banding of the tree trunk with poyethyene fim or Ostico-sticky bands is the best method to prevent them cimbing up the tree. Further, treatment of soi with adrin or maathion is aso effective. Contro measures Remove and burn the infected pants, maintain proper drainage, grow wit resistant varieties (L-49, Banarasi), avoid panting in highy akaine sois, disinfect soi with 2 per cent formadehyde soution before panting, and drench soi with brassico or spray bavistin (0.1%) at an interva of 15 days at eary stages of disease infection. Anthracnose Die-back starts from top Spray dithane-z-78 or phytoan (0.2%) of the branch. Other pant at fortnighty interva. parts, ike shoots, eaves and fruits are readiy affected. High humidity and frequent rains favour the spread and intensity of disease. Maturity and Harvesting Seeding guava pants have 5-6 years juvenie phase whereas the grafted or ayered pants start bearing after 2-3 years. Change in fruit coour is usuay taken as harvesting index. As soon as coour starts turning from greenish-to-yeowish, the fruits shoud 70

91 BASIC AGRICULTURE be harvested. Hand picking of fruits at reguar intervas is preferred. Harvesting by shaking of tree may cause severe damage to fruits and the tree. Guava starts giving economic yieds after 8-10 years of panting. In genera, grafted pant of 8-10 years age can yied 400 to 800 fruits weighing 80 to 100 kg. Guavas are highy perishabe and must be marketed immediatey after harvest. CITRUS Citrus comprise a group of fruits such as mandarin (Citrus reticuata), sweet orange (Citrus sinensis), emon (Citrus imon), ime (Cirus aurantifoia), pummeo (Citrus grandis) and grapefruit (C. paradisi), beonging to famiy Rutaceae, with basic chromosome number, X=8. Juice present in the vesices is the edibe portion of the citrus fruit. The juice contains per cent sugars, citric acid, and ascorbic acid (Vitamin C). In India, Maharashtra, A.P., Punjab, NE states, Karnataka and Bihar are the major citrus producing states. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Commercia citrus cutivation in India is done on sois ranging from coarse sands to heavy cays, Idea ph ranges from 5.5 to 6.0. The growth and deveopment in citrus is optimum in temperature regimes ranging from 25 to 30 C to minimum of 3 C. Annua rainfa of mm, we distributed throughout the year is optimum for citrus growth and production. Commercia Cutivars Sweet Mosambi, Sathgudi, Vaencia, Pineappe, Jaffa, Hamin, Shamouti, Mata, oranges Mata Bood Red, Ruby etc. Mandarins Owara, Siver Hi, King, Wiow Leaf, Nagpuri, Khasi, Coorg, Kinnow and Satsuma. Lemon Eureka, Lisbon, Assam emon, Pani Jamir, Meyer emon, Karna Khatta, and gaga (hi emon). Lime West Indian ime, Kagzi, Tahiti ime (Persian), Pond, etc. Grapefruit Duncan, Foster, Marsh Seedess Thompson Seedess, Red Bush. Pummeo Nagpur (chakotra), Common pummeo. Propagation and Rootstock Citrus trees are propagated by both vegetative mean and sexuay by seeds. Vegetative methods are preferred because they ensure uniformity in quaity and bearing. Seeds of severa citrus species are poyembryonic and nucear seedings, which produce true-to-type pants. Mandarins and acid imes are mosty propagated as seedings. Lemons, citrons, sweet imes are easiy propagated by stem cuttings. Air-ayering is mosty practiced in pummeo, mandarin, acid ime and seedess emons. Most of citrus cutivars are propagated by T budding on a suitabe rootstock. 71

92 Rootstock and Poyembryony Rootstocks commony empoyed for citrus propagation are rough emon, sour orange (C. aurantium L.), Karna Khatta (C. karna), Rangpur ime (C. reticuata), sweet orange (C. sinensis L. Osbeck), Citranges ike Troyer, trifoiate orange (Poncirus trifoiata L. Raf.), and Ceopatra mandarin. Panting Commony panted in a square or rectanguar system. In square system, the panting density of 4 x 4 m, 5 x 5 m, 3 x 3 m can accommodate 625, 400, 1111 pants/ha, respectivey. Pits of size 50 x 50 cm are dug in summer according to the ayout pan and mixed with kg we rotten FYM and 50 g choropyrophos (to ki white ants) and fied tighty with top soi. The best panting time is beginning of rainy season. Nutrient Management For sustainabe production of fruits and for proper maintenance of pant and soi heath, efficient nutrient management programme must be adopted. Citrus is a nutrient exhaustive crop as pants in the popuation density of 400 pants/ha can remove about 200 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 200 kg K2O/ha. Foiar spray of micronutrients has given beneficia effect on improving the yied and quaity. One to 2% urea, aongwith ZnSO4, MnSO4, MgSO4 (each 0.5%) and CuSO4 (0.25%) is beneficia for a citrus cutivars. Physioogica Disorders Granuation: This is the major disorder of sweet orange, mandarin wherein the juice sacs become tough, enarged, coouress and tastess. There is a marked increase in the pectic substances, ges etc. and marked decine in sugars, organic acids and carotenoids. These fruits are insipid and fetch poor price in the market. Some of the factors associated with it are: high soi humidity, high reative humidity and temperature during fruit growth. Hamin and Mosambi orange are highy prone to granuation. This maady can be kept under contro with the appication of 16 ppm of 2,4-D on deveoping fruits. Simiar, effect was aso noted with the spray of ZnSO4 + CuSO4 + KC each at 0.25% at monthy Fruit cracking/spitting is a serious probem in emon. It can be reduced interva from August to October. by reguar irrigation and spraying Fruit cracking: This is a common disorder borax and cacium choride. of sweet orange and acid ime. The spitting starts at styar end and progresses towards the pedicear end. Spitting is basicay caused due to factors ike deficit soi moisture, atmospheric temperature and reative humidity. Borax (0.2%) spray can check spitting and timey appication of irrigation water must be ensured. 72

93 BASIC AGRICULTURE Pant Protection Insect-pest Damage Aphids Aphids suck sap from young eaves (Severa and twigs thereby causing severe species) curing of eaves, stunting of pant and faciitate sooty moud growth by excreting honeydew. These aphids act as vector for Tristeza virus. Citrus psya Suck sap from young eaves and act as a vector for transmitting greening disease Leaf minor Lemon butterfy Fruit sucking moth Diseases Tristeza Greening Phytophthora rot or gummosis Contro measures Sprays of monocrotophos (0.025%), phosphomidon (0.03%) or parathion (0.03%) are usefu for the contro of aphids. Spray systemic insecticides ike phosphomidon (0.03%), monocrotophos (0 025%) or oxydemeton methy (0.03%). Young ones cause damage by Synthetic pyrethroids viz., mining the eaves fenvaerate (0.01%), permethrin (0.005%) or cypetnethrin (0.001%) are most effective. Caterpiars defoiate entire eaves. Dusting and spraying with sevin (0.1%) has been found very effective. Adut insects suck sap from mature Use ight traps fruits, thereby eading to fruit rot and drop. Symptoms Symptoms ike stem pitting, seeding yeows, etc. infected pants show poor growth, die back, defoiations and utimatey death. The symptoms appear as chorosis resembing Zn deficiency, short twigs with upright yeow eaves, eaf drop, dieback, formation of mutipe buds and disfigured fruits. Symptoms are noted as root rot, gummosis, bight of seedings and fruit rot. 73 Contro measures Use toerant rootstock ike Rangpur ime, Ceopatra mandarin, Trifoiate orange, use certified bud-wood, contro aphids by insecticides. Tree injection with tetracycine or empoying cross protection is found to be effective. Contro citrus psya by suitabe insecticides. Use resistant rootstocks ike Poncirus trifoiata or sour orange. Soi drenching with fotaf (0.2%) or avoiding water stagnation around tree trunk is widey adopted practices.

94 Bacteria canker Acid imes are most susceptibe. Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture or Deveopment of esions with hao 500 ppm streptomycin suphate on eaves, twigs and fruits. and contro of eaf miner (insect vector) by metasystox (0.1%). Prune infected portions. Maturity, Harvesting and Yied Time of harvest in citrus varies with the region (tropica and subtropica) and the species. Marketabe maturity is generay judged with the change in rind coour. Commerciay, TSS: acid ratio is the most reiabe method and it ranges from 10:1 to 16:1, depending upon citrus species and fush. Khasi mandarin in Northern-Eastern states is harvested during October-January, whie Darjeeing mandarin is harvested during November-December. Kinnow in Punjab is harvested Citrus canker during January-February; Nagpur mandarin is harvested during Apri-Juy. Mosambi is harvested in Apri-June (1st crop) in Maharashtra. Hand picking is the most popuar method to coect fruits whie in some regions, harvesting by shaking of main trunk is aso done. Maximum productivity in citrus ranges from 700 to 1,000 fruits per tree which depends on the age of pant, cutivar, rootstock and management practices. Kinnow pant can yied 300 to 800 fruits/ pant, mandarin give 500 fruits per pant. GRAPES Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most deicious, refreshing and nourishing fruit, which beongs to the famiy Vitiaceae. The fruit is utiized in many ways. About 80 per cent of the grapes are used for wine making and the remaining 20 per cent are used for raisin, juice and canning purpose. France, Itay and Spain are the eading producer of wine. In India, grapes are mainy consumed as fresh fruit. A view of profuse bearing in grape Soi and Cimatic Requirements We drained sandy-oam soi and fairy fertie soi, having good amount of organic matter is best for cutivation of grapes. Heavy cay, sand or sit are unsuitabe for grape. Grape is reativey toerant to soi sainity and akainity. Grape requires a ong, dry and moderatey hot season during cane maturity and ripening of berries foowed by coo winter. Rains during growing season are usefu, 74

95 BASIC AGRICULTURE but continuous rains, make it difficut to contro diseases. Rains at the time of berry ripening are harmfu as even a singe shower of rain during berry ripening can destroy the whoe crop. Bright sunny days hep in accumuation of sugar in berries. Commercia Cutivars Tabe grapes Thompson Seedess, Pusa Seedess, Perette, Beauty Seedess, Pusa Urvashi, Bhokri, Cardina and Back Muskat. Raisin grapes Back Corinth, Thompson Seedess, Muscat of Aexandria, Sundekhani, Pusa Seedess and Kismish Bei. Juice grapes Wine grapes Canning grapes Eary Muscat, Back Champa, Concord, Bangaore Bue, White Riesing, Arka Hans, and Pusa Navrang. White Riesing, Pinot Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon, Back Cheaper, Rubired, Madeeine Angevine, Cheema Sahebi and Pusa Navrang. Thompson Seedess, Pusa Seedess and Perette. Grape varieties cane be seeded or seedess, as grouped hereunder: (a) Seeded cutivars (b) Seedess cutivars Anab-e-Shahi, Bangaore Bue, Bhokri (Panchdraksha), Cardina, Cheema Sahebi, God, Guabi, Pear of Casaba, Pinot Noir, Arka Kanchan, Arka Shyam, Arka Hans, Pusa Navrang etc. Beauty Seedess, Pusa Seedess, Perette, Thompson Seedess, Deight, Himrod, Kishmish Charni, Arkavati, Pusa Urvashi etc. (c) Seections Some seections have been made by farmers. Tas-e-Ganesh, a seection from Thompson Seedess is popuar in Maharashtra. Dikush, Manik Chaman and Sonaka have been seected from Anab-e-Shahi. Propagation and Rootstock Grape is commerciay propagated through hardwood cuttings. The ength of cuttings shoud be cm, having at east 4 buds and of penci thickness. The best time for preparation of cutting is north India is at the time of annua pruning in mid-january. Under certain specific conditions to impart protection from soi borne diseases and advance soi conditions (e.g, sainity), commercia varieties are budded or grafted on desired rootstocks (e.g., Dog Ridge, Sat Creek). T and Chip budding are successfu methods for grape propagation. Panting Normay, a spacing of 2 m x 2 m is recommended for head system, 3 x 3 m for treis and bower system, for ow and medium varieties. The poes shoud be fixed at a specific distance, depending on the training system. Usuay, one-year-od rooted cuttings are panted. The panting is done during January-February in north India and during MarchApri and September-October in southern India. 75

96 Training Training is done to give proper shape and desired growth for good quantity and quaity of fruiting. The different training systems are bower, head, kniffin, treis, teephone, etc. The most commony foowed training system is bower system, which is aso caed as Arbour or Pergoa system of training. It is best suited for vigorous cutivars ike Thompson Seedess, Anab-e-Shahi, Cheema Sahebi and Bhokri. Pruning Judicious remova of any pant part for increased productivity, faciitation of various cutura operation, reguation of crop and maintenance of vitaity of vine is referred to as pruning. In north India, it is done during dormant season, from ate-december to end-january, and in south, pruning for fruiting cyce is done during October-November and the foundation pruning for vegetative growth is done in Apri. After pruning, a singe spray of bitox (0.2 per cent) shoud be done to avoid funga attack on the cut portion of the vines. By staggered pruning, Bangaore Bue, Panch Drakshi and Anab-eShahi cutivars give two crops in a year. Irrigation In north India, the grape is irrigated at 7-10 days interva during growing season unti beginning of sugar formation in berries. Manuring and Fertiization (a) (b) Vines under the age of 3-5 years, shoud be given kg we rotten FYM, and fertiizer combination of 500 g N g P2O g K2O. Vines above 5 years of age, shoud be given kg we rotten FYM and fertiizer combination of 500 g N g P2O g K2O per year. Crop reguation and quaity improvement (a) Pruning and thinning: A sizeabe number of canes shoud be retained during pruning. In genera, custers are considered optimum on Bower system at 3 x 3 m spacing. Berry thinning heps in proper deveopment of berries, good coour, ripening and quaity. (b) Girding: It consists of remova of a compete ring (0.5 cm) of bark from the shoot, trunk or cane of a pant. The stage of girding depends upon the cutivar and the grower's interest. For exampe, to improve berry set and yied, girding is done one week before fowering, for increasing berry size, it is done at berry set or just after set and for advancing ripening, uniform coour and quaity deveopment, it is done at verasion (coour change) stage. Girding wounds hea 76 Girding in grapevine trunk

97 BASIC AGRICULTURE within a month. This technique is very effective if integrated with pruning, thinning or growth reguators sprays. (c) Growth reguators: GA3 has been found to be highy beneficia in oosening the bunches, increasing berry size and yied and in improving fruit quaity in seedess varieties ike Thompson Seedess, Beauty Seedess, Pusa Seedess etc. Pant protection Insect-pest Chafer beete Thrips Damage Contro measures It feeds on buds, young and od eaves, Dust choropyriphos dust eating away whoe amina, eaving ony the on pants. skeeton of veins. Thrips suck sap from the ower eaf surface, Spray maathion (0.5%) producing sivery botches, affected parts during March. turn brown, dry and britte, which ater drop off. Causa Diseases Symptoms Contro measures Powdery midew Viruent in south India. Powdery growth of fungus deveops on the eaves and berries, which may drop. Berries do not ripen propery, become hard and crack. Suphur dusting or spraying wettabe suphur (0.2%) or karathane (0.1%) protect the vine from powdery midew. Anthracnose Destroy affected pant parts. Spray 0.2 per cent copper oxychoride or bitox (0.3%) or fytoan (0.3%) or bavistin (0.2%) at fortnighty interva during rainy season. Downy midew Initiay, ight-yeow transucent spots appear on the upper surface of eaf. Afterwards, white moud patches deveop on the ower surface of the eaf. Severey affected eaves, fowers and young berries may dry and drop off. There is deveopment of erupted brown to back spots on a green parts of the vine. The growth is competey checked, resuting in death of affected parts and spitting of bark. 77 Spraying Bordeaux mixture (1%) at a weeky interva or fytoan (0.25%) hods good for contro of downy midew.

98 Maturity, Harvesting and Yied Grape is a non-cimacteric fruit and does not ripen after harvest. Therefore, fuy ripe fruits are harvested. Most commony used maturity index is coour change, depending upon the cutivar. The bunches after harvesting shoud be kept in shade. Grading is done considering size, coour and variety. Packing is done in hard cardboard boxes with appropriate cushioning or packing materia. We-maintained vineyard of Perette, Thompson Seedess may yied about and t/ha, respectivey. POMEGRANATE Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) beongs to the famiy Punicaceae and genus Punica with basic chromosome number, x = 12. Pomegranate is a juicy fruit which can be processed into different beverages with the addition of sugar and preservatives. Sun-dried grains from cutivars having high acidity, is known as anardana, are used for garnishing curries and for cuinary purpose. It is a deicious tabe fruit, rich in B compex vitamins and mineras ike cacium, phosphorus and iron. In India, it is cutivated in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Himacha Pradesh. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Bearing pant of pomegranate Athough, pomegranate is not specific to soi requirement but fuctuations in atmospheric humidity cause fruit cracking. Commercia Cutivars The popuar cutivars of pomegranate are Ganesh and Muskat in Maharashtra, Bassein Seedess in Karnataka, Dhoka in Gujarat, Kabu Red and Veodu in Tami Nadu and Kandhari, Jaore Seedess and Jodhpur Red in Rajasthan. Some promising cona seections ike Arkata, Bhagwa, Sindhuri, or hybrids ike Mridua, and Ruby are aso becoming popuar. Propagation Pomegranate is commerciay propagated through semi-hard and hardwood cuttings treated with 1,000 ppm IBA as basa dip. Panting Pomegranate is panted at 5 x 5 m spacing. Pits of 60 x 60 x 60 cm size are dug about one month before panting and fied with top soi, pond sit and FYM mixture in 1:1:1 proportion, adding 50 g methy parathion to protect them from termite. Rainy season is the best time of panting. 78

99 BASIC AGRICULTURE Water Management Athough pomegranate is a drought hardy fruit pant but to obtain good yied and fruit quaity, assured irrigation is essentia. Water requirement of pomegranate argey depends upon the desired bahar. For ambe bahar, 13 irrigations are considered enough for good growth and yied. For mrig bahar, 9 irrigations are found to be sufficient. In ambe bahar crop of Ganesh, reguar irrigations from March to Juy at 7-10 days interva increased the fruit yied. Nutrient Management In norma sois, yeary dose of 10 kg FYM aongwith 125 g nitrogen, 50 g phosphorus and 50 g potash shoud be appied per pant up to five years of age. Training and Pruning Mutipe stem training is aowed to avoid shoot borer damage. Pomegranate bears fruits on termina and axiary short spurs arising from the mature shoots and thus does not require reguar annua pruning. However, water sprouts, diseased and pest affected or dried branches shoud be removed. Crop Reguation Pomegranate has three main fowering and fruiting seasons or bahars such as ambe bahar (spring season fowering), mrig bahar (June-Juy fowering) and hasth bahar (September-October fowering). For commercia production, ony one crop in a year is desirabe. Therefore, by crop reguation, the tree is forced to rest by different ways and then it produces profuse bossoms and fruits during the required bahar. Seection of the bahar depends mainy on the avaiabiity of irrigation water, risk of damage by diseases and pests and market factors. In dry areas of north-western India, with imited irrigation resources, mrig bahar is preferred to utiize the water avaiabe during the monsoon period. In irrigated parts of Maharashtra and Gujarat, respectivey ambe bahar and hasth bahar is preferred since the fruit yied, quaity and profitabiity from other bahars are impaired by the incidence of insect -pests and diseases and market factors. The operation, thus, maximizes In India, pomegranate fowers thrice production from the avaiabe inputs and a year in certain ocaities, caed aso avoids fruiting during the period bahars. Fruits of a the bahars may when insect-pests and disease infestation not be commerciay desirabe. Hence, are common. For this, operations ike reguation of fowering is desirabe to withhoding irrigations, root exposure, root produce fruits in desirabe bahar. It can pruning and spray of chemicas (thiourea, be done by forcing the pants to rest by NAA or potassium iodide) are practiced to different ways in unwanted bahar. After induce eaf drop and cessation of growth rest, pants produce profuse fowers during the period of the unwanted bahar. during the required bahar. 79

100 This is foowed by appication of norma irrigation, fertiizer and tiage operations one month prior to the desired bahar to induce new growth, fowering and fruiting. In order to increase proportion of good size grade fruits, number of fruits on a tree is reguated to retain fruits on one bush by hand remova or by chemica fora thinning by spray of 2,000 ppm ethephon or ppm Aar. Pant Protection Insect-pest Damage Contro measures Pomegranate Caterpiars enter the butterfy deveoping fruits during Juy and feed on the seeds resuting in rotting and premature drop of fruits. The hoes made by caterpiars can be seen on the fruit. Bark eating caterpiar Diseases Bagging of fruits with butter paper. Two sprays, one each with 0.002% detamethrin and 0.2% carbary at 21 days interva in rotation after fruit set. Eats bark and enters the Training of bushes and keep ony 3 to stem by making hoes. 4 stems. Spray dichorvos (0.08%), or fenvaerate (0.04%), or carbary (1 %) or quinaphos (0.08%). Symptoms Contro measures Funga eaf Deveopment of brown and fruit spot spots on eaves, which not ony affects eaf vitaity and number but aso affects fruit growth and spois their appearance and market vaue. Four sprays of copper oxichoride (0.4%) or thiophenate methy (0.1%) or mancozeb (0.2%) or zineb (0.2%) at an interva of days, starting from the initiation of disease have been highy effective. Bacteria eaf Occurs in more humid Three sprays with 500 ppm pausamycin and fruit spot areas. Affected fruits + 0.2% copper oxychoride at 15 days become unmarketabe. interva, starting from the initiation of the disease significanty reduce the incidence. Fruit Cracking and its Contro Fruit cracking is a major probem in pomegranate, which can be reduced to some extent by maintaining optimum moisture eve in soi by frequent irrigation, spraying PGRs ike NAA (20 ppm), or 2,4-D (10 ppm) or GA3 (40 ppm) or by the appication of borax (0.4%). 80

101 BASIC AGRICULTURE Maturity, Harvesting and Yied Fruits generay mature in 6-8 months after fruit set. Being non-cimacteric, tree ripen fruits are harvested. Change in rind coour from ight green-to-yeowish pink or red with waxy shining surface and a cracking sound of grains on pressing the fruit indicate fruit maturity. Ripe fruits are individuay picked. A fu grown pomegranate bush normay produces fruits. However, as high as 100 fruits per bush can be obtained under good management. CASHEWNUT Cashewnut (Anacardium occidentae L.) beong to famiy Anacardiace, to which mango and Pistachia beong, with chromosome number 2n = 42. Cashew is the most versatie of a nuts. It is an important crop earning foreign exchange and having considerabe empoyment potentia. Cashew nuts are rich source of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. They aso contain an ampe amount of minera ike phosphorus and cacium. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Cashew can be grown successfuy in amost a soi types, from sandy to ateritic sois. Cashew is insensitive to depth, stoniness and fertiity of soi and avaiabiity of water. However, it cannot withstand water ogging and excessive sainity or akainity. In India, cashew is mainy grown in aterite, red sandy oam and coasta sandy soi. Cashew is essentiay a tropica crop and grows best in the warm, moist and typicay tropica cimate. Most favourabe temperature ies between 24 C to 28 C. The major imiting factor in cashew cutivation is that it can t toerate frost and extreme cod for a ong time. Important Varieties Ua 1, Ua 2, Ua 3, Ua 4, VRI 1, VRI 2, VRI 3, BPP-4, BPP-6, BPP-8 are some exceent varieties of cahsewnut grown in different parts of India. Pant Propagation Nowadays, softwood grafting method has been commerciay used in cashew propagation. Soft wood grafting can now be done round the year. However, during summer months (January-May) grafted pants shoud be protected by providing partia shade by erecting panda of dry coconut fronds or nyon nets. Panting The and is prepared with the onset of pre-monsoon showers by cearing bushes and wid growth, digging of pits, terracing the base of the trees etc. The square system of panting can be foowed. The idea time for panting is usuay monsoon season when the moisture is air surcharged (June-August) both in the west coast and east coast. If irrigation faciities are avaiabe, panting can be done throughout the year except 81

102 winter months. Panting is done at 7.5 x 7.5 m or 8 x 8 m spacing to accommodate pants per hectare. Manuring Appication of kg FYM and 500 g N (1 kg urea), 125 g P2O5, and 125 g K2O per tree appied twice a year, i.e., during pre-monsoon (May-June) and post-monsoon (September-October) period. Irrigation Cashew needs irrigation during summer months particuary at seeding stage. Protective irrigation especiay summer months during January-march at fortnighty 200 itres/pant improves fruit set, fruit retention, thereby increasing nut yied. It cannot withstand water stagnation and hence adequate drainage shoud be provided. Pant Protection Major disease Powdery midew Major pests Tea mosquito bug Stem and root borer Damage Contro measures Prevaent during rainy season, generay Dusting with 2% suphur appears when the weather becomes W.P. is effective coudy. Damage Contro measures Most serious pest, responsibe for a damage of neary 25-30%. Both nymphs and aduts suck sap from the eaves, young shoots, inforescence, deveoping young nuts and appes. Spray endosufan or monocrotophos (0.05%) or carbary (0.1%) or quinaphos (0.05%) before infestation. The grubs cause the damage, making tunnes in irreguar directions. As a resut of injury, trees show different degrees of foiar yeowing, eading to shedding of eaves, drying of twigs and gradua death of the tree Harvesting and Yied Remove and burn a the affected trees to avoid further spread of the pest. Inject 10 m of dichorvos (0.1%) per hoe and paster them with mud. The tree starts bearing from the third or fourth year, but fu bearing is attained at 10th year and continues for another years. The tree begins to fower in December and 82

103 BASIC AGRICULTURE the fowering, continues for about three months. The fruits ripen during March to May or eary June. Fuy mature fruits are coected every day and the nuts are separated. A fuy deveoped tree yieds about kg of nuts per annum. COCONUT Coconut is is one of the important member of mocotyedons. It is botanicay, caed as Cocos nucifera L. and beongs to famiy Arecaceae (Pamae). The basic chromosome number (n) is 16 and 2n = 32. The coconut pam is considered to be one of the five egendary divine trees as stated in Indian cassics and is extoed as Kapavriksha - the a giving tree. Keraa, Tami Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh are the four major coconut producing Indian states, accounting for more than 90 per cent of tota area and production. The wet meat or kerne is rich in fat, carbohydrate, protein, fibre and moderate in its minera content. Coconut water is rich in mineras and has a caoric vaue of 17.4 per 100gm of water. It is aso a rich source of fats, carbohydrates and mineras ike phosphorus and cacium. Important Varieties West Coast Ta, Andaman Ordinary, East Coast Ta and Phiippines Ordinary are some important varieties of ta group. Simiary, Chowghat Green Dwarf, Chowghat Orange Dwarf and Gangabondam, Maayan Yeow Dwarf, Maayan Orange Dwarf and Maayan Green Dwarf are important varieties of dwarf group. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Pam prefers a we drained ight soi permitting free root deveopment and aeration. It grows best on coasta auvia and sandy sois with an optimum ph ranging from 5.2 to 8.0. and a we distributed rainfa of mm per annum is idea for coconut cutivation Pant Propagation Coconut propagation is usuay done by seed. In seed propagation, seection of mother pant from which nuts have to be coected, has great bearing on the productive ife of pam. Manures and Fertiizers The optimum dose of fertiizer recommended for an adut pam is 0.5 kg N, 0.32 kg P2O5 and 1.2 kg K2O/year. The first dose of fertiizer is appied 3 months after panting and the dosage is increased every year and the fu dose of the fertiizer is appied from 4th year onwards. One third of the fertiizer is appied immediatey after the onset of southwest monsoon and the remaining 2/3 towards the end of the monsoon. 83

104 Pant Protection Major diseases Damage Root wit Most important disease of coconut. The eariest diagnostic symptom is the abnorma inward bending of eafets termed as ribbing or faccidity, foowed by root decay. Thanjavur wit Root decay. Major pest Damage Red pam weevi Most destructive pest of coconut. Grubs cause damage inside the stem or crown by feeding on soft tissues. Rhinoceros beetes Contro measures Compete eradication of a the disease affected pams, mixed cropping with cocoa and intercropping with tapioca, are some good measures. At initia stage of the disease, spray the crown and drench the basin with 500 ppm tetracycine. Cut and remove a dead roots, cut ends of roots shoud be drenched with a mixture of 1.5g of aureofungin +1 g copper suphate. Contro measures Practice cean cutivation, avoid injury to trunk, attract weevis by smearing coconut toddy and destroy them. Injection of carbary (1%) to the infested trunk through a hoe is aso usefu. Adut beetes usuay cause Burn a dead trunks, eaves and damage, which bore into the ogs. Spray carbary (0.1%) to ki tender fronds and spathes, the arvae. unopened eaves and inforescences. Maturity, Harvesting and Yied The ta varieties of coconut start fowering from 5th year and the dwarfs and hybrids fower from 3rd to 4th year. With scientific management, the West Coast Ta yieds on an average 80 nuts/pam/year in coasta Keraa and Karnataka and the hybrids yied from 100 to 140 nuts/pam/year. Coconut pam can produce 12 inforescences/ year, but generay number of inforescence per pam are ess than 12. For obtaining maximum yied of copra and oi, ony fuy mature nuts shoud be harvested. B. Cutivation of Vegetabes POTATO Potato (Soanum tuberosum L.) which beongs to famiy Soanaceae, is the stape food of many European countries of the word. It is an important source of starch. It is a rich source of carbohydrates, vitamins (B1, B2, B6 and C), mineras (Ca, P and Fe) and protein. 84

105 BASIC AGRICULTURE Soi and Cimatic Requirements It can grow in amost a types of soi. The we-drained cay-oam soi is considered as idea for its cutivation. It is a coo season crop and can toerate moderate frost. It requires 20 C soi temperature for better germination. Young pant growth is good at 24 C but ater growth is favoured by a temperature of 18 C. No tuberization takes pace when the night temperature exceeds 23 C. Maximum tuberization occurs at 20 C. Tuber formation stops competey at about C. Varieties: Eary varieties: These varieties are ready for harvest in days such as Kufri Ashoka, Kufri Chandermukhi, Kufri Jawahar, and Kufri Lauvkar. Main season varieties: They are ready for harvest in days. Among the white cooured varieties, Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Sutej, Kufri Pukhraj, Kufri Megha, Kufri Badshah, Kufri Anand, Kufri Bahar, Kufri Sadabahar, Kufri Deva, Kufri Sherpa are important. Late varieties: Kufri Jeevan, Kufri Neeamani, Kufri Khasigaro, Kufri Naveen. Processing varieties: Kufri Chipsona 1, Kufri Chipsona 2, Kufri Chipsona 3, and Kufri Himsona. Soi Preparation and Panting A we prepared soi provides sufficient room for the deveopment of tubers and aso heps to retain moisture. The fieds are poughed to a depth of cm first with soi turning pough and afterwards by 4 to 5 poughings with country pough/disc harrow. Cods must be broken to make the fied we puverized and eveed. Panting Time Region Season Panting time Harvesting time North western his Very high his Summer Apri-May September-October North western pains Eary Mid-September Mid November-December High his Mid his North Centra Pains North eastern pains Summer Spring Autumn Spring Winter Winter Mid-March-Apri Jan-February Mid-October January Mid-October October end to 2nd week of November 85 September-October May-June February-March Apri February-March January-February

106 Seed Rate and Propagation q tubers/ha. Potato is traditionay propagated through tubers. The eyes on the tuber surface contain axiary buds. The tubers have a dormancy of neary 8-10 weeks after harvesting. The axiary buds on the tubers start germinating by producing sprouts ony when this dormancy is over. The sprouted tubers put up fast and vigorous growth when panted in the soi. Breaking of Dormancy This dormancy can be broken by dipping cut tubers for 1-1½ hours in 1-2% soution or treating tubers with 5ppm soution of GA3 for 10 seconds. Seed Size and Spacing Panting g tuber with mm diameter at a spacing of cm between rows and cm between the tubers within the rows. Tuber cutting is not recommended especiay for the production of a seed crop as it transmits viruses and bacteria. Manures and Fertiizers Appy farmyard at the time of fied preparation. However, fertiizers are 120:80:60 kg N: P2O5:K2O/ha, respectivey. Fu dose of farmyard manure, phosphorus and potassium and haf of N shoud be appied at the time of panting. Remaining part of N shoud be top dressed at the time of earthing up for effective utiization by the crop. Irrigation Water is appied effectivey and economicay at critica stages in crop deveopment i.e. stoon formation, tuber initiation and tuber deveopment stages of the crop. Irrigation is stopped about 10 days before harvesting of crop, to aow firming of tuber skin. Pant Protection Major diseases and their management Eary bight Late Bight Concentric rings of brown to back coour are formed on the eaves. Heaviy infected eaves fa off after drying. Spots aso appear on stems. Lower eaves are infected having cottony growth. Water soaked esions appear on the margins. Tubers decay under severe infection. 86 Destroy crop debris. Spray ridomi 2g/ or 0.3% bitox or 0.25% dithane - M - 45 / dithane - Z - 78 at fortnight intervas 3-4 times. Grow resistant varieties e.g. Kufri Naveen, Kufri Jeevan. Use disease-free seed. Spray 2g per itre of water. Grow resistant varieties ike Kufri Jawahar, Kufri Himsona, Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Swarnima, Kufri Kanchan.

107 BASIC AGRICULTURE Insect-pests and their management Cut worm Adut moths cause extensive Food the infested fieds, hand pick damage by cutting the pants. and destroy the arva, set up ight 1/ ha or pheramone 10/ ha to attract mae moths and spray insecticides or chorpyriphos 1 it/ha or neem oi 5.0m/ it. Potato tuber It causes damage to tubers moth in the fied and storage by tunneing the foiage, stem and tubers. Harvesting and Yied Avoid shaow panting of tubers, pant the tubers at depth of cm, coect and destroy the infested tubers, and fumigate the stores with carbon disuphide. The crop is harvested when it is fuy matured, which can be characterized by yeowing of haums and no puing out of skin on rubbing of tubers. At the time of harvesting, fied shoud not be too wet or too dry. Tractor operated potato diggers are avaiabe for digging the tubers from the fieds. Eary varieties may produce 200 q tubers/ha, and ate varieties produce about 300 q tubers/ha. CAULIFLOWER Cauifower (Brassica oeracea var. botrytis L.) beongs to famiy Brassicaceae. It is an important Indian vegetabe. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Cauifower can be grown in a types of soi with good fertiity and good water hoding capacity. It prefers a soi reaction ranging from ph 6 to 6.5. Cimatic factors pay an important roe during transformation from vegetative to curding and curd deveopment stages. Temperature range of C is good for germination and favourabe temperature range is C. On the basis of maturity, cauifower varieties have been grouped as under: Maturity group Nursery sowing Eary I (A) Mid May Sept. maturity (mid Sept-mid Nov.) Transpanting time Opt. temp. range for curding Varieties Juy beginning C Eary Kunwari, Pusa Eary Synthetic, Pant Gobhi-3, Pusa Meghna, Pusa Kartik Sankar 87

108 Eary I (B) Oct. maturity (Mid Oct-mid Nov) May end to Mid June Mid ate (III) Dec maturity (mid Dec-mid Jan) Mid Eary (II) Nov. maturity (Mid Nov-mid Dec) Late (IV) Snowba (Jan-March) Mid Juy C Pusa Katki, Pusa Deepai, Pant Gobhi-2 Juy end Sept beginning C Aug end Sept end C Improved Japanese, Pusa hybrid-2, Pusa Sharad, Pant Gobhi-4 Sept end to mid Oct Oct end-mid Nov C Seed Rate and Spacing Pusa Synthetic, Pusa Subhra, Paam Uphar, KT-25, Pant Subhra, Pusa HimJyoti, Pb Giant 35, Pusa Paushja, Pusa Shukti Snowba 16, Pusa Snowba-I, Pusa Snowba K-1, Dania, Ooty-1, The seed requirement for raising nursery for eary varieties is g per hactare and for ate varieties is 300g per hectare area. Eary varieties 45cm 30cm and mid and ate season varieties 60cm 45cm. Soi Preparation and Transpanting The soi shoud be we prepared by poughing first with soi turning pough and afterwards with 4 to 5 poughings with country pough. The manure shoud be appied at the time of fied preparation. Drainage is a probem for eary and some times for mid season crop when rains coincide with cropping period. Therefore, eary crop shoud be transpanted on ridges or raised beds whie the mid and ate cutivars can be panted on fat beds. Transpanting shoud be done during ate afternoon to avoid osses due to sun heat. Manures and Fertiizers Mix q FYM/ha at the time of fied preparation. Appication of nitrogen, phosphorus and : 75-80: kg per hectare, respectivey is required to raise a heathy crop of cauifower. Irrigation Cauifower needs very carefu irrigation that shoud be appied at right time and in sufficient quantity as both overwatering and insufficient irrigation are harmfu to the standing crop. First ight irrigation is given immediatey after transpanting of the seedings. 88

109 BASIC AGRICULTURE Maturity and Harvesting The harvesting of curds is to be done as soon as the curds attain prime maturity and compactness. It is better to harvest itte eary than ate if there is any doubt about the maturity. Deayed harvesting eads to the eongation of fowering stak, oose, ricey, and fuzzy and over matured curds which deteriorates the quaity of the curd. The curd shoud be cut-off with stak aong with sufficient number of jacket eaves to protect the curd. Severe trimming of eaves is to be done after unoading or before marketing. Physioogica Disorders Buttoning: It means deveopment of sma curds or buttons. Panting of over-aged seedings, which do not get sufficient time to initiate growth before transformation to curding or seection of wrong cutivars (panting eary variety ate) or root injury by insects or diseases resut in buttoning. Riceyness: A premature initiation of fora buds or eongation of pedunce stak of inforescence is characterized by riceyness. The curds are considered to be of poor quaity for marketing. Temperature higher or ower than the optimum required for curding or appication of high nitrogen resuts in riceyness. Bindness: Bind pants are those, which are without termina bud. They do not form curd. It is due to poor fertiity of the soi or damage to the termina portion during handing at the time of panting or by insects, diseases etc. Whip tai: It is caused by the deficiency of moybdenum (Mo). Young pants become chorotic and turn white particuary aong the eaf margins. In oder pants, the amina of the newy formed eaves is irreguar in shape and eaves have ony a arge bare midrib. This is because of this condition, the disorder is caed as Whip tai. CABBAGE Cabbage is a famous vegetabe of Indians. Its botanica name is Brassica oeracea var. capitata and it beongs to famiy Brassicaceae. Varieties Eary Group: It takes days for maturity. The commony grown varieties are Goden Acre, Pride of India, Copenhagen Market, Pusa Ageti, Pusa Mukta, Pusa Sambandh (Synthetic variety). Mid season Group: The cutivars fa between eary and ate maturity groups. September, and Pusa Drum Head are the common varieties from this group. Late Group: It takes about days for maturity e.g. Late Large Drum Head 89

110 Soi and Cimatic Requirements The soi requirement for cabbage is amost same as that of cauifower. On heavy sois, pant grows sowy and the keeping quaity is improved because of compactness. Most cabbages are some what toerant to sat. It can withstand extreme cod and frost better than cauifower. Panting Time In the Northern Indian pains, transpanting of different varieties can be done from October January. Seed Rate and Spacing Eary season varieties need g/ha & main season varieties need g/ha. Late varieties 60cm 45cm & for eary varieties 45cm 30cm. Nutrient Management Mix q/ha farmyard manure thoroughy at the time of fied preparation. Appication of kg nitrogen, kg phosphorus and 60-75kg potassium per hectare is required to raise a heathy crop of cabbage. Water Management Cabbage is very sensitive to soi moisture. Irrigation may be appied at days interva according to the season and soi but optimum soi moisture shoud be maintained reguary. Maturity and Harvesting In genera, the heads are harvested when they are firm and soid. The heads are cut with a knife, frequenty attached with some non-wrapper eaves. These non-wrapper eaves give protection to the heads from bruising injury. Diseases and Insect-pests of Coe Crops Major diseases and their management Back eg It is a seed borne disease and hence infest crop pants at an eary stage. Stem of the affected pant shows severe back discoouration. Whoe root system decays from bottom upwards. Often, the affected pants coapse in the fied. 90 Hot water treatment of seed before sowing. Spray the seed crop with copper oxychoride or with an organomercuric compound. Grow resistant varieties ike Pusa Drum Head.

111 BASIC AGRICULTURE Downy midew Back rot Bacteria soft rot It causes serious damage at a stages of pant growth. Discoouration occurs in the young seedings and in severe cases, whoe pant perishes. Spray 0.5 g/itre of water at days intervas or with g/ itre of water. The affected pants show a soft, simy, bad smeing rot that rapidy spreads throughout the pant under favourabe conditions. Contro measures adopted for other diseases can check this disease as we. Spray ppm streptocycine or pantomycin combined with copper oxychoride (0.3%) at 15 days interva. The tissue at the eaf margin Spray 5g and becomes yeow; chorosis 100g per 10 itre of progresses towards eaf center water after transpantation. creating a V-shaped area at the mid rib. Insect- pests and their Management Diamond back moth Aphids Cabbage butterfy Spinde shaped pae yeowish green caterpiars feed on the ower side of eaves but ater feed on the exposed eaves and enter the head/ curd affecting the produce as we as quaity. Grow Indian mustard as a trap crop. Spray of maathion (0.05%) or detamethrin (0.028%), or cypermethrin (0.0075%) is very effective. Damage is caused by caterpiars. The white winged butterfies deposit yeow cooured eggs in custers on the undersurface of eaves. Coect and destroy yeow egg masses and eary stage arvae of cabbage butterfy. Spray of maathion (0.05%)/ detamethrin (0.0028%)/ cypermethrin (0.0075%) and fenvaerate (0.01%) is quite effective. Aphids cause serious damage by Foiar appication of maathion sap sucking. Seed setting stage is (0.05%) at 15 days interva is seriousy affected. quite effective. 91

112 PEAS Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is highy nutritive crop which is rich in protein, carbohydrates, vitamins A and C and mineras such as Ca and P. It beongs to famiy Fabaceae. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Pea can be grown on a kinds of sois but the best crop can be taken from we-drained and fertie oam soi. The soi ph is the best for its proper growth and deveopment. Pea is a coo season crop and requires frost-free weather particuary at fowering and pod formation stage, though vegetative growth is not affected by the frost. The optimum temperature for its germination is about 22 C and that for better growth and yied is C. Varieties 1. Eary wrinke seeded: Arke, Eary Badger, Litte Marve, Eary December, Paam Trioki. 2. Main season wrinke seeded varieties: Bonnevie, Lincon, Punjab-89, Paam Priya. 3. Edibe poded peas: Syvia, Punjab Mithi Phai, Aaska, Eary Superb, Meteor. Sowing Time In North india eary varities sown during September & Main season varieties are sown during first fortnight of October end November and in South India eary varities sown are during June- Juy. Seed Rate and Spacing Eary varieties: , Main season varieties: Spacing for eary varieties: 30cm 5cm, main season varieties: 45-60cm 10cm. Inocuation of seeds with Rhizobium cuture can be heps to fix the atmospheric nitrogen. The seeds may be treated with fungicides ike thiram or captan (3g/kg of seed) or bavistin (2.5-3 g/kg of seed) to save the crop against wit disease. Manures and Fertiizers Fu dose of farmyard 20 tonnes, kg nitrogen, kg phosphorus and kg potassium per hectare shoud be appied at the time of sowing based on fertiity status of the soi. Maturity and Harvesting The peas are harvested when the pods are fuy green and we deveoped. The seeds shoud be fuy deveoped but tender i.e. shoud not harden. Picking shoud be done as soon as green ovues are fuy deveoped and pods sti not over mature. Eary varieties give 2-3 pickings whie 3-4 pickings at 7-10 days interva are taken from main season varieties. Eary varieties may yied q pods/ha and main season varieties may produce q green pods/ha. 92

113 BASIC AGRICULTURE Pant Protection Diseases and their management Powdery midew Fusarium wit Root rot First symptoms appear on the upper surface of the eaves as very sma and discooured spots, which soon give rise to enarged white powdery areas on the eaf, stem and pod. Mutipe infection may cover the whoe pant. Grow resistant varieties ike Paam Priya. Spray dinocap or bitertano or 0.05% as the initia symptoms appear on the eaves. The vascuar tissue shows red discoouration extending upward 1-3 nodes above soi surface. Diseased pants appear unthrifty, variousy dwarfed, depending upon the severity of infection, and may wit and die. Seed treatment with 3g/kg of seed. Soi drenching with 0.01% or captan or brassico reduces the disease. Foow ong crop rotation. Wit attacks young pants. The Grow resistant varieties, maintain affected pants show yeow- good drainage. orange interna discoouration in the ower internodes. Major insect-pests and their management Pea aphid Pod borer Leaf miner OKRA It attacks young vines, sucking Spray 0.01% or the juice from growing tip, ater spray of 0.06% nicotine suphate. covering the whoe pant. It causes curing of the eaves and pods. The young caterpiars first feed Spray maathion or cypermitherin on the surface of the pods, 0.01%. into them and feed on the seeds. The greenish arvae make Spray cypermethrin or fenitrothion serpentine tunnes in the eaves or 0.01%. and feed on it. The infested eaves wither and dry. Fowering and pod formation is drasticay affected. Lady s finger or okra or bhindi (Abemoschus escuentus) is a favorite vegeteabe of Indians. Okra is rich in vitamins, Ca, K and is grown for its green, tender and nutritive 93

114 fruits, which are cooked in curry and are aso used in soups besides being canned and frozen. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Okra grows best in ight sois ranging from sandy-oam to oam though it gives good crop in heavy soi having efficient drainage faciity during rainy season. The most idea ph range for its cutivation is 6.0 to 6.8. It is a warm season crop, sensitive to fuctuating environment and grows uxurianty in warm and humid weather. The optimum temperature for better seed germination is 18 C, optimum being C. Optimum temperature for its better growth is C and temperature above 42 C causes fower drop. Commercia Varieties Parbhani Kranti, Punjab Padmani, P-8, Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay, Pusa Makhmai, Pusa A-4, Varsha Uphar, Azad Kranti, Pusa Sawani, Parbhani Kranti and Varsha Uphar. Sowing Times Spring-summer crop: February-March; Autumn-winter crop: Juy-September. Soi Preparation Okra shoud be panted in we puverized fied by poughing first with soi turning pough and afterwards with 4 to 5 poughings with country pough. Poughing shoud be foowed by eveing. Seed Rate and Spacing: kg/ha (Spring-summer crop) and kg/ha (Rainy season). The Spacing is 30-45cm 15 cm. Manures and Fertiizers quintas per ha shoud be appied at the time of fied preparation. In addition, appy kg N, kg phosphorus (P2O5) and kg potassium (K2O) per hectare, depending upon the fertiity status of the soi. Irrigation Pre-sowing irrigation is necessary especiay in spring-summer crop and the subsequent irrigations are given at 4-5 days interva in summer crop. Maturity and Harvesting The fruits attain marketabe maturity in about days after sowing. Ony tender and sma fruits (6-10cm ong) shoud be harvested preferaby in the evening or morning. 94

115 BASIC AGRICULTURE For export purpose, dark green fruits, about 6-8cm ong shoud be harvested. The yied is q/ha in spring-summer crop and q/ha in rainy season crop. Pant Protection Major diseases and their management Powdery midew White powdery growth on both The disease can be controed sides of the eaf. The diseased effectivey by spray sufex (0.2%) eaves drop off from the pant. or karathane (0.05%) at 10 days interva. Yeow vein The veins of diseased eaves mosaic become yeow. Infected pants remain stunted and bear very few deformed and sma fruits. It is transmitted by white fy. Remove infected pants and destropy them. Keep vector under contro by spraying either dimethoate (0.05%) or metasystox (0.02%) or monocrotophos (0.05%). Fruit borer Grow toerant varieties ike Perkins Long Green, Varsha Uphaar. Remove and destroy damaged shoots and fruits. Spray of carbary (0.1%) and maathion (0.05%) are effective. Insect- pests and their management White fy TOMATO The arvae bore into the shoots during vegetative stage and feeds inside; as a resut, the shoots droop down and dry-up. In the ater stages, it infests the fruits, which become disfigured and show hoes. It causes chorotic spots on eaves. Nymphs secrete a sticky substance known as honeydew, which covers eaves and fowers. Pant growth is reduced. Uproot and destroy the pants affected by yeow vein mosaic. Spray chemicas as prescribed in Yeow Vein Mosaic. Tomato (Soanum ycopersicum) beongs to famiy Soanaceae, is an important ingredient of every vegetabe coocked in India. Its fruits are aso used for making soup, juice, ketchup, puree, paste and powder. Red coour of tomato is due to ycopene pigment, which has anticarcinogenic properties.the orange coour of fruit is due to carotenoid pigment which is a rich source of vitamin A. 95

116 Pant Growth Habit in Tomato Tomato varieties are grouped into two broad categories based on their growth habit: Determinate (Dwarf growth) Inforescence occurs more frequenty on every internode unti termina ones are formed. Pant growth stops at termina point with a fower custer (sef topping). Soi and Cimatic Requirements Indeterminate (Ta growth) Inforescence custer occurs at every third internode. The main branch continues growing indefinitey with fruit formation unti frost occurs. We drained, fairy ight fertie oam with a fair moisture hoding capacity is the most idea soi for tomato cutivation. Tomato is a warm season crop, which requires ong season to produce a profitabe crop and highy susceptibe to frost. High temperature and high humidity favours deveopment of foiar diseases. Night temperature is the critica factor in fruit setting; the optimum range is C. Varieties Pusa Rohini, Pusa Eary Dwarf, Pusa 120, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Sadabahar, Pusa Uphar, Pusa Sheeta, Pusa Gaurav, Arka Abha, Arka Vikas, Arka Saurabh, Arka Aok, Arka Abhijit, Arka Shreshtha, Arka Vardan, Arka Ananya, Kashi Amrit, Kashi Hemant, Kashi Sharad, Kashi Anupam, Kashi Vishesh are important varieties. Hybrids Kt-4, Pusa Hybrid 1, Pusa Hybrid 2, Pusa Hybrid 4, Arka Vardan, Arka Meghai, Arka Visha, Arka Samrat, Kashi Hybrid 1, Kashi Hybrid 2 are some hybrids deveoped in our country. Nursery Sowing & Transpanting Time in India Crop/Region Spring-summer Autumn crop North Indian pains Late Nov (mid Jan) Juy-Aug (Aug-Sept) Eastern India Nursery Raising Nov (Late Dec) Aug-Sept (Sept-Oct) For better surviva in the fied, it is advisabe to harden the seedings. Pants are aowed to neary wit for 2-3 days before watering and this practice can be repeated two-three times. Such seedings can withstand the extremes of temperature. Seedings become 96

117 BASIC AGRICULTURE ready for transpanting in 4-5 weeks time. Seedings 5mm in diameter are better and about 15cm in ength are the best for transpanting. Soi Preparation and Transpanting Tomato shoud be panted in we puverized fied by poughing first with soi turning pough and afterwards with 4 to 5 poughings with country pough. Poughing shoud be foowed by eveing. Tomato is normay panted in raised beds of cm width. Transpanting shoud be done during ate afternoon and the seedings are paced on side of the beds. This provides ampe moisture for the pants to survive. Seed Rate and Spacing For pen poinated varieties g and for hybrids = g. Spacing of 60 cm 45cm for determinate varieties & 90cm 30cm for indeterminate varieties. Manures and Fertiizers Recommended dose of N, P and K fertiizers and their time of appication is as under. Recommended Farmyard dose manure (q/ha) Open poinated varieties Hybrids Irrigation Nitrogen (Kg/ha) Phosphorus (Kg/ha) Potassium (Kg/ha) Carefu irrigation is required for better growth of tomato crop which shoud be sappied at right time. Both over-watering and insufficient irrigation is harmfu. Maturity and Harvesting Tomato fruits are harvested at different maturity stages depending upon the purpose for which these are used and distance over which they are to be transported. Fuy deveoped mature green fruits are harvested for ong distance transportation. Such fruits ripen after reaching the market and deveop good coour under favourabe conditions. Fruits at turning stage (1/4th of the fruit especiay at bossom end shows pink coour), pink stage (3/4th of the surface shows pink coour) and hard ripe stage (neary a red or pink with firm fesh) are harvested for oca market. Over ripe fruits (Fuy cooured and soft) are suitabe for processing, which ensure desired quaity and red coour in processed products. 97

118 Major diseases and their management Damping Off The fungus attack usuay starts on the germinating seed, and further spread to the hypocoty, basa stem, and deveoping taproot. Bacteria wit Deady disease of tomato, which resuts in witing of pant, stunting pant growth, yeowing of entire pant, and brown vascuar system Insect-pests and their management Tomato fruit borer Fruit fy Initiay, the arvae feed on tender foiage but ater on, it moves to fower buds, fowers and deveoping fruits. The caterpiars make hoes into fruits and render them unfit for market. The maggots after hatching feed on pup of the fruits and render them unfit for human consumption. Physioogica disorders and their management Bossom end rot A very common and destructive disorder. Rotting of fruits starts at bossom end of the fruit. Deficiency of Mg and Ca is the main cause. 98 Drench the nursery bed with 5 itre formain dissoved in 100 itres of water 15 days before sowing. Spray mancozeb or dithane- M-45 (25 gram in 10 itre of water), carbendazim or bavistin (10 gram in 10 itre of water) on nursery seedings. Foow crop rotation with Cruciferous vegetabes, grow resistant varieties such as Arka Ananya, Arka Rakshak etc., foow hot water seed treatment at 50 C for 25 minutes and spray with 200ppm at 4-7 days interva. Foow ate transpanting. Foiar appication of endosufan (0.07%)/ carbary (0.1%)/ detamethrin (0.0028%) and acephate (0.05%) is effective. Remove and destroy affected fruits. Use pheromone traps for monitoring pest popuation. Spray of fenthion (0.05%)/ fenitrothion (0.05%), or bait spray adding 50 g gur + 10 m maathion in 10 L water is effective. It can be managed by spraying cacium 0.5% at fruit deveopment stage. Aso appy baanced irrigation and ensure proper staking.

119 BASIC AGRICULTURE Cracking of fruits BRINJAL Cracking of fruits at stem end is common in tomato and often resuts in arge osses. Cracks appear to deveop at maturity or ripening stage than mature green or turning stage. Deficiency of boron and ong dry spe foowed by heavy watering are the main reason of cracking. Soi appication of kg of borax per hectare is beneficia. Appication of proper irrigation at right stage is aso very important. Brinja (Soanum meongena) beongs to famiy Soanaceae, is one of the important indigenious vegetabe grown in India. It is caed as brain tonic due to the presence of nasunine compound. Soi and Cimatic Requirements It can be grown practicay on a sois from ight sandy to heavy cay. Sit oam and cay oam sois are generay preferred and the best ph is It is a warm season crop and susceptibe to severe frost. It grows best at a temperature of C. Important Varieties Pusa Shymaa, Pusa Purpe Long, Pusa Purpe Custer, Pusa Kranti, Pusa Bhairav, Pusa Anmo, Arka Shee, Arka Shirish, Arka Kusumkar, Arka Navneet Arka Keshav, Arka Neekanth, Punjab Chamkia. Nursery Sowing and Panting Time Crop/Region Northern Indian (NI) pains Spring-summer crop Nov (mid Jan-Feb) Rainy season crop Autumn crop Mar-May (Apri- June) June-Juy (Juy-Aug) Soi Preparation and Transpanting Brinja shoud be panted in we puverized fied by poughing first with soi turning pough and afterwards with 4 to 5 poughings with country pough. Seed Rate and Spacing g (OP), g (hybrids). Spacing for Dwarf varieties cm and ta varieties cm 99

120 Manures and Fertiizers quintas per ha shoud be appied at the time of fied preparation. In addition, appy kg N, kg phosphorus (P2O5) and kg potassium (K2O) kg per hectare. Irrigation: Appy irrigation at an interva of one week in summer season and days during winter. Maturity Harvesting and Yied Fruits shoud be harvested when they attain a good size, attractive coour and its surface shoud not oose its bright and gossy appearance. Timey harvesting of tender fruits increases the tota growing period and number of pickings aongwith yied. The yied of open-poinated varieties is q/ha and of Hybrids, it is q/ha. Pant Protection Diseases Phomopsis bight Bacteria wit Litte eaf Symptoms and management Portion of fruit is beached and gives burning appearance. Seed treatment with gm per kg. Spray the crop in the nursery with dithane M-45. Grow resistant variety ike Pusa Bhairav. Grow resistant varieties such as Arka Nidhi, Arka Keshav, Hisar Shyama etc. Caused by Mycopasma and transmitted by eaf hoppers. The affected pants are shorter in structure. The eaves are maformed. Fora parts turn into eaf-ike structures. No fruit bearing takes pace. Insect-pests and their Contro Brinja fruit and shoot borer CHILLI It is the most serious pest of brinja crop. Pant shoots wit and dry. Sma hoes appear beow the cayx of fruits. Fruits are fied with frass. Grow resistant/toerant varieties ike Pusa Purpe Custer, Arka Kusumkar. Foiar appication of carbary (0.1%)/ endosufan (0.07%)/ fenvaerate (0.01%) is effective. Chii (Capsicum annuum var. hortense) beongs to famiy Soanaceae, and gems Capsicum. 100

121 BASIC AGRICULTURE Types of Capsicum a. b. c. Hot pepper: Pungent due to crystaine voatie akaoid capsaicin, ocated mainy in the pacenta of fruit. It is cutivated for vegetabes, spices and pickes etc., potentia foreign exchange earning crop, and rich source of vitamin A and C. Sweet pepper (Shima Mirch): Bears be shaped, non pungent/mid and thick pericarp/feshed fruit. It is mainy used as vegetabe. Paprika: Mid in taste and sighty pungent than sweet pepper. Used as spice in European countries, gives coour and mid pungent taste to food stuff. It is aso used in pickes and sandwiches. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Chii can be grown practicay on a type of sois except on saine sois. Soi shoud be we-drained and we-aerated. Sandy and sandy oam sois are generay preferred for an eary crop or where season is short. The most idea temperature for its better growth and deveopment is C. Excessive rainfa resuts in poor fruit set, rotting of fruits and defoiation of pant. Varieties Pusa Jwaa, Pusa Sadabahar, Bhagya Lakshmi, Andhra Jyoti, Punjab La, Punjab Surkha, Punjab Guchhedar, Arka Meghana, Arka Harita, Arka Sweta. Panting Time South India - mainy as kharif season crop (June to October) and northern Indian pains. December: sowing (Feb), May-June (June-Juy). Seedings are ready for transpanting when they attain a height of 15cm with 4 eaves in 4-6 weeks. Seed Rate and Spacing One kg/ ha and spacing of cm or cm. Manures and Fertiizers Appy 75 kg/ha, and 50 kg/ha. Fu dose of farmyard manure, phosphorus and potassium and haf of N shoud be appied at the time of transpanting. Remaining part of N shoud be topdressed in two equa parts at an interva of one month each. Maturity and Harvesting The picking of fruits depends upon the type and purpose for which they are grown Green fruits: Fruits are harvested when they are sti green but fuy grown. It needs 5-6 pickings for harvesting the whoe crop. Pickes: The fruits are harvested either green or ripe. 101

122 3. Drying: Red, when fuy ripe fruits are picked at an interva of 1-2 weeks and harvesting continues for a period of about three months. Diseases and their Management Disease Damping off Powdery midew Management Spray mancozeb/ indofi M-45 (25gm/10 itre of water) or carbendazim/ bavistin (5gm/10 ). Foow five years of crop rotation. Spray suphur based fungicide i.e. karathane at an interva of 15 days 0.2 %. Bacteria wit Grow resistant varieties. Crop rotation with Cruciferous vegetabes is recommended. Fied sanitation and crop rotation reduces the disease incidence. Insect-pests and their Management Fruit borer Aduts ay eggs on the upper and ower side of eaf. Larve bore circuar hoes and usuay thrust ony head inside the fruit to another and may destroy many fruits. Spray detametharin 25 EC or spray 5% neem seed kerna extract to ki eary stages arvae Pacement of bird perches (T shaped) per ha heps in inviting insectivorous birds. Cucurbitaceous Crops Cucurbits form an important and a big group of vegetabe crops cutivated extensivey during summer season. These vegetabes are used either as saad, picking (cucumber) or for cooking (a gourds) or preserved (ash gourd) or used as desert fruits (musk meon and water meon). A cucurbits beong to the same famiy Cucurbitaceae but genera may be different. The cutura requirements of a crops in this group are more or ess simiar. Soi and Cimatic Requirements A we-drained soi of oamy type is preferred for cucurbits. Lighter sois, which warm quicky in spring are usuay utiized for eary yieds whie heavier sois are suitabe for more vine growth and ate maturity of the fruits. In sandy river beds, auvia substrata and subterranean moisture of river streams support the cutivation of cucurbits. The soi shoud not crack in summer and shoud not be water ogged in the rainy season. It is important that soi shoud be fertie and rich in organic matter. The most suitabe ph range is between 6.0 and 7.0 Cucurbits are warm season crops. They do not withstand even ight frost and strong winds, though cucumber toerates a sighty cooer weather than meons. Optimum 102

123 BASIC AGRICULTURE germination occurs at 18 C temperature. Cucurbits grow best at a temperature range of C. Proper sunshine and ow humidity are idea for the production of cucumber. Meons prefer tropica cimate with high temperature during fruit deveopment with day temperature of C. Coo nights and warm days give better quaity fruits in meons. Varieties Crop/botanica name Origin Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) India Botte gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) Africa Important varieties Japanese Long Green, Pusa Uday, Pusa Barkha, Pant Kheera-1, Pusa Sanyog (F1 hybrid), Poinsette, Sheeta, Priya. Pusa Naveen, Pusa Samridhi, Pusa Sandesh, Pusa Santushti, Pusa Hybrid 3, Punjab Round, Punjab Koma, Punjab Long, Arka Bahar. Bitter gourd Tropics of Arka Harit, Pusa Do Mausami, Pusa Vishesh, (Momordica charantia) the od word Pusa Hybrid-2. Summer squash (Cucurbita pepo) Sponge gourd (Lufa cyindrica) Ridge gourd (L. acutangua) Ash gourd (Benincasa hispida) Snake gourd (Trichosanthes anguina) Centra American and Mexican region Pusa Aankar, Austraian Green, Punjab Chappan Kaddu1, Eary Yeow Proific. India Pusa Nutan, Pusa Nasdar, Arka Sumeet, Arka Sujat, Satputia (hermophrodite fower). India Pusa Sneha, Pusa Supriya, Pusa Chikni. Japan and Jawa Pusa Ujjawa, CO-1, CO-2, S-1 (PAU), Karikumbaa, Boodikumbaa, APAU Shakti. India CO-1, CO-4, TA-19, Chichinda. Water meon (Citruus unatus) Africa Musk meon (Cucumis meo) North West India and hot vaeys of Iran Arka Jyoti (F1), Arka Manik, Sugar Baby, Durgapur Meetha, Durgapur Kesar, Asahi Yamato. Pusa Madhuras, Pusa Sharbati, Hara Madhu, Punjab Rasia, Punjab Sunheri, Punjab Hybrid, Arka Jeet, Arka Rajhans, Hisar Madhu, Durgapur Madhu, Kashi Madhu. 103

124 Sowing Times Under river-bed cutivation, most of the cucurbits are sown during winter season i.e. in the month of November in norther Indian pains. In the garden sois, sowing is done in February end to March. Meons are grown ony when the weather is warm and dry during fruit deveopment i.e. November to February. For rainy season, grow ony those cucurbits, which can toerate rains. e.g bitter gourd in June-Juy. In southern and centra India, winters are not severe and ong, therefore, these can be grown throughout the year. November sown crop is over by March-Apri In northern Indian his, sowings start from Apri-May and the crop is over by August-September. In western India, sowings are done from September to February. Methods of Panting In most cucurbits, in situ method of sowing is foowed. But in certain areas of northern India and his where the main objective is to get eary fruit harvest, the seedings are raised in poythene tubes and pantation is done in the fied when the conditions are favourabe without disturbing the soi ba. Transpanting is done at 2 true eaves stage. Furrow method: Furrows are made at 1 to 1.5 m in case of cucumber and bitter gourd. The sowing is usuay done on the top of the sides of furrows and the vines are aowed to trai on the ground especiay in summer season. Bed method: In some regions, bed system is in fashion where the seeds are sown on the periphery of beds. The width of the bed is amost doube to the row-to-row spacing. Hi method or raised beds: The his are spaced at a distance of m and 2-3 seeds are sown per hi. After germination, retain ony one or two pants per hi. This method faciitates proper drainage especiay in heavy rainfa regions. Pit method: Generay, it is foowed in southern India. The pit is ower than the norma bed surface. Training is done by Pargoa or Panda system. Seed Rate, Spacing and Yied Crop Season Cucumber Summer/rainy Botte gourd Bitter gourd Summer Summer/rainy Seed rate (kg/ha) Spacing (m) Fruit yied (q/ha)

125 BASIC AGRICULTURE Crop Season Seed rate (kg/ha) Summer Summer/rainy squash (dwarf) Summer/rainy Ash gourd Summer/rainy 5-7 Snake gourd Water meon Musk meon Summer/rainy Summer/rainy Summer Summer Manures and Fertiizers Fruit yied (q/ha) 8-10 Sponge gourd Ridge gourd Spacing (m) Farmyard manure (q/ha) Nitrogen (N) (Kg/ha) Phosphorus (P2O5) (Kg/ha) Potassium (K2O) (Kg/ha) Fu dose of farmyard manure, phosphorus and haf of potassium and N shoud be appied at the time of sowing. Remaining part of N shoud be top-dressed in two equa parts after one month and at fowering stage, whie haf of K is appied when good growth takes pace. Intercuture and Weed Management Thinning of pants shoud be done days after sowing, retaining not more than 2 heathy seedings per hi. The beds or ridges are required to be kept weedfree in the eary stages before vine growth starts. Weeding and earthing up are done at the time of top dressing of spit appication of nitrogenous fertiizers. 1 kg/ha or 2-3 kg/ha as pre emergence & 2-4 kg/ha as post emergence after first weeding efficienty heps in controing the weeds in Cucurbitaceous crops. In genera, vertica training is more hepfu in increasing the yied of cucumber. Irrigation In spring-summer crop, frequency of irrigation is very important, whie in rainy season crop, we distributed rainfa between Juy to September reduces the frequency of irrigations. Ridges or his or beds are to be irrigated a day or two prior to sowing of seeds and then ight irrigation is to be given 4 or 5 days after sowing. Sex Expression and Sex Ratio Gibbereic acid (GA) at higher concentration induces maeness but at ower concentration of ppm increases the number of femae fowers. 105

126 Two sprays, first at 2-eaf stage and again at 4 eaf stage with 100 ppm of NAA, 200 ppm of ethera, 3 ppm of boron or 3 ppm of moybdenum can suppress the number of mae fowers and increases the number of femae fowers, fruit set & utimate yied. Gynoecious ines (Bears ony femae fowers) are used for hybrid seed production in cucumber and bitter gourd. Cucurbits are cross-poinated vegetabe crops. There are nine types of sex forms found in these crops, of which monoecious type is the most common. Satputia variety of ridge gourd is the ony cucurbit, which bears hermaphrodite (bisexua) fowers. Maturity and Harvesting Harvesting of crop at right time is very important in cucurbits as in most cases, seed deveopment is undesirabe. Harvest cucumber, botte gourd, bitter gourd, snake gourd, ridge gourd and sponge gourd when they are sti young, tender and have soft seeds inside. Harvest before fruit coour changes from green to yeow. Musk meon: It is a cimacteric fruit, which ripe during transportation and storage. Hence, it shoud be harvested before it attains fuy ripe stage. Water meon: It is harvested at fuy ripe stage. Maturity signs are withering of tendri, change in bey coor or ground spot to yeow and the thumping test produce du sound on maturity and metaic sound in unripe fruits. Disease Management Disease Management Powdery midew Spray 0.05% Anthracnose Grow resistant varieties such as Poinsette, Arka Manik. Seed treatment with bitox or bavistin (2.5 g/kg of seed). Downey midew Fusarium wit Fruit rot Coar rot Spray dithane-z-78 (0.25%) Foow ong term crop rotation. Seed treatment and drenching of soi with bitox or bavistin (2.5 g/kg of seed). Seed treatment with bavistin or thiram or captan (2.5 g/kg of seed). Avoid food irrigation. Seed treatment with bavistin or thiram or captan (2.5 g/kg of seed). 106

127 BASIC AGRICULTURE Disease Management Anguar eaf spot Seed treatment with mercuric choride soution (1:1000) for 5-10 minutes. Pumpkin yeow vein mosaic Transmitted by whitefy. Contro fruitfy with insecticides. Cucumber mosaic Insect-pests Management Fruit fy Transmitted by aphids. Contro aphids with insecticides Fied sanitation shoud be ensured by remova and destruction of faen fruits and infested fruits daiy to minimize the pest intensity. Trap crop: Growing 2-3 rows of maize as a trap crop in between the cucurbits. Trap crop acts as resting site for the adut fruit fy. Any contact insecticides can be sprayed on maize during evening hours to ki adut fruit fies. Use of pheromone traps for monitoring pest popuation. Epiachna beete Appy cover spray of fenthion (0.05%)/ fenitrothion (0.05%), to ki the insects on contact or a bait spray that attracts and ki the aduts. Bait spray is prepared by adding 50 g gur + 10 m maathion in 10 itre water. Hand picking and destruction of eggs, grubs and adut beetes is effective. Foiar appication of maathion (0.05%), carbary (0.1%) and endosufan (0.05%) checks the pest. Red pumpkin Coection and destruction of beetes in the eary stage of infestation. beete Spraying with 0.05% maathion gives satisfactory contro of the pest. Aphids Spray endosufan or 0.1% C. Cutivation of fower crops ROSE Rose (Rosa species) is the most ancient and popuar fower grown the word over. In India, it is cutivated commerciay for cut fowers, both for traditiona fower market and forist shops. Rose oose fowers are petas used for making garands and for offering in tempes, and the cut roses with stems mainy used for bouquets and fora arrangements. Besides, the commercia rose, the Damask rose (R. damascena) 107

128 and Edouard rose (R. bourboniana) are cutivated for rose attar and other products, gukand, guabja and pankhurj. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Roses are grown in cod cimate of the his as we as in the pains of northern and southern regions and we-drained, medium oam soi having a ph of is idea for rose growing. Varieties First Red, Grand gaa, Gadiator, cocktai. Propagation Rose is commerciay propagated through T-Budding. Panting The rose shoud be panted in pits of 60cm diameter and 60 75cm depth dug at appropriate distances in a bed and in northern pains, mid-october is good time for panting. Pruning The rose bushes are pruned once a year during second or third week of October in the northern pains. After about 6 7 weeks of pruning, the pants start fowering. The time of fowering can be adjusted according to the date of pruning. The pruning in northern pains, is done in October. Manuring and Fertiization Rose being a perennia crop, it requires reguar nutrient feeding through manures and fertiizers at the time of pruning, pant growth and at the end of fowering, besides during and preparation and panting of new bushes. Irrigation The frequency of irrigation depends upon the soi texture and cimate. Watering is more frequent in sandy sois and hot weather than in cay sois and humid/rainy or coo season. During the rainy season in eastern/southern or coasta areas, it may not be necessary to irrigate the pants. The frequency of watering during summer may be about twice a week, whie in winter or coo season, it may be ony once a week or 10 days. Disbudding and Pinching The young vegetative buds in the eaf axis of basa and atera shoots are disbudded to encourage branching at the base and to obtain ong termina shoots. For obtaining ong stemmed quaity booms, it is necessary to do disbudding and pinching or remova of side fower buds. 108

129 BASIC AGRICULTURE Harvesting and Postharvest Management The rose fowers are cut whie sti in the bud stage after the sepas cur back and the coour is fuy showing. In arge-fowered roses, fowers aong with the stem of prescribed ength are cut when the first one or two petas start to unfod but do not open fuy. The fowers in sma-fowered custered varieties are cut when these begin to open in the custer. The fowers are harvested in eary morning or ate in the afternoon. The cut roses are kept in pastic buckets/containers fied with cean water having disinfectant and preservative (siver thiosuphate) to enhance their shef-ife. These fowers are shifted to precooing chambers having a temperature of 10 C, and kept there for about 12hr. The grading is done on the grading tabes. The graded fowers are bunched with 10 or 20 stems in each bunch and seeved with thick paper or pastic fim. These fowers are then packed in teescopic corrugated cardboard boxes. Pant Protection Pests Diseases Red spider mite Powdry midew Leaf eating caterpiar Nematode Scae Dieback Aphid Back spot MARIGOLD Marigod (Tagetes spp), beongs to famiy Astreceae. It is grown as an ornamenta crop for oose fowers as we as a source of pigment for poutry feed. Fowers are sod in the market as oose or after making into garands. Other than oose fowers, it can aso be used as cut fower. Marigod is used especiay for beautification and aso in andscape pans due to its variabe height and coour of fowers Botanica Description Tagetes erecta (African marigod) : The African marigod pant is hardy, annua; about 90 cm ta erect and branched. Tagetes patua (French marigod) : The French marigod is a hardy annua, about 30 cm ta, forming a bushy pant. Different types of marigod 109

130 Soi and Cimatic Requirements Marigod is adaptabe to different types of soi conditions and thus can grow successfuy in a wide variety of sois. However, a deep, fertie, friabe soi having good water hoding capacity, we drained and near to neutra in reaction (ph ) is most desirabe. Marigod requires mid cimate for uxuriant growth and fowering. Varieties Tagetes erecta (African marigod) Pusa Narangi Gainda, Pusa Basanti Gainda, Cimax, Chrysanthemum, Charm etc. Tagetes patua (French marigod) - Pusa Arpita, Red Brocade, Rusty Red, Butter Scotch etc. Pant Propogation Marigod is mainy propagated by seeds. The seed rate is 42.5 kg/ha. Transpanting Mid-Juy, mid-october and February-March are suitabe times for transpanting of marigod at spacing of cm. Nutrient Management FYM is 50 tones/ha at the time of fied preparation. In African and French marigod, appication of 400 kg N, 200 kg P and 60 kg K per hectare shoud be done. Maturity and Harvesting Marigod fowers are pucked when they have attained fu size. Pucking of fowers shoud be done in coo hours of the day. The fied shoud be irrigated before pucking so that fowers keep we for a onger period after harvest. Pucked fowers are coected in poythene bags or bamboo baskets for carrying to markets. Pant Protection Pests Diseases Red spider mite Damping off Hairy caterpiar Coar rot Aternaria dianthi Fower bud rot TUBEROSE Tuberose (Poianthes tuberosa L) beongs to famiy Amaryidaceae. It is native of Mexico from where it has spread to the different parts of the word during 16th Century. Tuberose is used for making garands, fora ornaments and bouquets. The ong fower spikes used as cut fowers for tabe decoration and the fowers emit a deightfu 110

131 BASIC AGRICULTURE fragrance and are the source of tuberose oi, which is used in high vaue perfumes and cosmetic products. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Fertie oamy and sandy soi having ph range from 6.5 to 7.5 with good aeration and drainage are idea for tuberose cutivation. In India, commercia cutivation of tuberose is confined to warm humid areas with average temperature ranging from 16 to 30 C. Varieties 1. Singe - Shringar, Prajwa, Rajat Rekha, Hyderabad Singe and Cucutta Singe are main varieties. 2. Doube - Swarn Rekha, Hyderabad Doube, Cucutta Doube, Vaibhav & Suvasini are main varieties. Tuberose fowers Propagation Tuberose is propagated through bubs and bubs are panted at a spacing of 20x20 cm at a depth of 4-6 cm. These bubs are first thoroughy ceaned and treated with bavistin (0.2%) for 30 minutes. Dipping the bubs in 4% soution of thiourea can break the resting period. Pre-pant storage of bubs at 10 C for a period of 30 days to improve the pant growth, increased spike and fower yied. Nutrient Management In genera, a basa dose of 10 kg/sq m, 15 g/sq m shoud be appied in three spit doses. Singe super phosphate and murate of potash 80 g/sq m, days prior to the panting of bubs is recommended. Maturity and Harvesting Tuberose starts fowering 80 to 100 days after panting and fowering time is Juy onwards and tuberose fowers a the year round. Spikes are harvested at bud-burst stage preferaby in the morning before sunrise or ate in the evening by cipping with a sharp knife or secateurs that give a cean cut. After harvest, these are immediatey immersed in water for proonging ife of spikes. 111

132 Pant Protection Insect Pests Diseases Bud borer Stem rot Nematodes Fower bud rot D. Cutivation of Spices CUMIN Cumin (Cuminum cyminum) or Safaid jeera is one of the odest spices known to mankind. It beongs to famiy Apiaceae. It is the ripe fruit of a sender herb. Cumin seeds are yeowish to greyish-brown and have an aromatic odour due to the presence of an aromatic acoho, cumino, and a spicy somewhat bitter taste, and are extensivey used as a condiment. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Cumin thrives we in tropica and sub-tropica cimates and we-drained, medium to heavy textured, medium to highy fertie soi with a good water-hoding capacity is ideay suited for its cutivation. Varieties The important varieties grown in India are: RS-1, Gujarat cumin-1, MC-43 and Vijapur-5 etc. Propagation Cumin is propagated through seeds. Pots of 2 x 2.5 m are made after the fina preparation of and, just before sowing. The best time for sowing is the first fortnight of November. Cutivation It is recommended to appy we rotten t/ha to the fied at the time of and preparation. In addition, an appication of 25:20:20 or 50:50:80 kg or kg each of NPK per hectare is considered to be optimum for the satisfactory growth of the crop. Pests and Diseases Cumin is often attacked by severa species of aphids, which can be effectivey controed by spraying a 0.3% soution of phosphomidon (0.03%), or dimethoate (0.3%). Cumin wit is a serious diseases caused by Fusarium oxysporum, F cumini and F equisetti. The 112

133 BASIC AGRICULTURE organism can infest the pant at any stage of growth. Organic amendments ike neem cake are usefu in checking wit. Maturity, Harvesting and Yied The crop wi be ready for harvest in about 80 to 120 days after sowing. At this stage, the eaves of the pant become yeow. The crop is harvested before the fruits shatter, by uprooting the whoe pant in the morning. A disease-free fied receiving the above package of practice woud easiy produce 8 to 15 quintas of cumin seeds per hectare. BLACK PEPPER Back pepper (Piper nigrum) beongs to famiy Piperaceae. It is one of the odest and the word's most important spices. Among a the spice crops, pepper has the highest contribution to foreign exchange. It is duy regarded as the "King of Spices" and "Back God. Pepper has its origin in the Western Ghats of India. It occurs wid in the his of Assam and North Burma. It is a perennia cimbing pant, mosty cutivated as a mixed crop in coffee, citrus and arecanut pantations in Keraa and Karnataka. Piperin is the akaoid responsibe for pungency. It s a perennia cimber, catkin is the inforescence type and fruit is singe seeded berry. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Pepper is essentiay a crop of the humid tropics and requires an optimum rainfa of mm per annum distributed throughout the year is desirabe. Pepper thrives best on virgin sois rich in humus and a ph range of 4.5 to 6.5 is idea. Propagation Pepper can be commerciay propagated by cuttings and runner shoots are the most preferred propagating materia, but for bush pepper production, pageotropic shoots are used. Varieties Karimunda, Sreekara, Poornima, Panniyur-2, Panniyur-4, Panniyur-6, Subhakara and Panchami are some of the important varieties of back pepper. Land Preparation The pits are prepared we in advance of panting at the base of the standards with a minimum size of 50 cm3. The pits are fied with a mixture of top soi, 5 kg of we rotten FYM/compost, 2 kg neem cake and 150 g rock phosphate. A spacing of 2.7 X 2.7 m is maintained in monocuture.the common ive standards used to train pepper vines are Erythrina indica, Garuga pinnata, Mangifera indica, Anacardium occidentae, Greuiea robusta, Terminaia sp., etc. 113

134 Pant Protection Pests and Diseases Insect Pests Poubeete Diseases Quick wit Symptoms Management The externa indication of infestation is the presence of dark, drying berries possessing a characteristic circuar hoe in the midst of green heathy berries. Spraying vines with, quinaphos (0.025%), dimethoate or monocrotophos (0.05%) twice a year. This is the most serious and dreaded disease affecting the pepper vine. Three types of symptoms, i.e., eaf-rot, coar-rot and root-rot, are generay observed in a quick wit infected pant. Appication (per vine) of neem cake (1 kg) + Trichoderma harzianum + garic and mustard seed extract Maturity, Harvesting and Yied Harvesting is done during Nov-Feb in pains and during Jan-Mar in his. In India, the yied varies from 110 kg to 355 kg/ha. Products Harvest maturity White pepper Fuy ripe Dehydrated green pepper days before fu maturity Back pepper Fuy mature and neary ripe Canned pepper 4-5 months after fruit set Oeoresin days before fu maturity Oi days before fu maturity Pepper powder Fuy mature with maximum starch TURMERIC Turmeric (Curcuma onga) is known as the sacred spice which beongs to famiy Zingiberaceae. It is the pant from which the turmeric of commerce (dried rhizomes) is obtained. The coouring principe in turmeric is curcumin. In addition to its use as a spice, natura source of yeow dye used for dying cotton, sik or woo without a 114

135 BASIC AGRICULTURE mordant. Turmeric powder and water are used as cosmetics. Turmeric is considered a carminative, tonic, bood-purifier, vermicide and an antiseptic. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Turmeric prefers a warm and humid cimate and can be cutivated in most of the tropics and subtropics, provided that the rainfa is adequate or irrigation faciities are avaiabe and we-drained oamy or auvia sois is optimum for the crop. Varieties Kasturi, Baaga, Mundaga, Aeppey, Mannuthy Loca etc. Propagation Turmeric is generay propagated by using whoe or spit mother rhizomes. Manure and Fertiizers FYM at 40 t/ha is appied at the time of and preparation and a fertiizer dose of 30:30:60 or 60:30:90 kg of NPK per hectare is recommended. The fied is muched with green 15 t/ha. Maturity, Harvesting and Yied Turmeric comes to harvest in 7-10 months after panting. The yied of about tones of raw turmeric per hectare is obtained. Vaue-added Products The vaue-added products of turmeric are curcuminoids, dehydrated turmeric, powder, oi and oeoresin. Pant Protection Pests Insect Diseases Shoot borer Symptoms Management The arvae bore into the Hymenopteran parasitoids pseudostems and feed on the have been identified as biogrowing shoots, resuting in contro agents for this pest. yeowing and drying of the infested shoots. Diseases Rhizome-rot The eaves of the infected pants become yeow and exhibit gradua drying aong the margins. 115 Panting heathy rhizomes and seed treatment with dithane M-45 (0.25%) + carbendazim (0.1%) for 60 minutes

136 CORIANDER Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is the dried fruit of Coriandrum satiuum L., an aromatic spice crop of the famiy Umbeiferae or Apiaceae. It is a very od favouring substance and it usage both for its eaves, as we as fruits. Soi and Cimatic Requirements Coriander is best cutivated on heavy back, cayey cotton sois. Varieties RCr-41, Rcr-20, CS-4 (Sadhna), CS-6 (Swathi), RD-44 (Rajendra Swathi) Propagation and Seed Rate Coriander is propagated by seed. Before sowing, the fruits are rubbed unti the two mesocarps are separated and then sown. The seed rate requirement in coriander varies from kg for irrigated and kg per hectare for rain-fed crops. Manures & Fertiisers 40:40:40 NPK per hectare are appied depending on the ocation at the time of sowing. Irrigation The crop is irrigated immediatey after sowing in order to ensure even germination, and ater irrigation is provided at 7-10 days' intervas, depending upon the soi and cimatic conditions. Maturity, Harvesting and Yied The coriander pant matures in days for grains and 40 days for greens. On an average, a seed yied of 400 to 500 kg/ha under rainfed conditions and 1,000 to 1,250 kg/ha under irrigated conditions may be obtained. Pests and Diseases Pests Diseases InsectPests Aphids Diseases Wit Symptoms Management The attack of aphids This insect is easiy controed usuay occurs at the by a number of insecticides time of fowering. (0.15% dimethoate at 10 days interva). Wit infection occurs in the roots and drooping, yeowing, witing and drying symptoms are expressed in the aeria parts. 116 T. harzianum and Pseudomonas fuorescens can be used as biocontro agents and wit toerant cutivars, Rcr-41, Rcr 4, GC 1 and 2 and Sindhu, shoud be grown in wit-affected pots.

137 BASIC AGRICULTURE EXERCISES Activities Pan a visit to some mango orchard. With the hep of gardener (Mai) make a ist of important varieties grown in it. Aso try to differentiate the varieties grown in the orchard. Aso find some insect or disease infected pant parts. Observe the nature of damage or and note down the symptoms of damage caused by an insect or disease. Go to some guava orchard. Note down the wit affected pants and symptoms of disease. Aso see if fruitfy attack is there in fruits. Cut such fruits into 2 haves and note down the extent of damage caused by the fy. Note the symptoms of guava wit and panama wit after visiting orchards of guava and banana, respectivey. Attempt to give incisions to immature papaya fruits and coect atex and prepare papain from it after foowing a precautions. Try to prepare beds of different sizes and sow seeds of different vegetabes and seasona annuas. Aso transpant the seedings in the fieds after they attain appropriate size. Go to Deptt of Vegetabe Science and Foricuture of some research institute and/ or Agri University near to your home. Note down different diseases of different vegetabes and foricutura crops, and make a herbarium. Coect different seed spices in sma vias and abe them. Check Your Progress Discuss soi and cimatic requirement of appe and mango. Discuss propagation techniques of mango, grape and citrus briefy. What is maturity? Discuss harvesting and grading in appe. Differentiate between training and pruning. Discuss pruning and training methods in grape and appe. Discuss major insect-pests and diseses of citrus and their management. What is crop reguation? Discuss bahar management in citrus and pomegranate briefy. Discuss cutivation appe under different heads. Name major varieties of mango. Name some hybrids deveoped by research institutes. List major physioogica disorders of mango and pomegranate. Name major diseases of mango, and banana. Write their contro measures. Write briefy about reguation of fowering in guava and pomegranate. Enist major varieties of cabbage, cauifower, potato, brinja and tomato being grown in different parts of India. 117

138 Discuss physioogica disorders of coe crops. Write important symptoms of major diseases of cabbage crop and enist various management practices adopted for their contro. Write briefy about harvesting and post harvesting handing of tomato, muskmeon and pea. Discuss major insect-pests of tomato, brinja, cabbage and potato and their management. Enist major diseases of okra, cauifiower, potato, and their management. List out the major and important varieties of coconut. Discuss major insect-pests & disease in coconut and cashewnut. List out the vaue added products of coconut? Discuss different propagation techniques and diseases of rose and tuberose. Mention the soi and cimatic requirement and propagation in marigod cutivation. Differentiate between African and French marigod and discuss the pinching in marigod. Enist the seed spices grown in India. Mention seed rate, method of propagation, major varieties and diseases. Fi in the banks Mango is known a fruits in India. Spongy tissue is a serious disorder in variety of mango. Dashehari is a famous variety of mango in India ( North, South, West) Amrapai is a variety of acts as vector for bunchy top of banana Papain is obtained from immature fruits Pusa Deicious is a variety of Harvesting index of mango & Pomegranate is commerciay propagated trough Utra Dwarf rootstock of appe is Grape variety suitabe for raisin making Aphonso is the variety of fruit crop Mosambi is a variety of Banana is commerciay propagated through Scientific name of cauifower is Seed rate of cauifower is Major insect pest of cabbage is Fruit and shoot borer is the major pest of crop Pea is rich in minera nutrient 118

139 BASIC AGRICULTURE Coconut is propagated by Scientific name of cashew is Scientific name for turmeric is Shade pant used in the turmeric fied is Scientific name of tomato is Coriander beongs to the famiy Maturity indices for coriander is Improved variety of cumin is Mention the seed rate for cumin Hybrid tea roses are communicay propagated through Time of pruning in rose is Fruits of rose is caed as Rose beongs to the famiy Gukand is prepared from Mention one veriety of marigod Rose is mainy propagated by Ba, J.S. (2007). Fruit growing. Kayani Pubishers, Ludhiana, India. Bose, T.K. and Som, M.G. (1995) Vegetabes crops of India. Naya Prokash Pubications, Kokatta, India. Chadha, K.L. (1993). Handbook of horticuture, ICAR, India. Chadha, T.R. (2000). Textbook of temperate fruits. ICAR, New Dehi. Chattopadhyay, T.K. A textbook on Pomoogy, Vo. 2,3,4, Kayani pubishers, Ludhiana, India., Mukhopadhyay, A and Randhawa, G.S. (1992). Foricuture in India, Aied Pubishers, New Dehi. Panda, H. (2010). Handbook on Spices and Condiments (Cutivation, Processing and Extraction). Asia Pacific Business Press Inc., New Dehi Sharma, R.R. (2006). Fruit production: Probems and soutions. Int. Book Distributing Co., Lucknow, India. Suggested Further Readings 119

140 CHAPTER 3 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND DAIRYING Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, students wi be abe to: Understand the nutritiona requirements of ivestock. Know the importance and use vaccination of animas. Know breeding methods of farm animas. Te the major diseases of ivestock and poutry and their management. Introduction Whensoever, we go to a dairy or viage, we find that few animas are quite heathy and few are very weak. Simiary, few dairies are neat and cean and producers give utmost care for rearing of animas; yet others are careess. This a depends on the management of nutrition and diseases. Livestock needs to be fed with baance diet ike human being. Farm animas aso suffer from severa diseases ike us, and hence, management of their diseases is most important aspect of their rearing. For the management of severa fata diseases, Govt. of India has initiated severa vaccination programmes. Simiary, breeding of animas is most important aspect for producing new individuas and increasing the popuation of wanted breeds. Furthermore, severa products and byproducts are produced from the farm animas, and their disposa and/or utiization is a major issue in our country. In this chapter, you wi come to know about a these aspects in brief. Nutritiona Requirements of Livestock For proper growth, heath and reproduction, animas aso require severa nutrients. The essentia nutrients required by animas are water, energy, protein, mineras, and vitamins. These nutrients are needed to maintain body weight, growth, reproduction, actation, and heath.. Water Water is the most abundant, cheapest, and east understood of a nutrients required for ivestock production. However, it is the most essentia for a ivestock. The producers shoud pan for an adequate suppy of cean water when designing any type of ivestock enterprise. Dirty, stagnant water can ead to inadequate water consumption, which wi affect performance of ivestock. The amount of water required depends on the age anima, heath and the surrounding environment. However, in genera, actating animas require more water, and the amount of water required increases as atmospheric 120

141 BASIC AGRICULTURE temperature increases. For exampe, at temperatures above 35 C, catte require about 8 to 15 iters of water per kg of dry matter intake. In genera, catte require ~2.6% of their body weight in dry matter (DM) intake per day. When the weather is hot in the summer, the requirement of the anima for water aso increases. A actating dairy cow requires on average between 15 and 35 gaons of water per day; non-actating dairy and beef cows require about 15 gaons per day; an adut horse wi consume up to 15 gaons per day, which wi increase 2 to 3 times when exercising; adut sheep between 1½ and 3 gaons a day; adut swine from 3 to 5 gaons per day; and adut hens about a pint. A quick rue of thumb is that for every 2 pounds of dry feed intake, an anima shoud receive one gaon of water. This wi vary with stress, weather conditions, heat, cod, disease, productive state, work, exercise, etc., as we as the water and sat content of the feed. Often the first sign that water consumption is inadequate is when animas stop eating. Water is essentia to maintain adequate feed consumption. Protein In genera, the amount of protein suppied in the diet of the anima is more critica than the quaity of the protein. Ruminants have the abiity to convert ow-quaity protein sources to high-quaity proteins through bacteria action. Protein is required by a grazing animas for growth. Protein required for a 1000 b non-actating cow is around 1.6 b/day. When the cow is actating, 2.0 b or 9.6% dietary crude protein is required. If protein is deficient in the diet, animas must break down body tissue to obtain sufficient protein. A protein-deficient anima must break down 6.7 b of ean body tissue to suppy 1 b of protein, resuting in severe weight oss. Energy Sufficient energy is required for better performance of ivestock, which varies greaty with age and type of anima. It is especiay important during ate gestation and eary actation periods. Energy deficiencies can cause reduced growth rate, oss of weight, reduced fertiity, owered mik production, and reduced woo quantity and quaity. Energy is primariy obtained from carbohydrates present in the pant materia or feed suppied to anima. Vitamins and Mineras Like human beings, animas aso require vitamins and mineras for growth and deveopment. Ruminants require a the fat-soube vitamins (A, D, E, and K), but they can synthesize the B vitamins in their rumen. Normay, the forage and feed suppy contain a essentia vitamins in adequate amounts, except vitamin A which is obtained as carotene from green pants. Sat is essentia for many body functions and important to maintain intake of feeds and water. Cacium and phosphorus are needed to maintain growth, feed consumption, norma bone deveopment, and reproductive efficiency. 121

142 Other nutrients and mineras such as vitamin E and seenium are important for maintenance of heathy bodies and reproduction. Factors Affecting Nutritiona Requirements of Animas The nutrient requirements of animas tend to vary ony sighty within a given weight, sex, age, and physioogica state. Physioogica stage: The nutritiona requirements of ivestock are greaty infuenced by the growth stage. The key physioogica stages in the ife of animas are growth (i.e., young animas), ate pregnancy, actation, and maintenance, and non-actating periods. In genera, the highest nutritiona requirements are during actation period, foowed by ate gestation, growth, and finay maintenance. Topography and cimatic conditions: The nutrient requirements of the animas are aso dependent on environmenta and cimatic conditions. Grazing and vountary animas aso require substantia increases in energy expenditure. Some animas wak ong distances, cimb gradients, and ingest herbage often of ow dry matter content, thus spending more time eating and foraging for food. It has been estimated that cows grazing use 30% more energy than confined cows because of onger grazing time and onger trave distance. The cimatic factors, particuary temperature, aso affect the amount of feed an anima needs to maintain its body functions. As ambient temperature drops, an anima s metaboic rate increases, and more energy is needed to maintain interna heat. This effect can be exacerbated by wind or wet hide/hair on the animas. Breeding of Farm Animas Breeding means, the manner in which seected maes and femaes are mated. Breeding makes new combination or sequencing of genes in the individua. The breeders identify and seect desirabe quaities in animas for future mating and discard ess desirabe quaities. For the improvement of ivestock seection and breeding must be practised simutaneousy. Continuous seective breeding eads to homozygosity in a popuation resuting a oss of variabiity. If a the individuas are aike, the breeder cannot make progress in future. Hence, there is a need to create a variabiity in popuation. This can be achieved by breeding. Therefore, seection and breeding shoud go hand-in-hand for the improvement of ivestock. Cassification of Breeding Systems Under the seected breeding system, seected maes and femaes are mated. The breeding system can be cassified into five different ways depending on their phenotypic and genotypic reations. (1) (2) Random mating, Phenotypic assortive mating, 122

143 BASIC AGRICULTURE (3) Phenotypic dissortive mating, 1. Random mating or Panmixia (4) (5) Genetic assortive mating, and Genetic dissortive mating. It is a system of mating in which each mae individua has an equa opportunity to mate with the femae individua and vice versa. This mating system generay takes pace in nature where the number of maes and femaes are assumed to be equa. Phenotypic assortive mating In this type of mating, animas which are phenotypicay aike are aowed to mate among themseves. This is aso caed ike-to-ike mating. Phenotypic disassortive mating In this method, individuas which are phenotypicay unike are aowed to mate. It is aso caed unike-to-unike mating. For exampe, mating of ta with short individuas. Genetic assortive mating In this system, individuas, which are geneticay cosey reated are aowed to mate. This is aso known as inbreeding. Genetic disassortive mating In this system, mating takes pace between ess-cosey reated individuas. This is aso caed as out breeding. Breeding Methods There are two major breeding methods: inbreeding and out-breeding. Inbreeding: It is defined as breeding of more cosey reated individuas (maes and femaes) than the average reationship of the popuation. Depending upon the coseness among mated individuas, inbreeding is of the foowing three types. (i) (ii) (iii) Cose inbreeding (mating individuas have reationship above 0.25), Mid inbreeding (mating of reatives beyond 2nd generation and upto 6th generation), Line breeding (mating of reatives between 4th-6th generations). Advantages of inbreeding Due to increase in homozygosity, the stamping abiity or prepotency of inbred ine increases. It heps to eiminate ethas and semi ethas due to homozygosity. 123

144 3. It increases genetic variance between ines and reduces genetic variance within ines. Disadvantages of Inbreeding Many ines are ost due to homozygous ethas or semi-ethas. Due to oss of heterozygosity, the hybrid vigour is ost. Inbreeding eads to ower birth weight, post nata mortaity (baby death after birth), poor growth, reproductive disorder and ow resistance to diseases. Out-breeding It is opposite to inbreeding where unreated individuas are mated. The breeding individuas have reationship ess than the average reationship of the popuation. Outbreeding resuts in increase in heterozygosity and decrease in homozygosity. It is of the foowing two types: (i) Out-breeding within a breed, and 1. Out-breeding increases heterozygosity which resuts in hybrid vigour (increase in weight, faster growth, increased resistance to disease, ow mortaity). (ii) Out-breeding between two species/strain/ine/breed. Advantages of out-breeding It covers the defects of recessive ethas and semi-etha genes. It increases genetic variance within ines. Products and Byproducts of Livestock and their Uses India is bestowed with vast ivestock weath and it is growing at the rate of 6% per annum. The contribution of ivestock industry incuding poutry and fish is increasing substantiay in GDP of country which accounts for >40% of tota agricutura sector and >12% of GDP. This contribution woud have been much greater had the anima byproducts been aso efficienty utiized. Efficient utiization of byproducts has direct impact on the economy and environmenta poution of the country. Non-utiization or under utiization of byproducts not ony ead to oss of potentia revenues but aso ead to the added and increasing cost of disposa of these products. Non-utiization of anima byproducts in a proper way may create major aesthetic and catastrophic heath probems. Besides poution and hazard aspects, in many cases meat, poutry and fish processing wastes have a potentia for recycing raw materias or for conversion into usefu products of higher vaue. Traditions, cuture and reigion are often important when a meat byproduct is being utiized for food. Reguatory requirements are aso important because many countries restrict the use of meat byproducts for reasons of food safety and quaity. Byproducts such as bood, iver, ung, kidney, brains, speen and tripe have good nutritive vaue. Severa byproducts have medicina and pharmaceutica uses. Waste products from the poutry processing and egg production 124

145 BASIC AGRICULTURE industries must be efficienty deat with as the growth of these industries depends argey on waste management. Treated fish waste has found many appications among with which the most important are anima feed, biodiese/biogas, dietectic products (chitosan), natura pigments (after extraction) and cosmetics (coagen). By-products of the meat industry & their utiization Severa by-products such as variety of meat, bood, hides and skin, bones, gands & organs and taow and ard are produced by the mean industry (Tabe 1). Beside poution and hazard aspects, in many cases, meat processing waste have a potentia for recycing raw materias, or for conversion into usefu products of higher vaue as by product, or even as raw materia for other industries, or for use as food or feed after bioogica treatment. Particuary utiization of meat industry wastes is receiving increased attention in view of the fact that these wastes represent a possibe and utiizabe resource for conversion to usefu products. Fish waste stands for one of the continuousy gaining ground waste management fieds. Among the most prominent current uses for treated fish waste are coagen, biogas/biodiese, dietic appications (chitosan) and food packaging. Meat producers have been using meat byproducts for a ong time to process into different products, some edibe and some inedibe. Today, with the increased concerns over heath, technoogy has been deveoped to permit more efficient utiization of these byproducts. In India, the saughter house waste management system is very poor and severa measures are being taken for the effective management of wastes generated from saughter houses. Competition is aso a strong incentive for meat industries to use byproducts more efficienty. This is important, because increased profits and ower costs are required in the future for the meat industry to remain viabe. These innovations aso increase the vaue of the carcass, and increase the profits of ivestock raisers. Variety of meats are the whoesae edibe byproducts. They are segregated, chied and processed under sanitary conditions and inspected. In some parts of the word, bood is aso utiized as an edibe product for human beings. In US, meat trimmed from the head is described on edibe offa or an edibe byproduct. Edibe fats are obtained during saughter, such as the cow fat surrounding the rumen or stomach, or the cutting fat which is back fat, pork eaf fat or rumen fat. In commercia saughter house practice in U.K, the offa is divided into red (head, iver, ungs, tongue, tai etc.) and white (fat), pus the set of guts and badder, the set of tripe (rumen), and the four feet and trimming. Some items may not be used in uncooked products. This ist incudes mammaian parts such as bood, bood pasma, feet, arge intestines, sma intestines, ungs, oesophagus meat, rectum, stomach (non-ruminant), first stomach (tripe, after cooking), second stomach (tripe, after cooking), fourth stomach, testices and udder. It aso incudes poutry part such as gizzards and necks. The yied of edibe meat byproducts from pigs is around 6.7% of the carcasses weight. Whether these products are widey accepted 125

146 by consumers depends on various factors. These incude the nutrient content, the price and whether there are comparabe competing products. Tabe 1: Proportion of byproducts produced by meat industry Item Pigs Catte % Market ive weight Whoe carcass Bood Fatty tissue Hide or skin Organs Head Viscera (chest and abdomen) Feet Tai Brain kg % Sheep kg - % 600 kg Nutritive Vaue of Meat By-products Edibe meat byproducts contain many essentia nutrients. Some are used as medicines because they contain specia nutrients such as amino acids, hormones, mineras, vitamins and fatty acids. Not ony bood, but severa other meat byproducts, have a higher eve of moisture than meat. Some exampes are ung, kidney, brains, speen, and tripe. Some organ meat, incuding iver and kidney, contains a higher eve of carbohydrate than other meat materias. Pork tai has the highest fat content and the owest moisture content of a meat byproducts. The iver, tai, ears and feet of catte have a protein eve which is cose to that of ean meat tissue, but a arge amount of coagen is found in the ears and feet. The owest protein eve is found in the brain, chitterings and fatty tissue. Some byproducts such as ears, feet, ungs, stomach and tripe contain a arger amount of proine, hydroxyproine and gycine, and a ower eve of tryptophan and tyrosine. The vitamin content of organ meats is usuay higher than that of ean meat issue. Kidney and iver contain the argest amount of ribofavin ( mg/100 g), and have 5 10 times more than ean meat. Liver is the best source of niacin, vitamin B12, B6, foacin, ascorbic acid and vitamin A. Kidney is aso a good source of vitamin B6, B12, and foacin. Lamb kidneys, pork, iver, ungs, and speen are an exceent source of iron, as we as vitamins. The copper content is highest in the ivers of beef, amb and vea. With 126

147 BASIC AGRICULTURE the exception of brain, kidney, ungs, speen and ears, most other byproducts contain sodium at or beow the eves found in ean tissue. Mechanicay deboned meat has the highest cacium content ( mg/100 g). Many organ meats contain more poyunsaturated fatty acids than ean tissue. Brain, chitterings, heart, kidney, iver and ungs have the owest eve of monounsaturated fatty acids and the highest eve of poyunsaturated fatty acids. There is three to five times more choestero ( mg/100 g) in organ meats than in ean meat, and arge quantities of phosphoipids. Brain has the highest eve of choestero (1,352 2,195 mg/100 g) and aso has the highest amount of phosphoipids compared to other meat byproducts. For this reason, the United States Department of Heath recommends that imited amounts of these byproducts be eaten, because of heath concerns. The high choestero content of many other organ meats, and the possibe accumuation of pesticides, drug residues and toxic heavy metas, is another reason for imited consumption. Utiization of bood Anima bood has a high eve of protein and heme iron, and is an important edibe byproduct. In Europe, anima bood has ong been used to make bood sausages, bood pudding, biscuits and bread. In Asia, it is used in bood curd, bood cake and bood pudding. It is aso used for non-food items such as fertiizer, feedstuffs and binders. Bood is usuay sterie in a heathy anima. It has high protein content (17.0), with a reasonaby good baance of amino acids. Bood is a significant part of the anima s body mass ( % of the anima s ive weight). The average percentage of bood that can be recovered from pigs, catte and ambs are , and %, respectivey. However, the use of bood in meat processing may mean that the fina product is dark in coor, and not very paatabe. Pasma is the portion of bood that is of greatest interest, because of its functiona properties and ack of coor. Bood is used in food as an emusifier, a stabiizer, a carifier, a coor additive, and as a nutritiona component. Most bood is used in ivestock feed in the form of bood mea. It is used as a protein suppement, a mik substitute, a ysine suppement or a vitamin stabiizer, and is an exceent source of most of the trace mineras. Bood pasma has abiity to form a ge, because it contains 60.0% abumin. Pasma is the best water and fat binder of the bood fraction. Bood can be separated into severa fractions that have therapeutic properties. Liquid pasma is the argest fraction (63.0%). It consists of abumin (3.5%), gobuin and fibrinogen (4.0%). Utiization of hides and skins Anima hides have been used for sheters, cothing and as containers by human beings since prehistoric times. The hides represent a remarkabe portion of the weight of the 127

148 ive anima, from 4% to as much as 11% (e.g. catte: %, average: 7.0%; sheep: %; swine: %). Hides and skins are generay one of the most vauabe byproducts from animas. Exampes of finished products from the hides of catte and pigs, and from sheep pets, are eather shoes and bags, rawhide, athetic equipment, reformed sausage casing and cosmetic products, sausage skins, edibe geatine and gue. After the hide is removed from the anima, it shoud be cured quicky to avoid decomposition by bacteria and enzymes. Geatin is produced by the controed hydroysis of a water-insoube coagen derived from protein. It is made from fresh raw materias (hides or bone) that are in an edibe condition. Both hides and bones contain arge quantities of coagen. Geatin extracted from anima skins and hides can be used for food. The raw materia can aso be rendered into ard. Coagen from hides and skins aso has a roe as an emusifier in meat products because it can bind arge quantities of fat. This makes it a usefu additive or fier for meat products. Coagen can aso be extracted from catte hides to make the coagen sausage used in the meat industry. Geatin is added to a wide range of foods, as we as forming a major ingredient in jeies. Approximatey 6.5% of the tota production of geatin is used in the pharmaceutica industry Most of it is used to make the outer covering of capsues. Geatin can aso be used as a binding and compounding agent in the manufacture of medicated tabets and pasties. It is used as an important ingredient in protective ointment, such as zinc geatin for the treatment of ucerated varicose veins. Geatin can be made into a sterie sponge which are used in surgery, and aso to impant a drug or antibiotic directy into a specific area. A product made from extracted coagen can stimuate bood cotting during surgery. Pork skin is simiar to human skin, and can be converted into a dressing for burns or skin-ucers. Pork skin used as a dressing needs to be cut into strips or into a patch, shaved of hair, spit to a thickness of mm, ceansed, sanitized and packaged. It can be used for skin grafting. When used for skin grafting, it is removed from the carcass within 24 h of the death of the pig. Utiization of bones Eeven percent of pork carcasses, 15% of beef carcasses and 16% of amb carcasses are bone. These vaues are higher if they incude the meat cinging to the bone. The marrow inside some of the bones can aso be used as food. The marrow may be % of the carcass weight. For centuries, bones have been used to make soup and geatine. Meat and bone mea (MBM) was widey recommended and used in anima nutrition as a protein source in pace of proteinaceous feeds because of its content of avaiabe essentia amino acids, mineras and vitamin B12. MBM and reated rendered protein commodities have potentia for use in appications other than anima feed, incuding use as a fue or a phosphorus fertiizer 128

149 BASIC AGRICULTURE Utiization of gands and organs Anima organs and gands offer a wide variety of favours and textures, and often have a high nutritiona vaue. They are highy prized as food in many parts of the word, particuary Southeast Asia. Those used as human foods incude the brain, heart, kidneys, iver, ungs and speen. They aso incude the tongue, the bovine pancreas and udder, the stomach and uterus of pigs, the rumen, reticuum, omasum and absomasum of sheep and catte, and the testes and thymus of sheep and pigs. The brain, nervous system and spina cord are usuay prepared direct for the tabe rather than processed for industria use. They are banched to firm the tissue before cooking, because of the soft texture. Heart is used as a tabe meat. Whoe hearts can be roasted or braised. Siced heart meat is gried or braised. Kidneys are generay removed from the fatty capsue which hods the kidney in pace. Kidneys may be cooked whoe or in sices, and are generay broied, gried, or braised. Liver is the most widey used edibe organ. It is used in many processed meats, such as iver sausage and iver paste. Livers from ambs, vea caves and young catte are preferred for the tabe in the United States and Europe, because they have a ighter favour and texture. Consumers in Southeast Asia, however, generay prefer ivers from pigs. Pig, caf and amb ungs are mainy used to make stuffing and some types of sausages and processed meats. Anima intestines are used as food after being boied in some countries. Anima intestines are aso used in pet food or for meat mea, taow or fertiizer. Anima gands and organs are traditionay used as medicine in many countries, incuding China, India and Japan. The endocrine gands secrete hormones. These incude the iver, ungs, pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, stomach, kidney, ovary and foice. Brains, nervous systems and spina cords are a source of choestero which is the raw materia for the synthesis of vitamin D3. Choestero is aso used as an emusifier in cosmetics. Bie consists of acids, pigments, proteins, choestero etc., and can be obtained from the ga badder. It is used for the treatment of indigestion, constipation and bie tract disorders. It is aso used to increase the secretory activity of the iver. Bie from catte or pigs can be purchased as a dry extract or in iquid form. Gastones are reported to have aphrodisiac properties, and can be sod at a high price. They are usuay used as ornaments to make neckaces Different products of farm animas and pendants. 129

150 The iver is the argest gand in animas. The iver of mature catte usuay weighs about 5 kg, whie that of a pig weighs approximatey 1.4 kg. Liver extract is produced by mixing raw ground iver with sighty acidified hot water. Liver extract can be obtained from pigs and catte, and has been used for a ong time as a source of vitamin B12, and as a nutritiona suppement used to treat various types of anaemia. Heparin can be extracted from the iver, as we as the ungs and the ining of the sma intestines. It is used as an anticoaguant to proong the cotting time of bood. It is aso used to thin the bood, to prevent bood cotting during surgery and in organ transpants. Progesterone and oestrogen can be extracted from pig ovaries. It may be used to treat reproductive probems in women. Reaxin is a hormone taken from the ovaries of pregnant sows, and is often used during chidbirth. The pancreas provides insuin, which reguates sugar metaboism and is used in the treatment of diabetes. Gucagon extracted from the ces of the pancreas is used to increase bood sugar, and to treat insuin overdoses or ow bood sugar caused by acohoism. Utiization of edibe taow and ard Anima fats are an important byproduct of the meat packing industry. The major edibe anima fats are ard and taow. Lard is the fat rendered from the cean tissues of heathy pigs. Taow is hard fat rendered from the fatty tissues of catte or sheep. Lard and edibe taow are obtained by dry or wet rendering. In the wet rendering process, the fatty tissues are heated in the presence of water, generay at a ow temperature. The quaity of the ard or taow from this process is better than that of products from dry rendering. Low-quaity ard, and amost a of the inedibe taow and greases, are produced by dry rendering. Rendered ard can be used as an edibe fat without any further processing. However, because of consumer demand, ard and taow are now often beached and given a deodorizing treatment before being used in food. Traditionay, taow and ard were used for deep frying. However, this use is decining in the fast-food industry, due to consumer heath concerns. An aternative iquid taow product has been deveoped for the preparation of French fries and other fast foods, since ess fat is absorbed. Taow and ard are aso used for margarine and shortening. Some edibe ards are used in sausages or emusified products. Utiization of poutry byproducts Waste products from the poutry processing and egg production industries must be efficienty deat with as the growth of these industries depends argey on waste management. The intensive and arge scae production of food animas and anima products has generated an enormous disposa probem for the anima industry. These wastes, incuding anima excreta, mortaities, hair, feathers and processing wastes are convertibe to usefu resources. Feather can be fermented by using feather degrading bacterium, Bacius icheniformis. This bacterium ferments feather to feather ysate, a 130

151 BASIC AGRICULTURE digestibe protein which is a good source of feed. An enzyme, keratinase, secreted by this bacterium, was purified and characterized. The keratinase is a potent proteinase that hydroyses coagen, eastin and feather keratin/ Emusion-based mutton nuggets, incorporating chicken byproducts, i.e., skin, gizzard and heart (SGH) from spent hens have aso been evauated. Incorporation of SGH resuts in better acceptabiity of mutton nuggets as compared to that containing mutton fat ony. The main byproducts from the poutry have been presented in tabe 2. byproducts and their potentia uses Tabe 2: Byproducts of poutry Type of by-product % of ive weight Uses Poutry itter and manure Egg shes, infertie eggs, unhatched eggs and dead as we as cued chicks Recyced feed, surface dressing of agricutura and Byproducts from production phase Hatchery byproducts Byproducts of poutry dressing pant Feathers 7 8 Heads Feet Bood Gizzard and proventricuus Intestines and gands Fish waste/byproducts utiization Hatchery by-product mea upto 3 5% into feed. Egg she mea as high cacium diet Bedding materia, decorative purpose, sporting equipment, manure or fertiizers, feather mea. Poutry mea. Bood mea. Edibe, source of chitinoytic enzyme. Soup, technica fat/poutry grease Sportgats, meat mea, poutry grease and active principes (hormones and enzymes) Fish waste is a great source of mineras, proteins and fat. Potentia utiization of waste fish scraps is to produce fish protein hydroysate by enzymic treatment. Fish protein hydroysate coud be used as a cryoprotectant to suppress the denaturation of proteins of izard fish surimi during frozen storage. Coagen or keratin contained in 131

152 ivestock and fish waste may be converted to usefu products by enzymic hydroysis, providing new physioogicay functiona food materias. Coagens containing yeow tai fish bone and swine skin wastes were used as raw materias for production of protein hydroysates and peptides. These hydroysates coud be of potentia use as food ingredients. Auto-hydroysis of waste fish viscera to produce peptone hydroysates and their use in bacteriocin production by actic acid bacteria There are severa aternative uses of fish processing waste, ike utiization of fish mince, appications of fish geatin, fish as a source of nutraceutica ingredients, fishmea production, the possibe use of fish and protein concentrate as a food source. Common Diseases of Livestock and their Management Severa diseases can infect farm animas and it is impossibe to accuratey estimate a the osses caused by ivestock diseases. However, by and arge, the osses are caused by mortaity, reduced productivity and ower fertiity. Livestock production is an integra part of the way-of-ife for the peope of the word. Many farmers and ranchers depend upon ivestock production for their iveihoods. Consumers expect adequate suppies of meat at economica prices. With ivestock mismanagement and spread of diseases, a these are affected. Causes of diseases Disease causes body functions to disfunction or function impropery. Three principa reasons most often cited for the spread of diseases are poor sanitation, improper management, and introduction of new animas into a herd. One or more of the foowing defects cause diseases. Nutritiona defects: An imbaance of required food nutrients in the ration is the cause of nutritiona defects. Animas receiving inadequate amounts of vitamins, mineras, fats, carbohydrates, and protein cannot produce efficienty. Therefore, their eves of resistance to disease are owered. Physioogica defects: These defects cause an improper functioning of gands, organs, or body systems. The reationship between the diet and the proper functioning of body parts is directy reated. For exampe, the thyroid gand reguates the rate of body metaboism and depends upon an adequate suppy of iodine to function propery. An impropery functioning thyroid gand may increase the nutritive requirements of animas to the point that very few nutrients are avaiabe for growth or production. Morphoogica defects (physica defects): An accident or negigence is responsibe for physica defects. Cuts, scrapes, scratches, bruises, and broken bones are exampes of morphoogica defects. Any one of these can temporariy or permanenty reduce the efficiency of an anima. Good management practices hep eiminate defects of this nature. 132

153 BASIC AGRICULTURE Pathogenic defects: Certain organisms produce toxins or poisons that upset the norma metaboic activity of the anima. Viruses and bacteria are the most common disease-causing pathogens. They are microscopic in size and capabe of mutipying rapidy under idea environmenta conditions. Other pathogens are fungi and protozoans. Vira diseases are the most difficut to contro because viruses cosey resembe the chemica compounds that make up a ce. Another probem in controing viruses is that the chemicas capabe of kiing or controing them aso ki or destroy the host ce. Preventive vaccinations are the most successfu method of controing vira diseases. Bacteria are microscopic in size, produce powerfu toxins, and mutipy rapidy. Many bacteria are capabe of forming spores, resistant forms of bacteria ces abe to withstand severe environmenta conditions. These spores are difficut to contro and may ie dormant for years before being provided with the opportunity to cause disease. Antibiotics are used successfuy to contro bacteria. Funga diseases are caused by fungi, which are sma organisms. Many disease-producing fungi ive in the soi. It is often difficut to determine the cause of funga diseases, because bacteria cause a secondary infection and are often erroneousy identified as fungi. Protozoa are one ceed and the simpest form of anima ife. Some protozoa cannot move themseves and must be transported by other means. Some move by making whip-ike ashes or vibrating projections. A number of different kinds of protozoa prey upon animas and cause disease. The major diseases of the ivestock and their management strategies have been described hereunder. Anthrax: Anthrax, a highy infectious and fata disease of cattes, is caused by a reativey arge spore-forming rectanguar shaped bacterium caed Bacius anthracis. Anthrax occurs on a the continents, causes acute mortaity in ruminants. The bacteria produce extremey potent toxins which are responsibe for the i effects, causing a high mortaity rate. The bacteria produce spores on contact with oxygen. Signs of the iness usuay appear 3 to 7 days after the spores are swaowed or inhaed. Once signs begin in animas, they usuay die within two days. Hoofed animas, such as deer, catte, goats, and sheep, are the main animas affected by this disease. They usuay get the disease by swaowing anthrax spores whie grazing on pasture contaminated (made impure) with anthrax spores. Inhaing (breathing in) the spores, which are odoress, cooress, and tasteess, may aso cause infection in animas and peope. In the case of terrorism, arge numbers of anthrax spores may be reeased into the air. Symptoms Sudden death (often within 2 or 3 hours of being apparenty norma) is by far the most common sign; Very occasionay some animas may show trembing, a high temperature 133

154 Difficuty breathing, coapse and convusions before death. This usuay occurs over a period of 24 hours; After death bood may not cot, resuting in a sma amount of boody discharge from the nose, mouth and other openings Treatment and contro Due to the acute nature of the disease resuting in sudden death, treatment is usuay not possibe in animas even though anthrax bacii are cines. Treatment is of use in cases showing sub-acute form of the disease. In most cases, eary treatment can cure anthrax. The cutaneous (skin) form of anthrax can be treated with common antibiotics such as peniciin, tetracycine, erythromycin, andciprofoxacin (Cipro). Back Quarter (Back -eg) : It is an acute infectious and highy fata, bacteria disease of catte. It is a bacteria disease caused by Costridium chauvoei. Buffaoes, sheep and goats are aso affected. Young catte between 6-24 months of age, in good body condition are mosty affected. It is soi-borne infection which generay occurs during rainy season. In India, the disease is sporadic (1-2 anima) in nature. Symptoms Fever ( F), Loss of appetite, Depression and duness. Difficut breathing (dyspnoea) Suspended rumination Rapid puse and heart rates Lameness in affected eg Crepitation sweing over hip, back & shouder Sweing is hot & painfu in eary stages whereas cod and painess inter Recumbency (prostration) foowed by death within hrs. Treatment 10,000 units /Kg body weight 1M & ocay daiy for 5-6 days. Oxytetracycine in high doses i.e mg/kg body weight 1M or IV Indcse the sweing and drain off B.Q. antiserum in arge does, if avaiabe. Injection. Avi / 5-10 m IM Foot-and-mouth disease : The foot-and-mouth disease is a highy communicabe disease affecting coven-footed animas. It is characterized by fever, formation of vesices and bisters in the mouth, udder, teats and on the skin between the toes and above the hoofs. Animas recovered from the disease present a characteristicay rough coat and deformation of the hoof. In India, the disease is widespread and assumes a 134

155 BASIC AGRICULTURE position of importance in ivestock industry. The disease spreads by direct contact or indirecty through infected water, manure, hay and pastures. It is aso conveyed by catte attendants. It is known to spread through recovered animas, fied rats, porcupines and birds. Symptoms of Foot & Mouth disease Symptoms Fever with ᵒ F Lameness observed Profuse saivation ropes of stringy saiva hangs from mouth Vesices appear in mouth and in the inter digita space Cross bred catte are highy susceptibe to it Treatment The externa appication of antiseptics contributes to the heaing of the ucers and wards off attacks by fies. A common and inexpensive dressing for the esions in the feet is a mixture of coa-tar and copper suphate in the proportion of 5:1. Precautions Heavy mich animas and exotic breeds of catte bred for mik shoud be protected reguary. It is advisabe to carry out two vaccinations at an interva of six months foowed by an annua vaccination programme. Isoation and segregation of sick animas. It shoud be informed immediatey to the veterinary doctor 135

156 Disinfection of anima sheds with beaching powder or pheno Proper disposa of eft over feed by the anima Attendants and equipments for sick animas shoud be ideay separate The equipments shoud be thoroughy sanitized Proper disposa of carcasses Contro of fies Rinder pest: Rinderpest is the most destructive of the virus diseases of coven-footed animas, such as catte, buffaoes, sheep, goats, pigs and wid ruminants. Its contro was a major issue ti recenty a over the word. Organised efforts over haf a century have brought about a tota eradication of the disease in the Western Hemisphere. The disease sti persists in the Asian countries. The virus is found notabe in the saiva, discharge from eyes and nostris, and in the urine and faeces. It is present in the circuating bood during the febrie stage and is ater concentrated in different organs, especiay in the speen, ymph nodes and iver. Outside the anima body, the virus is rapidy destroyed by direct sunight and disinfectants. Cod preserves the virus. The virus is usuay spread by contaminated feed and water. Rise in temperature up to F. Lacrimation and redness of eye. Fou odour from mouth. Discrete necrotic foci deveop in the bucca mucosa, inside ip, and on the tongue. Boody mucoid diarrhoea is noticed Treatment Symptomatic treatment with peniciin, streptomycin, suphadimidine and intestina antiseptics has no action on the virus, but may hep in the recovery of ess severe cases of rinderpest, as these contro secondary compications caused by bacteria. Mastitis : Mastitis, or infammation Symptoms of mastitis in cow of the mammary gand, is the most common and the most expensive disease of dairy catte throughout most of the word. Athough stress and physica injuries may cause infammation of the gand, infection by invading bacteria or ot her microorganisms (fungi, yeasts and possiby viruses) is the primary cause of mastitis. Infections begin when microorganisms penetrate the teat cana and mutipy in the mammary gand. Treatment Success depends on the nature of the aetioogica agent invoved, the severity of the disease and the extent of fibrosis. 136

157 BASIC AGRICULTURE Compete recovery with freedom from bacteria infection can be obtained in cases of recent infection and in those where fibrosis has taken pace ony to a sma extent. Such drugs as acrifavine, gramicidin and tyrothricin have now ceased to be in use, and have given pace to the more effective drugs, such as suphonamides, peniciin and streptomycin. Footrot: Footrot is a common cause of ameness in catte and occurs most frequenty when catte on pasture are forced to wak through mud to obtain water and feed. However, it may occur among catte in paddocks as we, under apparenty exceent conditions. Footrot is caused when a cut or scratch in the skin aows infection to penetrate between the caws or around the top of the hoof. Individua cases shoud be kept in a dry pace and treated prompty with medication as directed by a veterinarian. If the disease becomes a herd probem a foot bath containing a 5% soution of copper suphate paced where catte are forced to wak though it once or twice a day wi hep to reduce the number of new infections. In addition, drain mud hoes and cement areas around the water troughs where catte are ikey to pick up the infection. Keep pens and areas where catte gather as cean as possibe. Proper nutrition regarding protein, mineras and vitamins wi maximize hoof heath. Ringworm: This is the most common infectious skin disease affecting beef catte. It is caused by a fungus, and is transmissibe to man. Typicay the disease appears as crusty grey patches usuay in the region of the head and neck and particuary around the eyes. As a first step in controing the disease, it is recommended that, whenever possibe, affected animas shoud be segregated and their pens or stas ceaned and disinfected. Cean catte which have been in contact with the disease shoud be watched cosey for the appearance of esions and treated prompty. Proper nutrition, particuary high eves of Vitamin A, copper and zinc whie not a cure, wi hep to raise the resistance of the anima and in so doing offer some measure of contro. Contact your vet and or feed store for products to treat this disease. Using a wormer ike Ivomec wi ki ice and hep prevent catte from scratching causing skin damage and a pace for the fungus to enter. Mik fever: Mik fever, aso known as parturient hypocacaemia and parturient paresis, is a disease which has assumed considerabe importance with the deveopment of heavy miking cows. Decrease in the eves of ionized cacium in tissue fuids is basicay the cause of the disease. In a adut cows there is a fa in serum-cacium eve with the onset of actation at caving. 137

158 The disease usuay occurs in 5 to 10 year od cows, and is chiefy caused by a sudden decrease in bood-cacium eve, generay within 48 hours after caving. Symptoms In cassica cases, hypocacaemia is the cause of cinica symptoms. Hypophosphataemia and variations in the concentration of serum-magnesium may pay some subsidiary roe. The cinica symptoms deveop usuay in one to three days after caving. They are characterized by oss of appetite, constipation and restessness, but there is no rise in temperature. Nutritiona defects in animas Anemia: A farm animas are susceptibe. Iron deficiency prevents the formation of hemogobin, a red iron containing pigment in the red bood ces responsibe for carrying oxygen to the ces. Characterized by genera weakness and a ack of vigour. A baanced ration usuay prevents the occurrence of anemia. Boat: Typicay occurs when animas are grazing on highy productive pastures during the wetter part of ate spring & summer. Swoen abdomen on the eft side, abored breathing, profuse saivation, groaning, ack of appetite, & stiffness. Maintain pastures composed of 50% or more grass. Enterotoxemia: It is caused by bacteria & overeating. Constipation is an eary symptom & sometimes foowed by diarrhea. Bacterin or antitoxin vaccine shoud be used at the beginning of the feeding period. Founder Overeating of grain, or ush, highy improved pasture grasses. Affected animas experience pain and may have fever as high as 106 degrees F. Good management & feeding practices prevent the disease. Common Poutry Diseases and their Management Fow Coccidiosis: This disease is caused by a protozoan parasite of the intestine and can cause very heavy osses in poutry particuary up to the age of 12 weeks Symptoms The chicks ose weight and their appetites. Droppings are watery and greenish or brown in coour often containing bood. Their feathers become ruffed and soied. Combs are pae and they tend to hudde together in corners. Contro Measures Use of Bifuran in feed at a times. Keep the itter dry and oose and keep chicks isoated in freshy steriised pens. Use Bifuran in the water according to the manufacturer s instructions. Isoate sick birds. 138

159 BASIC AGRICULTURE When the attack dies down disinfect itter and steriize pens. Ranikhet: A highy infectious and fata vira disease, it attacks poutry of a ages. Aso known as New Caste disease. Symptoms Inactivity, droopiness and seepiness. Gasping for air, wheezing and coughing. Pae combs and wattes which ater turn bue. Fu and distended crop. Green diarrhoea with fou odour. The head may be twisted to the side, drawn back or down between the egs. Convusions, paraysis and incoordination. Contro measures Vaccinate chicks of one day with F-1 vaccine Re-vaccinate again at 6 to 8 weeks with Ranikhet vaccine. Fow Pox : A vira disease that can affect birds at any age resuting in high mortaity rates. Symptoms Formation of greyish spots or bisters on wattes which after severa days enarge and deveop into wartike eruptions with scaes. Remova of scaes resuts in rough, raw beeding wounds. Formation of hard crust in days. Contro Measures Do not overcrowd birds. Vaccinate with pigeon pox vaccine at 7 days of age Foow this by a further fow pox vaccine at 6 weeks of age. Fow Coryza: A bacteria disease contaminated through feed, water and by contact through carriers. Symptoms Watery discharge from eyes and nose and sometimes sticking of eyeids. Soied feathers under the wings with fow odour. Noticeabe difficuty in breathing, shaking of head and wheezing. Odorous, cheesy droppings. Contro Measures Observe strict sanitary condition and make certain that an adequate source of Vitamin A is provided in the diet 139

160 Infected birds shoud be cued and destroyed and the house, feeders and waterers thoroughy disinfected. An injection of antibiotics is aso hepfu. Fow Choera: A bacteria disease contaminated mosty through feed and water. Symptoms Sudden death without any visibe symptoms. Painfu abcesses in the joint of egs and ameness. Diarrhoea and fever. Sweing of the wattes foowed by wrinkes. Contro Measures Affected birds shoud be segregated. Treated with (0.2 per cent) Sod.Suphamezathine in drinking water or by injecting broad spectrum antibiotic, ike Terramycin (40 mg per kg by wt.) Contro is achieved by timey vaccination. Marek s Disease : The disease is caused by a virus which is spread from an infected chicken to a non-infected one through the air, poutry dust, by contact, sometimes faeces. Greatest susceptibiity from 6-26 weeks of age. Symptoms Paraysis of egs and/or wings Uniatera and biatera bindness. Laboured breathing Whisting and circing movements On postmortem examination whitish nodues in musces of thigh, neck, kidneys, testes and in ovaries are seen. Contro Measures Immunisation of birds by using vaccines Procure geneticay resistant chicks Super sanitation. Vaccination in Farm Animas and Poutry Farm animas and poutry birds are venerabe to severa potent diseases. Every year we find severa reports of sheep and goat pox (SGP) in sheep and goat, Foot and mouth disease (FMD) in coven fotted animas particuary catte, Ranikhet disease (RKD) and Infectious bursa disease (IBD) in poutry and other disease outbreaks in different species of ivestock on account of fauty vaccination or non-vaccination eading to huge financia osses to the ivestock rearers. Thus before estabishing a commercia ivestock unit an entrepreneur or a farmer need to know a about vaccination and immunisation 140

161 BASIC AGRICULTURE to save ivestock from disease outbreaks and have a profitabe income generating unit. Vaccines A vaccine is a bioogica preparation that improves immunity to a particuar disease. A vaccine typicay contains an agent that resembes a diseasecausing microorganism and is often made from weakened or kied forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimuates the body s immune system to recognize the agent as foreign, destroy it, and keep a record of it, so that the immune system can more easiy recognize and Vaccination is being done in buffao destroy any of these microorganisms that it ater encounters. Vaccines may be prophyactic for exampe to prevent or ameiorate the effects of a future infection by any natura or wid pathogen or therapeutic e.g. vaccines against cancer are aso being investigated. Vaccination Vaccination (immunisation) is a tried and tested method of assisting in the continua fight against disease in man and animas. Vaccination protects hundreds of miions of animas wordwide from disease and possiby death. Animas, just ike humans, suffer from a range of infectious diseases. As veterinary medicine has advanced, prevention of disease has become a priority as heathy food comes from heathy animas. One of the best means of preventing disease is by creating immunity in the anima. This is usuay achieved by vaccination. Animas which deveop disease often require treatment with medicines so vaccination heps reduce the amount of pharmaceuticas used in the treatment of animas. Vaccination presents no hazard to consumers of produce from vaccinated animas. Major objectives of vaccination There are three basic objectives in vaccination: To provide immunity to the anima or group of animas (active immunity). To provide immunity to the offspring of an anima via vaccination of the dam (passive immunity). 141

162 Or to provide immunity to the anima or group of animas and their offspring (active and passive immunity). The Do s and Don ts in vaccination A. B. Storage of vaccine Ensure a vaccines are stored correcty before use. Many vaccines require coo storage ideay have a dedicated refrigerator for vaccines and medicines that can be secured. Any vaccine not requiring refrigeration shoud be stored in a dedicated vaccine store or otherwise the medicines cabinet or store. These must be ockabe. Keep a vaccines away from chidren. Keep a medicine cabinets, stores and refrigerators cean. Where simiar vaccines are kept with different expiry dates ensure those with the shortest expiry time are at the front Many vaccines ony have a short shef-ife, ensure you ony use vaccines in date. When ordering vaccines ensure ony sufficient is ordered to meet the requirements at that time. Animas to be vaccinated Ony vaccinate fit and heathy animas. Do not vaccinate stressed animas. Do not vaccinate exhausted animas. Do not vaccinate animas in very ate pregnancy. Do not vaccinate animas younger than the age given by the vaccine manufacturers without taking advice. Edery animas may not respond in their immunity as we as younger ones Do not vaccinate animas that are nutritionay deprived or starved. Do not vaccinate animas that are deficient in nutrients incuding vitamins and mineras. Do not vaccinate animas soon after they have been i without taking advice from the manufacturers. Do not vaccinate animas too cose to service or in the service period uness it is stated that this is acceptabe. Do not vaccinate animas that are immune-suppressed. When injecting vaccines ensure that the site of injection is cean and dry. If animas have had an immunosuppressive disease or iness wait as ong as possibe before vaccination. Where possibe take advice from the manufacturers. 142

163 BASIC AGRICULTURE EXERCISES Do not use more than one vaccine at the same time uness authorised. If different vaccines for different diseases need to be given to the same anima, there must be an adequate interva in between each vaccine to ensure that they a produce a satisfactory immune response. Do not administer other treatments or do other procedures at the same time as vaccination without taking advice from the manufacturer. If other procedures or treatments are of necessity to be given for management purposes as we as vaccination, undertake a risk assessment of the ikey effects on efficacy. Ensure when feed or water is the vehice for providing vaccination then it has been correcty prepared so that the vaccine is not negativey affected by the vehice. Manufacturers provide instructions as how to prepare feed and water appropriatey. If vaccines are to be given oray via water or feed, manage the animas to ensure a wi be abe to receive their appropriate amount of the treated feed or water. Activities 1. Visit a nearby dairy farm and check out for feed and fodder being given to ivestock. 3. Visit a veterinary hospita and observe the vaccination of animas. Aso note down the names of vaccines avaiabe and used in the hospita Identify different diseases of catte in a dairy and note down the stmptoms of every disease. Take an appointment of a veterinary doctor, especiay to see the semen coection and breeding programmes. Go to a poutry farm and note down the symptoms of dieses in sick fock. Check Your Progress 1. Write the major nutrients required by ivestock. Discuss the factors affecting nutritiona requirement of farm animas. 3. Discuss briefy the nutritive vaue of byproducts of meat industry What are major byproducts of meat industry. Discuss briefy about their utiization. Enumerate the major diseases of farm animas. Discus in detai, about foot and mouth disease, rinder pest, back eg and mastitis. What are major diseases of poutry in India. Discuss in detai, the Ranikhet and Fow coccidiosis. 143

164 Q.6. What do you understand by vaccine? Discuss Dos and Don ts in vaccination programme. 1. A actating cow requires about... of water per day. 4. Fow Coryza is caused by a.... Fi in the banks An adut sheep requires about... gaon of water per day. Ruminants can synthesize Vitamin... in their rumens. Random mating each mae individua has... to mate with the femae individua.... has the highest fat content in a meat byproducts. Ranikhet disease is aso known as.... The major edibe anima fats are... and.... Fow coccidiosis is caused by a... parasite. Anima s body mass contains neary... % bood. The foot-and-mouth disease is a highy... affecting coven-footed animas. Anthrax is caused by a bacterium caed... Back eg is effectivey controed by using... Potentia utiization of waste fish scraps is to produce... The... is the argest gand in animas. Suggested Future Readings Banerjee, G. C Textbook of Anima Husbandry, Kayani Pubishers, New Dehi. Prasad, J Anima Husbandry & Dairy Science, Kayani Pubishers, New Dehi. Sastry, N. S. R. and Thomas, C. K Livestock Production Management, Kayaniu Pubishers, New Dehi. Prasad, J Principes and Practices of Dairy Farm Management, Kayaniu Pubishers, New Dehi Sapcota, D. Narhari, D Narahari and Mahanta, J. D Avian (Poutry) Production - A Textbook. New India Pubishing Agency, New Dehi Sreekumar, D. and Sreenivasaiah, P. V Textbook of Anima Science, Write and Print Pubications, New Dehi. Sreenivasaiah, P. V Textbook of Poutry Science, Write and Print Pubications, New Dehi. Tomar, S. S Textbook of Anima Breeding, Kayani Pubishers, New Dehi. 144

165 BASIC AGRICULTURE CHAPTER 4 POST PRODUCTION HANDLING, PACKAGING AND PROCESSING OF ANIMAL PRODUCTS Learning objectives After reading this chapter students wi be abe to: State the importance and types of anima foods. Differentiate between common mik products such as paneer, dahi, cheese, khoya, srikhand, butter, ghee, ice cream and mik powder. Expain the differences in various types of mik. Know various processes invoved in handing of raw mik. Expain the processing technoogy for meat and meat products mainy chicken and mutton. Introduction Foods from anima such as mik and mik products, meat, eggs, fish and other seafoods pay an important roe in the diet of human beings. Athough, foods of pant origin such as grains, fruits and vegetabes continue to constitute the buk of the diets of most persons, anima foods are aso gaining importance. Anima foods are energy dense and exceent sources of protein, fat, mineras, vitamins and essentia fatty acids. Anima proteins are considered high quaity proteins, superior to pant proteins as they contain baanced proportion of a the essentia amino acids. These nutrients are an essentia part of a heathy diet and, in some cases, foods of anima origin are the ony sources of these nutrients. Widespread manutrition in the deveoping countries, which is a manifestation of the deficiency of mainy proteins and micronutrients, can be combated by consuming the foods of anima origin. Since the foods from anima sources are perishabe and spoi very fast, continuous access and adequate nutrition can be provided through these anima products by stabiizing them and making vaue added products that wi be more acceptabe in the masses. In this chapter, attempts have been made to expain you about the various processed anima products with the underying technoogica processes for their deveopment. Mik and Mik Products Mik may be defined as the whoe, fresh, cean, actea secretion obtained by the compete miking of heathy mich animas excuding that obtained within 15 days before or 5 days after caving or such periods as may be necessary to render the mik 145

166 practicay coostrum-free and containing the minimum prescribed percentages of mik fat and mik-soids-not-fat. In India, the term mik refers to cow or buffao mik or a combination of the two. Composition of Mik Mik is amost an idea food. It has high nutritive vaue. The principa components of mik incude water, fat, protein, mik sugar (actose) and mineras. The minor constituents incude phosphoipids, vitamins, enzymes, pigments etc. A the soids in the mik are referred to as tota soids and the tota soids without fat is termed as mik soids-not fat (MSNF) or soids-not-fat (SNF). The soids of mik further determine the approximate yieds of other dairy products that are manufactured from the mik. The price of mik depends mainy on its fat content. There occur differences in the mik constituents obtained from different sources (Tabe 1). The factors that govern the composition of mik incude of the anima genetic variation (species, breed), its physioogica condition (season, stage of actation, heath of the animas) and other environmenta factors (feed, stage of miking, interva of miking). Tabe 1: Average composition of mik from various mich animas Anima Water Fat Protein Lactose Ash Buffao Goat Came Cow Guinea pig Human Mik suppies body buiding proteins, bone-forming mineras and heath-giving vitamins and furnishes energy-giving actose and mik fat. Besides suppying certain essentia fatty acids, it contains the above nutrients in an easiy digestibe and assimiabe form. A these properties of mik make it an important food for pregnant mothers, growing chidren, adoescents, aduts, invaids, convaescents and patients aike. The Nationa Institute of Nutrition has recommended a minimum of 300 g daiy intake of mik for chidren between 1-3 years of age and 250 g for those between years. Cass and Type of Mik Dairies in India have to market mik by standardizing, as per the various types of mik prescribed under Food Safety and Standard Act, These type of mik differ in their mik fat and mik SNF contents (Tabe 2). 146

167 BASIC AGRICULTURE Tabe 2: Casses and types of mik S. No Type of mik Doube toned mik Toned mik Standardized mik Fu cream mik Skim mik Raw Mik Handing Mik fat (% not ess than) Not more than 0.5 Mik SNF (% not ess than) Procurement of raw mik is done from individua producers or farmer cooperatives. The mik coected from rura areas is transported in we refrigerated vans under coo conditions to the chiing/processing faciities. Owing to high moisture and nutrient content, mik is prone to attack of various microorganisms. Bacteria growth is accompanied by deterioration in market quaity due to deveopment of off-favours, acidity etc. Therefore, to prevent attack of microorganisms and spoiage of mik, prompt cooing to ow temperatures (beow 5 C) or appication of heat treatment are mandatory. Mik Processing Mik is a highy perishabe commodity and contains microorganisms after miking and their oad increases with subsequent handing and storage. Therefore, apart from the cod chain to be maintained throughout the Points to remember processing channe, mik is pasteurized so as to free it from pathogenic microorgansisms. 1. Prompt cooing of mik beow 5 C after miking Pasteurization: The term Pasteurization has been is mandatory to prevent named after its inventor, Louis Pasteur of France. spoiage. The Internationa Dairy Federation, IDF (SDT, 1983: 2. Pasteurization with p.99) has defined pasteurization as: proper time-temperature a process appied to a product with the object of combinations is required minimizing possibe heath hazards arising from to prevent growth of pathogenic microorganisms associated with mik pathogenic microorganisms. by heat treatment, which is consistent with minima 3. Index organism shoud be chemica, physica and organoeptic change in the taken into consideration product. to ensure proper pasteurization. Pasteurized mik means that the mik has been exposed to either a High Temperature Short Time 4. Once opened from packs, (HTST) treatment to a minimum of 71.6 C (161 F) pasteurized mik shoud be for a minimum hoding time of 15 seconds or a Low used as soon as possibe. 147

168 Temperature Long Time (LTLT) treatment of 62.7 C (145 F) for hoding time of 30 minutes, foowed by packaging under cean and sanitized conditions. Hoding mik at the prescribed temperatures renders it free from Mycobacterium tubercuosis, the index organism for pasteurization and aso has minimum effect on organoeptic quaity of the mik. After pasteurization, the mik is immediatey cooed to 5 C or beow. In this process, pathogenic and spoiage organisms are destroyed. Under idea refrigeration conditions, most pasteurized mik wi remain fresh for 2-5 days. Once opened from packs, pasteurized mik shoud be used as soon as possibe for best quaity and taste. Utra High Temperature (UHT): During the process of UHT, mik is heat-treated to temperature of above 135 C for not ess than 1 second and cooed instanty. The mik is packed in 6 ayer Tetra-pak packaging, which prevents the mik from spoiage due to sunight, microorganisms and oxygen and retains a the vitamins and nutritiona vaue of mik providing zero bacteria product, which needs no boiing. Mik Standardization Standardization of mik refers to the adjustment i.e., owering or raising of the fat or SNF of raw or pasteurized mik to desired vaue so as to ensure that ega requirements are compied with. In the process, whoe mik is mixed with skimmed mik with known fat content in the required proportions that wi resut in mik having desired fat content. Homogenization Mik is an oi-in-water emusion. To stabiize the emusion and to prevent separation of fat from the mik, it is subjected to the process of homogenization wherein it is exposed to high pressures to break the fat gobues present in mik to ess than 2 micron size. This is carried out in a two step homogenizer with pressures of 2000 psi at the first stage and 500 psi in the second. Common Mik Products CHEESE Cheese has been defined as a product made from the curd obtained from mik by coaguating casein with the hep of rennet or simiar enzymes in the presence of actic acid produced by added microorganisms from which part of the moisture has been removed by cutting, cooking and/or pressing, which has been shaped in a moud and then ripened by hoding it for sometime at suitabe temperatures and humidities. Differences in manufacturing procedure have ed to deveopment of about 400 varieties of cheeses wordwide. The varieties may be cassified on basis of their appearance, moisture content, mode of coaguation, ripening characteristics and chemica composition. 148

169 BASIC AGRICULTURE The basic steps in cheese preparation incude the foowing: Pasteurization and Standardization The raw mik is subjected to pasteurization and may or may not be standardized for the reative proportion of casein (the protein in the mik) and fat content. Standardization may be carried out to eiminate seasona compositiona variation and to faciitate the production of desired and consistent quaity of cheese, which compies with the specified reguations for fat in dry matter content. Standardization of mik may be achieved by remova of fat, addition of skimmed mik or cream to whoe mik. Coaguation (or curding) This is the curd-forming stage, when the casein is coaguated. It is accompished by the acid that is produced through addition of bacteria cuture or rennet. The choice of starter (bacteria) cuture determines the texture and favour of the deveoped cheese. The actic acid bacteria used as starter cutures beong to the genera Lactococcus, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc and Lactobacius. Rennet is another coaguant used in the cheese making, which is procured from caf stomach and comprises of two enzymes, viz., rennin and pepsin. It coaguates the mik to form curd. Pant enzymes obtained from Withania coaguans, ficus and papain may aso be used as coaguating agents. When the coaguum/curd is ready, it is cut to reease the entrapped whey/ iquid. Drainage This step invoves remova of whey from the curd and making it firmer. The amount of whey retained in the curd after draining wi determine the firmness and texture of the cheese. It is during the draining stage that the curd is shaped in a mod. The fina moisture content in the cheese determines whether it is a hard cheese (having moisture 20-42% e.g. Cheddar, Cheshire), semi-hard cheese (having moisture 43-55% eg. Edam, Gouda) or soft cheese (having moisture >55% eg. Cottage, Camembert). Sating Cheese can be sated (1-4%) from the outside (dry sating) or in a brine soution. Sat acts as an antiseptic, prevents deveopment of undesirabe microorganisms, improves the storage ife of the cheese and speeds up the drying process and the formation of a rind. Ripening (or maturing) It is the process of storage of cheese for at east 2-3 months at ow temperature. During the process, the consistency, aroma, favour and, if desired, the rind of the cheese deveop owing to biochemica action of the bacteria fora contained in the cheese. The onger the ripening process, the ess moisture the cheese retains, and the firmer and stronger-tasting the cheese wi be. Fresh cheese and processed cheese are not ripened. 149 Cheese

170 ICE CREAM According to PFA Rues (1976), ice cream is the frozen product obtained from cow or buffao mik or a combination there of or from cream, and/or other mik products, with or without the addition of cane sugar, eggs, fruits, fruit juices, preserved fruits, nuts, chocoate, edibe favours and permitted food coours. It may contain permitted stabiizers and emusifiers not exceeding 0.5 per cent by weight. The product shoud not contain ess than 10 per cent mik fat, 3.5 per cent protein and 36% tota soids. Starch may be added not more than 5%, with decaration on the abe. To promote the ice cream industry, 80 ice cream makers from across India have formed the Indian Ice Cream Manufacturers' Association (IIMA) in 2011, which is registered in Ahmdabad (Gujarat). The basic steps invoved in ice cream manufacture incude the foowing : Mixing of Ingredients This invoves the mixing of wet and dry ingredients continuousy for uniformity. Pasteurization and Homogenization Pasteurization impies the high temperature short time treatment (HTST) given to the ice cream mix to render it free from pathogenic microorganisms. Homogenization of the mix is must to get smoother texture of the fina product. Cooing and Ageing of the Mix The mix is immediatey cooed to 0-5 C and is hed in tanks for ageing for 3-4 h. The process of ageing heps in proper hydration of the dry ingredients, improves the whipping capacity of the mix and utimatey heps in the improvement of the body and texture of the fina product. Freezing After ageing, the mix is frozen in continuous freezers. The function of this process is to freeze a portion of the water in the mix and to incorporate air. Coour and favour are added during the freezing process. The voume of ice cream obtained in excess of the voume of mix (expressed as percentage) is usuay referred to as the overrun. The increased voume is composed mainy of the air incorporated during the freezing process. In packaged ice cream, the overrun may vary between percent whereas in case of softy, it is between percent. Hardening When the mix eaves the freezer, it is in haf frozen state. The semi-fuid consistency of the mix is simiar to that of soft ice cream. It is hardened after packing in suitabe packages at temperatures upto -18 C or beow upto 12 h. 150

171 BASIC AGRICULTURE Storage During storage, the temperature of the room is maintained at beow -25 C. The doors of the storage room shoud not be opened too often to prevent temperature fuctuations and to maintain the product quaity. MILK POWDER Mik powder is a product made by evaporation of mik foowed by spray drying. Besides reducing the buk, the product is reativey shef stabe if packed and stored under proper hygienic conditions. Mik powders find appication in confectionery, soups, desserts etc. Whoe mik powder is made from whoe mik standardized to give a fat content of 25-28% in the powder. The standardized mik is preheated at temperatures above 72 C that destroys bacteria and inactivates enzymes. In the evaporator, the preheated mik is concentrated from around 9.0% tota soids content for skim mik and 13% for whoe mik, up to 45-52% tota soids by boiing the mik under vacuum at temperatures beow 72 C. Evaporation of the mik prior to drying is done for reasons of energy efficiency as it is far cheaper to evaporate the water than to spray dry it. Spray drying invoves atomizing concentrated mik into a hot air stream ( C). By controing the size of the dropets, the air temperature, and the airfow, it is possibe to evaporate amost a the moisture whie exposing the soids to reativey ow temperatures. Spray drying yieds mik powders with exceent soubiity, favour and coour with moisture beow 5%. Another method of drying is roer drying, which invoves direct contact of a ayer of concentrated mik with the hot surface of rotating roers or drums. This method is not used often because of the adverse affects of heat on mik components. Heat often causes irreversibe changes such as browning reactions and protein denaturation. The roer drying process resuts in more scorched powder partices and poorer powder soubiity than spray drying. Mik powders are hygroscopic and readiy take up moisture from the air, eading to a rapid oss of quaity and caking or umping. The fat in whoe mik powders can react with oxygen in the air to give off-favours, especiay at higher storage temperatures (>30 C). Packaging is chosen to provide a barrier to moisture, oxygen and ight in order to maintain the quaity and shef ife of mik powders. Whoe mik powders are often packed under nitrogen gas to protect the product from oxidation and to maintain their favour and extend their keeping quaity. Bags generay consist of severa ayers to provide strength and the necessary barrier properties. Proonged exposure of mik powder to direct sunshine at eevated temperatures (> 40 C) shoud be avoided to maintain quaity. 151

172 Indigenous Mik Products PANEER Paneer consists mainy of acid-coaguated mik soids and is used extensivey as an ingredient in many cooked vegetabe preparations in northern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Nepa. It is produced at both sma scae and industria eve. Cow, buffao or mixed mik may be used but buffao mik is preferred. An industria-scae process for paneer making has been deveoped by the Nationa Dairy Deveopment Board (NDDB). In this process, mik is heated to 85 C and pumped to a cheese vat and then cooed to 75 C. Citric acid soution is added and mixed with the mik to form a coaguum. The curd/coaguum is eft to sette for min without agitation. The Paneer watery iquid, known as whey, is drained off. Curd is fied into hoops ined with musin coth and pressed for min at a pressure of 3 kg per sq cm. Pressed curd bocks are paced in pasteurized cod water at 4 C for 3 h. The cooed bocks of paneer are cut into desired sizes, which are wrapped in vegetabe parchment paper before being paced in HDPE or LDPE bags and heat seaed ready for sae. The yied of paneer depends on the quaity of mik. It is generay 18 to 20 per cent of the weight of the mik used for its preparation. According to PFA (1976) rues, paneer must meet the ega requirements of moisture (maximum) 70 per cent, mik fat in dry matter (minimum) 50 per cent and the protein content upto 20 per cent. DAHI This is a yoghurt-ike fermented mik product made in India and neighbouring countries. The sweetened concentrated form of dahi consumed in Benga is known as mishti doi. The scae of production ranges from househod eve to industria scae. Cow or buffao mik or a mixture of the two is used in its preparation. Mik is pasteurized and sometimes concentrated before addition of the starter, which is usuay a portion of the previous day's dahi or buttermik, which comprises of actic acid bacteria. The product has a peasant favour and a cean acid taste. It has a yeowish creamy-white coour when made from cow mik and a creamy-white coour when made from buffao mik. The body is firm but not hard and free from gas hoes. The dahi shoud have the same fat and SNF as the mik from which it is prepared. The Bureau of Indian Standards has aid down the foowing specifications (IS: 7035, 1973) for dahi:152

173 BASIC AGRICULTURE Acidity as % actic acid (maximum) Yeast and moud count per g (maximum) Coiform count per g (maximum) Phosphatase test SHRIKHAND Sweet dahi ve Sour dahi ve Shrikhand is a semi-soft whoe mik product made from concentrated dahi with a sweet and sour taste. Dahi is paced in a musin coth and drained for 4 8 hours to remove the whey and produce a soid mass caed chakka. Chakka is mixed with the required amount of sugar, condiments and favour to produce shrikhand. An industria process for the preparation of chakka and shrikhand has been deveoped by the Nationa Dairy Deveopment Board (NDDB) of India. The Bureau of Indian Standards has prescribed the foowing standards for shrikhand: Tota soids (per cent by mass) (minimum) Mik fat (in dry matter per cent) by mass (minimum) Mik protein (in dry matter per cent) by mass (minimum) Titratabe acidity (per cent actic acid) (maximum) Sucrose (in dry matter per cent) by mass (maximum) Tota ash (in dry matter) per cent by mass (maximum) Coiform count, per g (maximum) Yeast and moud count, per g (maximum) BUTTER Butter is composed primariy of mik fat. The coour of the butter varies from white to yeow. Yeow coour, annatto or carotene, may be added to the product to maintain uniformity. According to PFA (1976), tabe butter shoud not contain ess than 80 per cent fat and not more than 3.0 per cent common sat. Butter is made from cream that is pasteurized at a temperature of 95 C or more to destroy enzymes and microorganisms. Cream for butter preparation, is hed/ aged at coo temperatures for about h to crystaize the butter fat gobues, ensuring proper churning and texture of the butter. From the aging tank, the cream is pumped to the churn or continuous buttermaker where it is agitated, and eventuay butter granues form, grow arger, and coaesce. At the end of the process, two phases separate out: a semi-soid mass of butter, and the iquid eft over, which is the butter mik. The butter mik is drained off. After draining, the butter is worked further to improve its consistency. Sat is used to improve the favour, acts as a preservative and increases the shef-ife. The butter is finay patted into shape, wrapped in waxed paper and stored in a coo pace. As it coos, the butterfat crystaizes and the butter becomes firm. 153

174 GHEE Ghee is 99.5 per cent mik fat. Ghee is manufactured by either cream or butter. Cream from mik is churned into butter foowed by conversion into ghee. When starting the preparation process from butter, the cream is paced in a meta vesse and meted at ow heat. Then it is boied to about 110 to 120 C with constant stirring over a ow fire to evaporate the moisture and prevent scorching. There is profuse effervescence aongwith a cracking sound in the initia stages of boiing. When a the moisture has been removed, further heating is fuy controed ti the end point of occurrence of second effervescence. This is accompanied by browning of the curd partices and deveopment of the typica ghee favour. After the residue has setted down on cooing, the cear fat is fitered into pastic pouches containers. The coour of cow ghee is deep yeow whie that from buffao mik is white with a characteristic yeowish or greenish tinge. It has a peasant cooked and rich favour. The taste is usuay characteristic of the mik fat. In India, grading of ghee has been made through the Agmark Ghee Grading Scheme initiated by the Government of India in As per Agmark standards, ghee shoud have moisture (maximum) 3 per cent, free fatty acids (as oeic acid) not more than 1.4 for specia quaity and not more than 2.5 for genera quaity. KHOA Khoa or mawa, is used as a base materia for a variety of Indian sweets. This product is obtained from cow, buffao or mixed mik by continuous therma evaporation of mik to per cent soids in an open pan with simutaneous stirring and scrapping. A five time concentration of mik is normay required for the production of khoa. Cow mik usuay yieds 18 per cent of khoa. The yied from buffao mik is usuay 20 per cent. It has a uniform whitish coour with just a tinge of brown, a sighty oiy or granuar texture, and a rich nutty favour, which is associated with a midy cooked and sweet taste due to the high concentration of actose. Buffao mik is preferred for khoa making because it yieds a whiter product with a soft, oose body and a smooth granuar texture, which makes it suitabe for the preparation of high-grade khoa sweets. Khoa is preferred for the preparation of various sweets especiay, guab jamun as it gives a grainier texture to the product. Lega requirements state that khoa contains a minimum of 20 per cent mik fat. The Bureau of Indian Standards has aid down the foowing specifications for khoa (IS: 4883, 1968): Moisture (maximum) of about 28.0 per cent by weight and fat (minimum) of about 26% db. Khoa is cassified in 3 major types viz., depending upon the specific uses pindi, dhap and danedar with the foowing compositions: 154 Pedas sweet prepared from Khoa

175 BASIC AGRICULTURE Type Pindi Dhap Danedar Fat (per cent) Tota soids (per cent) Specific sweets prepared Burfi, peda Guab jamun, pantooa Kaakand Keeping quaity of packaged khoa at room temperature is ow and therefore refrigerated storage is recommended. Processed Meat Products Meat is an important ivestock product, which incudes a those parts of the animas that are used as a food by man. It is a highy nutritious food with abundant high quaity protein, B-compex vitamins and mineras. It is a highy perishabe commodity and sanitary conditions and utmost hygienic measures are necessary to safeguard the quaity of the meat products. To cater to this need, Meat Food Products Order (MFPO) was promugated in 1973 under the Essentia Commodities Act, The Order, now under the umbrea of food safety and standards Act, 2006, aims at maintenance of sanitary conditions in the saughter houses, ensuring proper antemortem examination, postmortem inspection of carcasses, in-process inspection and fina product checking. India with 16% of words ivestock popuation produces ony 2.2 % of word meat production and average meat consumption as ow as 5kg per annum. It produces about 68 akh tonnes of meat utiizing about 10 crore meat animas such as catte, buffaoes, sheep, goat and pigs and 21 crores poutry. CHICKEN Chicken is the major species of poutry in India. The top five meat producing countries incude USA, China, Brazi, Mexico and India. India s share in word chicken meat Points to remember production is about 3.3%. It is marketed in readyto-cook forms i.e. with the remova of head, feet 1. Ony heathy poutry shoud be and interna organs (dressed chicken). Before processed. saughter, birds are kept starved for about 12 hours 2. There shoud be abundant to ensure that their guts are empty, which heps in suppy of potabe water. a ceaner process. The birds are made unconscious 3. Great care shoud be taken by stunning them with a bow on their heads. during evisceration. To faciitate compete beeding, the juguar vein 4. Eviscerated carcasses shoud is sit and the birds are hanged upside down for be chied as soon as possibe. about 3 minutes. The birds are then scaded in hot 5. Personne hygiene and water at temperatures of about 60 C for 45 min. constant ceaning of equipment This heps to oosen the feathers which are picked shoud be taken care of. 155

176 mechanicay. The defeathering process is foowed by cutting and remova of feet and head. Evisceration is done to remove a the interna organs, which is performed by cutting open the gut. The inedibe viscera consist of the speen, esophagus, ungs, intestines, and reproductive organs. Inspection of the carcass is aso performed for signs of disease, which renders the carcass to be rejected. The eviscerated birds are washed thoroughy with water so as to reduce the microbia oad. The carcass are rapidy chied beow 4 C to preserve meat quaity and keep it tender. On an average, 75-80% of the ive anima weight is retained in the carcass. This amount of ive weight retained in the carcass is known as the dressing percentage. The dressed chicken is then graded, packed and frozen at -23 C to -18 C. Propery packed and frozen chicken can be stored safey for about 9 months. MUTTON Mutton is the meat that is procured from mature sheep. India is the argest exporter of sheep and goat meat to the word. The country has exported 22, MT of sheep and goat meat to the word for the worth of Rs crores during the year with the major exporting nations United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait and Oman (APEDA, 2015). Meat processing from sheep invoves the foowing steps: fasting, stunning, beeding, singeing/scading, evisceration and inspection. Sheep is coected in the yard and they are generay fasted for a day to reduce the amount of intestina contents. They are stunned using an eectric shock, after which they are bed. Beeding is carried out using Mutton a knife by making a deep cut at the ange of the jaw, which severs a the major bood vesses in the neck. As soon as this cut has been made, the sheep is hung by the hind egs and aowed to drain for a whie. Before being processed further, hair is removed from the carcasses, by scading in hot water foowed by scraping. Carcasses are then singed to remove any remaining hair. After dehairing, the carcasses pass to the evisceration area, where the stomachs are opened and the viscera comprising of the heart, iver and ungs are removed. The carcasses are then de-headed and spit aong the backbone. Finay, the carcasses are chied rapidy overnight before the subsequent processes of cutting and fragmentation are carried out. The carcasses may be cut into desired portions, vacuum packed and frozen so as to retain their freshness and quaity. 156

177 BASIC AGRICULTURE EXERCISES Activities Visit a dairy near your house and check out the various vaue added mik products avaiabe. Try to prepare paneer from mik at home. Pan a visit to a saughter house and view the various unit operations. Check Your Progress How do you cassify mik on basis of fat and SNF? Which are the coaguated mik products? Write short notes on: khoa, mik powder, therma treatment of mik and mutton processing. Make a fowchart of ice cream preparation. Fi in the banks Fat content is maximum in mik. Toned mik is having %fat and % SNF HTST processing of mik foows a time-temperature combination of for. Exampe of a hard cheese is. Ice cream shoud be stored at C. Ghee is % mik fat. Kaakand is prepared from khoa. Chicken is made unconscious by Paneer is made by coaguation with Sweet dahi consumed in West Benga is known as Suggested Further Readings Aneeja, R.P., Mathur, B.N. and Banerjee, A.K Technoogy of Indian Mik Products. Dairy India Yearbook, New Dehi. APEDA Davies, J.G Cheese, Vo 1, Basic Technoogy, Churchi, London. De, s Outines of Dairy Technoogy. Oxford University Press, Dehi 157

178 Forest, J.C., Abere, E.D., Hedrick, B.B., Judge, M.D. and Marke, R.A Principes of Meat Science, W.H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco, USA. SDT Pasteurizing pant manua. The Society of Dairy Technoogy, 72 Ermine Street, Huntingdon. Kukarni, V.V., Kaaikannan, A., Kumar, S and Santhi, D Vaue addition and quaity contro of meat products: Opportunities and Chaenges, Agrotech Pubishing Academy, Udaipur. p 424. Sharma, B.D Meat and Meat Products Technoogy (Incuding poutry products technoogy), Jaypee Brothers, Medica Pubishers Pvt Ltd., New Dehi, p

179 BASIC AGRICULTURE CHAPTER 5 SEED PRODUCTION AND NURSERY MANAGEMENT Learning objectives After reading this chapter, students wi be abe to: Understand what is quaity seed and it s importance in seed production programme. Understand different types of poination and mechanism invoved. Expain different types of seed and requirement for seed production. Prepare nursery and deveop seedings of their own. Start business on fruit pants, vegetabes and ornamenta pant nursery. Introduction We often tak about quaity production of crops. For which, seed is the basic unit. If seed is of good quaity, it ikey to produce good crop. Hence, we shoud have fairy good knowedge about seed, and how a good quaity seed is produced. In this chapter, you wi come to know about, seed, characteristics of a quaity seed, types of seed and the different methods adopted for production of a quaity seed. Simiary, emphasis wi be aid on basic principes invoved in seed production. What is seed? In broad sense, seed is a materia, which is used for panting or regeneration purpose. However, scientificay, seed is a fertiized matured ovue, consisting of an embryonic pant, a store of food and a protective seed coat. Thus, seed is the most vita and crucia input for crop production. What is quaity seed? It is seed, which possesses a the good quaity characters of improved variety. Characteristics/Attributes of Quaity Seed 1. Genetic purity: Genetic purity refers to the percentage of contamination by seeds or genetic materia of other varieties or species. In genera, the genetic purity of the seed panted must equa or exceed the fina product purity standard required, as purity generay decreases with each subsequent generation of propagation. For exampe Breeder seed 100%, Foundation seed 99%, certified seed 98%. 2. Physica purity: Physica purity of seed is the proportion of pure seed component in the seed ot as we as the proportion of other crop seed, weed seed and inert matter. 159

180 Physica purity for most of the crops shoud be 98% and seed ot shoud be free from other crop seeds (number/kg), designated inseparabe crop seeds, weed seed and other fied impurities. 3. Germination percentage: The quaity seed shoud have germination percentage according to the standard of Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standard (IMSCS) so that farmers can get optimum pant stand in the fied. 4. Vigour: Seed vigour is the sum tota of those properties of the seed, which determine the eve of activity and performance of the seed or seed ot during germination and seeding emergence. In genera, it is the potentia of seed in terms of better germination, growth and finay good yied. 5. Viabiity: The viabiity of the seed is a measure of seed aive and coud deveop into pants, which wi reproduce themseves, given the appropriate conditions. It is measured through tetrazoium choride test. 6. Moisture content: The moisture content is the amount of water in the seed and is usuay expressed as a percentage. A sma change in seed moisture content has a arge effect on the storage ife of the seeds. Therefore, it is important to have optimum moisture content in good quaity seed. For exampe, cereas: %, puses: 7-9% and oiseeds:6-7%, vegetabes: 5-6%. Importance of quaity seed Seed is a vita input in crop production; It is the cheapest input in crop production and key to agricuture progress. Crop status argey depends on the seed materias used for sowing. Response of other inputs in crop production depends on seed materia used. The seed required for raising crop is quite sma and its cost is very ess compared to other inputs. This emphasis the need for increasing the areas under quaity seed production. It is estimated that good quaity seeds of improved varieties can contribute about 20-25% increase in yied. Roe of improved seeds 1. Carrier of new technoogy. 4. Medium for rapid rehabiitation of agricuture after natura disasters Basic too for a secure food suppy. The principe means to obtain crop yieds in ess favourabe production area. 160

181 BASIC AGRICULTURE Differences between seed and grain Seed Seed is produced through scientificay method Seed is used for propagation purpose Seed shoud be viabe and vigorous Seed shoud be physicay pure It can be treated with pesticide / fungicide to protect it against storage pests and fungi Fora Bioogy Grain It is produced by genera methods Grain is used for consumption purpose Grain may or may not be viabe Physica purity is not necessary It shoud never be treated with any chemicas, since it is used for consumption Fower is a reproductive organ of pant bearing pisti, stamens, cayx and coroa. Mae part of a fower is androecium consisting of anther sac, anthers and poen grains, whie, femae part is gynoecium, having ovary, stye and stigma. Inside the ovue, egg ce is present, which forms the embryo part of seed after fertiization with mae nuceus. Types of fower 1. Perfect/ Bisexua: The fower is said to be perfect, when it contains both mae and femae parts. 2. Imperfect/Unisexua: When fower contains either mae or femae part, the fower is said to be imperfect. What is Poination? It is the process by which poen is transferred from the anther (mae part) to the stigma (femae part) of the pant, thereby enabing fertiization and seed formation inside the ovary. In angiosperms, fertiization invoves the participation of 2 mae nucei of poen tube. One mae nucei fuses with the egg nuceus to form the dipoid zygote and the other with 2 poar nucei to produce a tripoid nuceus, which is caed primary endosperm and this whoe process is caed doube fertiization or tripe fusion. poen stigma stamen Doube fertiization Poen grains Sperm ces Poen tube Femae gametophyte mature sporophyte Sperm nuceus ovary poen tube ovue seeding Poar nucei germinating seed Egg seed fruit Integuments Fertiization process Pant ife cyce showing fertiization 161

182 Types of poination Based on transfer of poen from anthers to stigma, poination is cassified into two groups Sef-poination/ autogamy: When poen grains are transferred from an anther to the stigma of the same fower, the process is caed sef-poination. Cross-poination/aogamy: If poen grains are transferred to the stigma of another fower, then process is known as cross poination. Based on poination behaviour crops are cassified under foowing three categories. I. II. III. Sef-poinated crops eg. wheat, rice, most of the puse crops Offen cross-poinated crops eg. arhar, castor Cross-poinated crops eg. maize, bajra Mechanisms which favour sef-poination Perfect fower: It is the presence of both mae and femae part of the fower which favours the sef-poination eg. rice, wheat, green gram etc. Homogamy: Maturation of mae and femae parts of fower on same time is caed homogamy. eg rice wheat, barey and puse crops. Ceistogamy: It is the types of fower in which poination aways occurs inside the cosed fowers, which promote the sef-poination. eg. rice, wheat Fower structure: Some fowers have specia structure around the mae part, which promotes the sef-poination eg. tomato and puse crops. Mechanisms which favour cross-poination Bisexua fowers: When both mae and femae parts are present on the different fowers then it promotes the cross-poination. eg. castor, papaya etc. Dichogamy: Sometimes mae or femae part mature sighty at different times, it this nature is caed as dichogamy, which favour the cross poination and in this process if mae part (Anther) of fower matures first then it is caed protandry (eg. maize) whie, if femae partmatures (ovary) first, then fower is to be caed protogyny. eg. Bajra Herkogamy: In this types of mechanism, some structures prevent the sefpoination and promote cross poination in bisexua fowers. eg. Afa afa Mae steriity: Mae steriity is defined as an absence or non-function of poen grain in pant or incapabiity of pants to produce or reease functiona poen grains and this mechanism promote the cross poination. eg. cotton, bajra etc. 162

183 BASIC AGRICULTURE 5. Sef-Incompatibiity: It refers to the faiure of poen to fertiize the same fower or other fower of the same pant, or it is the faiure of poen tube to penetrate the fu ength of stye and effect fertiization. eg. mustard, cauifower and cabbage etc. Seed Deveopment After fertiization, deveopment of fertiized ovue into a mature seed invoves severa different stages. Seed formation begins within the minute embryo sac with certain expectations, which is about the same in shape, size, and arrangement. In spite of initia simiarities, the seed deveops according to the genetic specification for each species, which are coded in the nuceus (chromosomes) of each ce. What is variety? : Variety is the group of pants, which have simiar morphoogica characters and beongs to same genus and species. What is Hybrid? Hybrid is the product of two dissimiar parents or ines of dissimiar genotype in order to combine desirabe characters from both the parents. Inbred: It is pant type in cross poinated crops, which is produced through continuous sef-poination process, which is further used as parenta ine for hybrid formation. Stages of Seed Mutipication After the deveopment and reease of pant variety, the initia amount of pure seed, which is imited, shoud be mutipied through scientificay methods under different stages and these stages are caed casses of seed mutipications. The foowing four different casses are used for mutipication of newy reeased variety. a. Nuceus seed b. Breeders seed c. Foundation seed d. Certified seed Points to be remember Seed Nuceus Seed Breeder Seed Foundation Seed Certified Seed Different casses in seed mutipication chain Cross poinated crops require more isoation distance for seed production than sef poinated crops. Bisexua fower is aso known as hermaphrodite fower Certified seed shoud not be used for further mutipication in seed mutipication chain Certified seed is used for commercia crop production. 163

184 Nuceus seed: It is the initia amount of pure seed of an improved variety avaiabe with pant breeder who has deveoped it. The nuceus seed is 100 per sent pure geneticay as we as physicay and it is in very imited quantity. Breeder s seed: It is the seed obtained from the progeny of nuceus seed and produced by the breeder who deveoped the new variety. It s genetic and physica purity shoud be 100 per cent and tag coour for breeder seed is goden yeow coour. Foundation seed: It is seed which is obtained from breeder s seed. It is produced on seed mutipication farm of a state govt. or agricutura university. Foundation seed pots are inspected by the SCA (seed certification agency), it is not as pure as the nuceus and breeder s seeds and the bags are seaed with white coored abe. Certified seed: It is progeny of foundation cass of seed and produced under direct supervision of state seed certification agency. The certified seed bags are scaed with bue coored tag and certified seed is finay distributed to the farmers for crop production. Difference between certified seed and truthfuy abeed seed Certified Seed: It is the progeny of foundation seed cass and produced under direct inspection of state seed certification agency on farmer s fied. The tag coour for certified seed is bue coour and it is distributed to the farmers for crop production. Truthfu abeed Seed (TLS): It is the category of seed produced by cutivators, private seed companies and is sod under truthfu abes. But fied standard and seed standard shoud be maintained as per Seed Act and Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards. For the TLS, the seed producer and seed seer are responsibe for the seed quaity attributes. Requirements of certified seed production Source of seed: Appropriate/proper cass of seed need to be obtained from approved source according to stages of seed mutipication. In case of foundation seed, breeder seed with yeow cooured tag is to be used for sowing whie, for certified seed production, foundation seed with white tag is to be used. Land requirement: The and seected for seed production shoud be suitabe for that crop. It shoud be fertie, free from soi borne disease & insect pest, free from weed seeds and waterogged sois shoud not be seected for seed production. As far as possibe, the and seected for seed production shoud not have same crop grown in the proceeding season. Isoation requirement: The seed crop must be isoated from other nearby fieds of the same crops and the other contaminating crops as per requirement of the certification standards. Isoation of seed pot can be maintained by two ways i.e 164

185 BASIC AGRICULTURE a) Time isoation: In case of time isoation, sowing of seed pot is adjusted in such a manner that the seed pot does not come to fowering at the same time with the neighboring crop of same variety b) Space isoation: Space isoation is the minimum distance kept between the seed pot and neighbouring pot of same crop, which prevents natura cross poination and physica contamination. Roughing: Roughing is the remova of individua pants, which differ significanty from the norma type of the variety. Fied inspection: As per provisions of seed certification, the seed pots offered for certifications are subjected to fied inspection by the staff of seed certification agency. It is the responsibiity of the seed producer to foow the instructions given by the fied inspector. Harvesting and threshing: Seed pot shoud be harvested at proper stage of maturity and after harvesting the crop, it shoud be brought to threshing yard for threshing or separation of seed from pant part. Drying: The initia moisture content of freshy harvested seed is usuay high and its range is between 15 to 25%. It is therefore necessary to dry the seed to bring its moisture content to safe eve of 12% or ess so that it can be stored for ong duration. Bagging and Tagging: The seed ot is passed by seed certification agency on the basis of seed testing aboratory report (STL). The processed and treated seed is bagged and tagged with appropriate tags issued by seed certification officer. Seed Testing Laboratory: The seed testing aboratory is the hub of seed quaity contro. In seed testing aboratory, seed quaity attributes are evauated. Every state in India has a seed testing aboratory. Terminoogy Pure ine variety: It is a variety, which consists the progeny of singe sef-fertiized homozygous pants. A pant within a pure ine variety has same genotype as the pants from which the pure ines are derived. The phenotypic differences (variation) within a pure ine is environmenta and therefore non heritabe. The pure ine becomes geneticay variabe with time, due to mechanica mixture, mutation, etc. Synthetic variety: A variety, which is produced by crossing in a combination a number of inbred ines that combine we with each other. Once synthesized, a synthetic is maintained by open-poination in isoation is referred as synthetic variety. Composite variety: Mixing the seeds of severa phenotypicay outstanding ines produces a composite variety and encouraging open poination to produce crosses in a combinations among, the mixed ines. The ines used to produce a composite variety are rarey tested for combining abiity with each other ike synthetic. 165

186 EXERCISES Check Your Progress What is quaity seed and what are characteristics of a quaity seed? What is poination? Discuss mechanisms favouring sef and cross-poination in crop pants? Define the terms: variety, hybrid, mae steriity, sef-incompatibiity, certified seed, and truthfuy abeed seed. Fi in the banks 1. Breeder seed is progeny of. 4. Ceistogamy is found in crops ike Foundation seed is progeny of. Certified seed is progeny of. Tag coour of certified seed.. Exampes of cross poinated crops are Genetic purity of breeder seed is. Herkogamy is found in crops ike. Name of the crops in which mae steriity is commerciay used. Isoation distance is maintained to prevent the.. Suggested Further Readings Copeand, L.O and McDonad, M.B. (1999). Principes of Seed Science and Technoogy. Springer US. Raymond A. T. George ( 2009). Vegetabe Seed Production, CABI, USA. McDonad, M B. and Copeand, L. O. (1997). Seed Production: Principes and Practices. Springer US. Sharma, R.R. (2002). Propagation of Horticutura Crops. Kayani Pubishers, New Dehi. Sharma, R.R. and Srivastav, M. (2004). Pant propagation and nursery management. Internationa Book Distributing Company, Lucknow, U.P., India. 166

187 BASIC AGRICULTURE CHAPTER 6 ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILL DEVELOPMENT Learning objectives After studying this chapter, students wi be abe to Acquire basic knowedge on rearing of honeybees, sikworms, ac, fish and ornamenta fish farming Learn importance of biogas and use of biofertiizers Learn mushroom growing, preparation of terrarium and severa vaue-added products from horticutura crops Start agribusiness on beekeeping sericuture, piscicuture, mushroom farming and proceesing of horticutura crops Introduction Agricuture offers severa programmes, which can hep the eaners in the deveopment of severa skis to estabish themseves as a successfu entrepreneur in the ife. Of the severa such skis, apicuture, sericuture, ac cuture, piscicuture, mushroom farming, processing of horticuture crops etc., are now emerging fieds. Simiary in the cities, ornamenta fish cuture and terrarium deveopment are achieving new heights among the peope. Further, in viages, there is an increasing demand for biogas pants as the fuewood is becoming scarce in every prura part of India. Hence, it becomes important to impart basic knowedge about these skis so that our students take them as one of their buisness in the future ife. In this chapter, a brief introductory information has been given on these issues. APICULTURE (BEEKEEPING) The process of rearing of honeybees for the production of honey, bee wax and roya jey is known as beekeeping. The honeybee rearing is househod practice in India. A ocation where bees are kept is caed an apiary or "bee yard". Honeybees and their usefuness are known to man from prehistoric times. The modern bee keeping became possibe after the discovery of movabe frame hive in 1851 by Rerd. L.L.Langshoth. In India, beekeeping was introduced in 1882 in Benga. Retd. Newton introduced beekeeping to south India in Apis meifera (Itaian honeybee) was first introduced in 1962 at Nagrota (Kangra) Himacha Pradesh. At present, this bee species is being used extensivey for extraction of honey in India. 167

188 Apicuture is a highy speciaized ski. It requires knowedge about bee species, the instruments, rearing of bees, management of bees, extraction of honey, ceaning of honey etc. Honey is the major product of Apicuture industry, which is a sweet, viscous fuid, produced by honeybees which is coected as nectar from nectaries at base of fower. Usuay, honeybees coect nectar from the fowers of different pant species. In genera, honeybees visit yeow fowers the first, foowed by white, bue but they visit red fowers at the ast. Usuay, bees remain active during daytime, athough they do not seep during night. Workers can take fight for about 3-4 kiometers for the coection of nectar. This nectar is deposited in the frames speciay designed for its deposition. This nectar is then extracted by the honey processor. Bee species There are five important species of honeybees as foows. Apis dorsata: The rock bee Apis meifera: The European or Itaian bee Apis cerana indica: The Indian honeybee Apis forea : The itte bee Meipona irridipennis: Danner bee, Meiporidae stingess bee. Honeybee castes Every honeybee coony comprises of a singe queen, a few hundred drones and severa thousand worker castes of honeybees. Queen is a fertie, functiona femae, worker is a sterie femae and the drone is a mae insect Duties of a queen - The ony individua, which ays eggs in a coony (Mother of a bees). Duties of a drone - Their important duty is to fertiize the queen. Duties of a worker - First three weeks- househod duty and rest of the ifeout door duty i.e. coection of nector. Egg Sex differentiation in bees Fertiized Light Feeding Worker Unfertiized Heavy Feeding + Roya Jey Queen 168 Drone

189 BASIC AGRICULTURE Bee behaviour Swarming: Swarming is a natura method of coony mutipication in which a part of the coony migrates to a new site to make a new coony. Swarming occurs when a coony buits up a considerabe strength or when the queen s substance secreted by queen fas beow a certain eve. Swarming is a potent instinct in bees for dispersa and perpetuation of the species. Supersedure: When a od queen is unabe to ay sufficient eggs, she wi be repaced or superseded by supersedure queen. Emergency queen : In the event of death of the queen, the eggs in worker ces are seected and the ce extended ike a queen ce. Bee Products 1. Honey 2. Bees wax 3. Roya Jey 4. Bee venom 5. Propois 6. Poen LAC CULTURE Lac is a resinous exudation from the body of femae scae insect. Since Vedic period, it has been in use in India.The Engish word ac synonyms Lakh in Hindi, which itsef is derivative of Sanskrit word Laksh meaning a akh or hundred thousand. It woud appear that Vedic peope knew that the ac is obtained from numerous insects and must aso know the bioogica and commercia aspects of ac industry. With increasing universa environment awareness, the importance of ac has assumed specia reevance in the present age, being an eco-friendy, biodegradabe and sef-sustaining natura materia. Lac insect The first scientific name given to it was Tachardia acca foowing the name of French Missionary Father Tachardia. It was ater changed to Laccifer acca Kerr. Lac insect beongs to super famiy Coccoideae, which incudes a scae insects, Phyum Arthropoda, Cass Insecta and Order is Hemiptera. There are six genera of ac insects, out of which ony five secrete ac, and the commonest and most widey occurring species of ac insect in India is Laccifer acca (Kerr), which produces the buk of commercia ac. Lac is currenty produced in India, Myanmar, Thaiand, Maaya, Lao and Yuan province of China. India has prime position in reation to ac production. Over 90% of Indian ac produced comes from the states of Bihar, Jharkhand, West Benga, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Eastern Maharashtra and northern Orissa. 169

190 Life cuce Lac insect is a minute crawing scae insect, which inserts its suctoria proboscis into pant tissue, sucks juice, grows and secretes resinous ac from the body. Its own body utimatey gets covered with ac in the so caed CELL. Lac is secreted by insects for protection from predators and it competes its ife cyce in six months. Lac nymph Adut ac insect Lac encrusted twig Host pants Lac insects thrive on twigs of certain pant species, suck the pant sap, and grow a the secreting ac resin from their bodies. These pants are caed host pants and commony used host pants are Butea monosperma (paas), Zizyphus spp (Ber), Acacia catechu (Khair), Acacia arabica (Babu), Acacia auricuiformis (Akashmani), Shorea taura (Sa grown in mysore), Cajanus cajan (Pigeon-pea or Arhar) etc. In India, ac insect is known to have two distinct strains 'kusumi' and 'rangeeni'. Lac cutivation is done by putting brood ac on suitaby prepared specific host pants. The brood ac contains gravid femaes, which are about to ay eggs to give birth to young arvae. After emergence from mother ces, the young arvae sette on fresh twigs of host pants, suck the pant sap and grow to form encrustations. Harvesting Harvesting is the process of coection of ready ac from host trees. It is done by cutting the ac encrusted twigs when crop is mature. It is of two types i.e immature harvesting, the ac is coected before swarming, and ac thus obtained is known as ARI LAC and the drawbacks of immature harvesting is ac insects may be damaged at the time of harvesting and in mature harvesting, ac is coected after swarming. The ac obtained is known as mature ac. The mean ac productivity (per tree and per unit area) is kg per tree. Lac products and their use Lac dye: Lac dye is a mixture of anthroquinoid derivatives and it is traditionay used to coour woo and sik. Lac wax: Lac wax is a mixture of higher acohos, acids and their esters. It is used in poish appied on shoes, foor, automobies, food and confectionary, ipsticks. 170

191 BASIC AGRICULTURE Sheac: Sheac is a natura gum resin, a nature s gift to the mankind and it is non toxic, physioogicay harmess and edibe resin. It is used in fruit coatings. Jeweers and godsmiths use ac as a fiing materia in the hoows in ornaments and aso used commony as seaing wax. SERICULTURE Sericuture is the rearing of sikworms for the production of sik. The sikworm arve feed on the muberry eaves and then they spin their siken cocoons on the twigs. This process is achieved by secretion of fuid from its structura gands, resuting in the fiber of the cocoon. The sik is a continuous fiament comprising fibroin protein, secreted from two saivary gands in the head of each arva, and a gum caed sericin, which cements the fiaments and forms the sik. Bombyx mori is the most widey used sikworm. Sericuture has become an important industria business in Brazi, China, France and India etc. Stages of production The sik moth ays thousands of eggs. We grown and mouted sikworm weaves a net to hod itsef The sik moth eggs hatch to form arvae, known as sikworms. The arvae feed on the muberry eaves. It swings its head from side to side sik. The sik soidifies when it contacts the air. The sikworm spins approximatey one mie of fiament and competey encoses itsef in a cocoon in about two or three days. The sik fiaments are then wound on a ree. One cocoon contains approximatey 1,000 yards of sik fiament. The sik is obtained by brushing the undamaged cocoon to find the outside end of the fiament. PISCICULTURE Piscicuture is a scientific technoogy for rearing of fishes for getting maximum fish production from a pond or a tank through utiisation of avaiabe food organisms suppemented by artificia feeding. Major species seected for piscicuture are Kata, Rohu, Mriga, and exotic or common carps. The basic requirements for piscicuture is pond/tank, iming & manuring, fish cuture, fish food. Points to be considered during piscicuture 1. Location of pond : Soi shoud be water retentive, avaiabiity of assured water suppy and the area, which is not prone to food, is seected. 171

192 Pond management : Before stocking, cear the pond of unwanted weeds and fish either by manua using fishnets. Akaine nature to be maintained by adequatey adding ime in the ponds. Fertiize the ponds propery to improve the natura avaiabiity of phyto pantation. Stocking : Ponds are ready for stocking after 15 days of appication of fertiizers. Harvesting : Generay done at the end of one year, when fish attain a weight of 750 gm to 1.25 kg. MUSHROOM CULTURE Mushrooms are most important fungi used as a source of human food. They are a rich source of nutrition. Whie more than 2,000 species of fungi are edibe but ony 5 6 have been commerciay expoited the word over. In India, ony three mushroom types white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), oyster mushroom (Peurotus spp.) and paddy straw mushroom (Vovariea spp.) are being cutivated commerciay. Button mushroom comprises more than 90% of India s tota mushroom production. A the 3 cutivated mushrooms not ony differ in their shape, size, coour and biochemica composition, but they show variations in their requirement for growth medium (substrate), temperature, and other physica factors. Oyster mushroom mushroom germination fushion of compatibe hyphae spores shiitake mature myceium Figure 2: Life cyce of mushrooms in nature Cutivation Spawn: Mushroom spawn is technicay equivaent to seed of a pant, athough, in reaity, it is a pure mushroom myceium (vegetative growth) growing on a steriized grain medium. The grain medium is prepared from boied grains of cerea or miet ike wheat, bajra, jowar and rye mixed with chak-powder and gypsum. The medium is steriized after fiing in heat resistant gass bottes or poypropyene bags at 121 C and inocuated with pure cuture of A. bisporus. The medium soon gets impregnated with mushroom myceium if incubated at 25 C and is ready for use in 2 3 weeks. Compost: The substrate used for button mushroom is a partiay decomposed organic matter prepared under aerobic conditions and is generay termed as compost. In India, straw of wheat or paddy have generay repaced horse manure as the base materia for mushroom compost. 172

193 BASIC AGRICULTURE Spawning and spawn run: The compost is fied in trays, or in poybags, after mixing the spawn through 0.5%. The spawned beds are kept covered with formain dipped paper sheets or by cosing the mouth of the bags. The beds if incubated at 24 C, with reative humidity maintained between 80 85%, get fuy impregnated with mushroom myceium and when the spawn-run is competed (in 2 3 weeks), the compost turns ight-brown from deep-brown and is ready for casing. aperture covered with ventiation opening transparent m pastic sheet door 45 cm distance from foor 45 cm satted shef for mushroom bags set of sheves A mushroom growing unit Casing and case run: The spawn run beds are then covered by 1 2" thick ayer of casing materia, which is necessary to initiate fruiting. Casing materia shoud have the characteristics ike poor in nutrient, good water-hoding capacity but a texture permitting good aeration and a ph of Harvesting and postharvest management of mushrooms Harvesting of mushrooms at optimum stage of maturity is of great importance. Harvesting of undermature or over mature fruit bodies resuts in poor texture, favour and immediate degradation. Mushroom pin-heads start appearing after 7 10 days. Harvesting White button mushroom: They shoud be harvested when their cap size is mm in diameter or when their cap diameter is twice the ength of stem. Pre-harvest spraying of 2% ascorbic acid improves their coour by inhibiting the poypheno oxidase activity. Oyster mushroom: These are harvested, when their fruit bodies have cured under edges with we-formed gis (wrinked stage of umbrea) because fuy mature fruit bodies are fragie and difficut to hande. Paddy straw mushroom: These are harvested at button or egg-sized stage. The deterioration is ess in the mushrooms harvested at egg-sized stage because their poypheno oxidase activity is sow. Postharvest Management Pre-cooing: Athough, mushrooms are grown at ower temperature, even then they shoud be precooed immediatey after harvesting, to their optimum storage 173

194 temperature (5 C) to check the rate of high respiration and changes taking pace at ambient room temperatures. Sorting: Sorting is done to remove undesirabe fruiting bodies in the produce ike discooured, bemishes and misshapen mushrooms are discarded whie sorting. Dipping treatments: To maintain whiteness, dipping of mushrooms in diute soution of hydrogen peroxide (1:3) for haf an hour and then steeping in 0.25% citric acid soution gives significant effect. Packaging: Propery washed mushrooms are packed in suitabe containers. Since, mushrooms are very sensitive to desiccation and drought, these are usuay packed in poyethyene bags of g capacities, 0.5% ventiation is generay recommended for refrigerated storage, whereas for oca markets, non-perforated bags shoud be used. For distant markets, poystyrene or fibre board punnets over-wrapped with partiay permeabe poyviny choride (PVC) or poy acetate fims packing materia is recommended. Transportation: Mushrooms being highy perishabe and having a high rate of respiration, transportion in refrigerated vans is recommended for distant markets. Storage: Mushrooms cannot be stored for more than 24 hr at room temperature or 1 2 weeks in refrigerated condition. During storage, there is decine in tota sugars, soube proteins and tota pheno content, whie poypheno oxidase activity enhances. These changes are aggravated with increase in storage temperature. A temperature of 5 C aong with 85 90% reative humidity is generay recommended for their storage. Processing: Picking and sun-drying are economicay-viabe methods of preserving mushrooms. However, freezing and freeze-drying give them an exceent quaity. They can be used commerciay for export market. Picking and actic acid fermentation: Fermentation is a process of anaerobic or partia anaerobic oxidation of carbohydrates. During fermentation, sufficient quantity of actic acid is produced to prevent the product from further spoiage during storage. Picke, chutney and ketchup are products having a minimum of 6 months storage ife at ambient temperature. BIOGAS, BIOFERTILIZERS AND SANITATION Biogas Biogas is a fue, which is produced from the breakdown of organic matter. These fossi fues are being continuousy used to a arge extent because this is non-renewabe energy resource. This is produced when bacteria decompose organic materia such as garbage and sewage, especiay in the absence of oxygen. Biogas is a mixture of about 174

195 BASIC AGRICULTURE 60 percent methane and 40 percent carbon dioxide. Methane is the main component of natura gas. It is reativey cean burning, coouress, and odouress. This gas can be captured and burned for cooking and heating. This is aready being done on a arge scae in some countries of the word. Farms that produce a ot of manure, such as hog and dairy farms, can use biogas generators to produce methane. gas pipe Removabe manhoe cover seaed with cay Inet Gas oose cover 1000mm max. surry dispacement tank outet pipe A sketch of biogas pants Advantages of biogas Biogas-powered eectricity construction is quick, easy and ow-cost. Methane is aso an important greenhouse gas and is a major contributor to the goba warming probem. Biogas is a renewabe resource. Methane is going to be produced by decomposition. Biogas provides an exceent source of energy that is hepfu to the environment. Residue from the burning of biogas, caed activated sudge, can be dried and used as fertiizer. Biofertiizers Biofertiizers are defined as products containing iving ces or atent ces of efficient strains of microorganisms that hep crop pants uptake of nutrients by their interactions in the rhizosphere when appied through seed or soi. Use of biofertiizers is one of the important components of integrated nutrient management, as they are cost effective and renewabe source of pant nutrients to suppement the chemica fertiizers for sustainabe agricuture. Severa microorganisms and their association with crop pants are being expoited in the production of biofertiizers. Nitrogen Fixers Free iving Aerobic Azotobacter, Beijerinckia, Anabaena Anaerobic Costridium Fautative anaerobic 175

196 Symbiotic - Rhizobium, Frankia, Anabaena azoae Associative symbiotic - Azospirium Endophytic - Guconacetobacter Burkhodria Phosphorus Soubiizers Bacteria: Bacius megaterium var. phosphaticum, B. subtiis, B. circuans, Pseudomonas striata Fungi : Peniciium sp. Aspergius awamori Importance of biofertiizers Suppement fertiizer suppies for meeting the nutrient needs of crops. Add kg N/ha (by fixation) under optimum conditions and soubiise/ mobiise kg phospurus/ha. They suppress the incidence of pathogens and contro diseases. 1. They iberate growth promoting substances and vitamins which hep to maintain soi fertiity. Increase the crop yied by 10-50%. Cheaper, poution free and based on renewabe energy sources. They improve soi physica properties, tith and soi heath. Rhizobium Rhizobium is a soi bacteria, which ives freey in soi and in the root region of both eguminous and non-eguminous pants. However, they enter into symbiosis ony with eguminous pants, by infesting their roots and forming nodues on them. Non egume noduated by Rhizobia is Trema or Parasponia sp. Legume pants fix and utiise this N by working symbioticay with Rhizobium in nodues on their roots. 2. Azotobacter It is a free iving N2 fixer; the ces are not present on the rhizopane, but are abundant in the rhizosphere region. 3. Mycorrhizae Mycorrhiza (fungus root) is the mutuaistic association between pant roots and funga myceia. Frank (1885) gave the name "mycorrhiza" to the pecuiar association between tree roots and ectomycorrhiza fungi. 95% of the pant species form mycorrhizae. Mycorrhiza fungi are the key components of the rhizosphere are considered to have important roes in natura and managed ecosystems. Types of mycorrhiza 1. Ectomycorrhiza : The funga hyphae form a mante both outside the root and within the root in the interceuar spaces of the epidermis and cortex. 176

197 BASIC AGRICULTURE 2. Ectomycorrhizae are common on trees, incuding members of the famiies Pinaceae (pine, fir, spruce, arch, semock), Fagaceae (wiow, popar, chesnut), Betuaceae (birch, ader), Saicaceae (wiow, popar) and Myrtaceae (eucayptus). Endomycorrhizae : The most common mycorrhiza fungi and these fungi produce an interna network of hyphae between cortica ces that extends out into the soi, where the hyphae absorb minera sats and water for exampe, Ericoid mycorrhiza, Arbuscuar mycorrhiza. PROCESSING OF HORTICULTURAL PRODUCTS India is the 2nd argest producer of fruits and vegetabes in the word. However, about 30-40% of this produce is ost due to improper postharvet handing. Moreover, severa fruits and vegetabes are seasona in nature, which resuts in price fuctuations, thereby growers get ow price of their produce. Therefore, to prevent osses, and avoid gut of fruits in the season, processing of fruits in to stabe vaue-added and processed products is required. Different vaue added products of fruits Fruit beverages: Fruit juices are rich sources of vitamins, particuary vitamin-c and mineras. These are easiy digestibe, highy refreshing and invigorating, thirst quenchers and far superior to most aerated drinks, which have practicay no food vaue. They are beneficia against a number of aiments and tonics for heart and brain and serve as cod drinks in hot summer. Fruit juices are preserved in different forms such as pure juices, squashes, cordias, and fermented juices etc. These are broady cassified as under: Pure fruit juice: This is the natura, unfermented juice processed out of the fruit and remains practicay unatered in its composition during preparation and preservation. Fruit juices can be prepared from amost types of fruits. Ready-to-serve (RTS): This prepared from fruit juice. It contains minimum of 10% fruit and 10% sugars. It not diuted before serving. Fruit juice beverage: This is a fruit juice, which is consideraby atered in composition before consumption. It may be diuted before it is served as a drink. Fruit juice Fermented fruit beverage: This is a fruit juice, which has undergone acohoic fermentation by yeast. The product contains varying amounts of acoho. Grape wine, 177

198 appe ciders, berry wines etc., are typica exampes of this kind of beverages. Squash: This consists essentiay of strained juice containing moderate quantity of fruit pup to which sugar is added for sweetening. Fruit squash can be prepared from mango, emon, orange etc. Cordia: Sparking, cear, sweetened fruit juice from which a the pup and other suspended materias have been competey eiminated (e.g. ime juice cordia, guava). Sherbet or Syrup: Cear sugar syrup, which has been artificiay favoured. Fruit Squashes Fruit juice concentrate: Fruit juice, which has been concentrated by the remova of water either by heat or freezing. Carbonated beverages and other products can be made from this. Fruit juice powder Fruit juice which has been converted into a free-fowing, highy hygroscopic powder to which natura fruit favour in powder form is incorporated to compensate for any oss of favour in concentration, dehydration. Freeze dried fruit juice powders makes the best quaity products. The powders are reconstituted to yied readiy fu strength, fu fruit, fruit juice drinks. Marmaade Apricot butter Preparation: Fruit juices have their best taste, aroma and coour when they are freshy extracted and used for product making. The important steps in beverage making are seection and preparation of fruits, extraction of juice, de-aeration, straining, fitration, carification and preservation. Jam Jam is a concentrated fruit pup, possessing a fairy heavy body and rich in natura fruit favour. Pectin in the fruit gives it a good set and high amount of sugars (more than 68.5 %) faciities its preservation. It is prepared by boiing the fruit pup and juice with sufficient quantity of sugar to get thick consistency. A good jam must have bright coour, rich typica fruit favour, stiff but shoud not be sticky or crystaization of sugar. Appe jam, pineappe jam, and mixed fruit jam are common in the market. 178

199 BASIC AGRICULTURE Jey It is a semi-soid product prepared by concentrating essentiay a cear fruit extract with sugar. In jey making, pectin is the most essentia constituent. Good jey shoud be transparent, attractive in coour, give strong favour of the fruit and firm enough to retain a sharp edge when cut. Pectin from ce wa of fruits sugar, acid and water combine together when corked to form jey. Guava jey is very popuar in a parts of the word. Marmaade It is usuay made from citrus fruits and consists of jeies or jam of the concerned fruit containing shreds of pees suspended in them. Usuay citrus pee is used for making shreds in marmaade. Fruit butter, cheese and toffees Fruit butter: It is a thick product but soft enough to spread easiy. The butter can be prepared from any fruit, but most commony used fruits are appe, pear, pum, peaches, apricot and grapes. Fruit cheese: This product is commony prepared from fruits ike guava, appe and pear. Fruit toffee: It is prepared by using fruit pup, sugar, gucose, skimmed mik powder, butter and essence. Fruit cheese Preserves (murrabbas) and candies Preserves (murrabbas): It is a matured whoe or in arge pieces of fruit in which sugar is impregnated ti it becomes tender and transparent. It retains the shape of the fruit and does not break or puped. The preserve shoud have enough sugar (more than 68% TSS). Murabba can be prepared from ama, appe, mango, petha, grapes, muskmeon, and watermeon. Murabbah of Aona Candied fruit: A fruit impregnated with sugar, drained and dried is named as candied fruit. They are not sticky and are pump, tender and exceedingy sweet with high favour. Gazed fruit: A candied fruit dipped for a moment in boiing syrup to impart a gossy finish to it, drained and dried- is caed gazed fruit. Crystaized fruit: Candied fruit drained, dried and roed in crysta sugar is caed a crystaized fruit. 179 Gazed fruit candy

200 Fermented products Wine: Wine is made by fermenting grape juice with the hep of yeasts. Wine can aso be prepared by fermentation of other fruit juices such as mango, pineappe, guava, pum, kiwi, appe etc., which wi be referred to as wine of that specific fruits (mango wine, pineappe wine etc.). Wine represents a non-toxic heathfu beverage, which provides caories, vitamins, mineras and other nutrients. Wine Cider Vinegar Vinegar: The product made from carbohydrates obtained from different fruits by acetic acid fermentation is caed vinegar. It can be manufactured as a by product from the pomace after extracting the juice from fruits. Fruit vinegars wi have a unique favour of the fruits used. Vinegar can be made from appe, grape or other fruits. Vinegar shoud have ateast 5g acetic acid per 100g. Pickes and chutneys Pickes: The preservation of food in common sat or vinegar is caed picking. Spices and oi may aso be added in pickes. Pickes are good appetizer aid to digestion and add to the paatabiity of the mea. In oi pickes, oi provides protection against outside infection. In other pickes, 15 to 20 % common sat is added to prevent spoiage caused by microbes. Mouds and even actic acid forming bacteria do not grow at this high sat concentration, as a resut, picke remains safe for severa months. Word famous Pachranga picke Chutneys: In genera, hot and sweet chutneys are reished by a. Mosty acidic fruits are empoyed for preparing chutneys. A good chutney is smooth and has a maow favour and is spicy. Chutney is mosty prepared from mango. Dried products of fruits It is an odest and cheapest form of preservation of fruits. Drying can be carried out either in sun or by artificia heat (dehydration). Sun drying is practiced in tropica and sub-tropica regions where there is penty of sunshine. However, nowadays, drying is done by mechanica dryers because of faster rate of drying and hygiene. Severa fruits are used in dry form. 180 Anardana Amchur

201 BASIC AGRICULTURE Anardana: It is a form of dried sour pomegranate aris used as a souring agent in food preparations. Anardana is prepared from a specia wid form of pomegranate, which are highy acidic. Amchur: It is a product obtained by powdering dry unripe mango pieces of sour nature. It is used as a souring agent in food preparations. Fruit bar: Fruit bar can be prepared from the pup extracted from fuy ripe fruits. Fruit pup dried with suitabe quantity of sugar and citric acid aong with specified eve of chemica preservatives. This product is caed as 'intermediate fruit product' but commony caed as eather/papad in our country. Appe eather TERRARIUM PREPARATION The science of making garden in sma gass container is known as terrarium or a terrarium is id a coection of pants growing in a gass-encosed container. The gass was aow ight to reach the pants and give protection from dust, drafts, and temperature changes. The pants usuay used are ones that require a high amount of moisture. Therefore, the terrarium is set up to provide a highy humid atmosphere, which means that the soi air contains ot of water. Pants give off water from moss their eaves in the form of gaseous water vapour. grave When air in the container comes in contact with and the cooer gass was, the water vapour condenses, charcoa or becomes iquid. This water runs down the sides A sketch of terrarium of the container and soaks into the soi on the bottom. The water is then avaiabe for the pants to take up through their roots. Pants Use sma pants that grow sowy. Pants shoud fi the container but not crowd it. House pants: Engish Ivy, sma Ferns, phiodendron, begonias (smaeaved). Woodand pants: Reindeer ichen, sma ferns, mosses, Partridge berry, ground cedar. 181

202 ORNAMENTAL FISH FARMING The growing of coourfu and fancy fishes is known as ornamenta fish farming. The growing interest in aquarium fishes has resuted in steady increase in aquarium fish trade gobay. Ornamenta fish cuture is becoming a source of income day-byday for the rura peope. The ornamenta fish trade with a turnover of US $ 6 Biion and an annua growth rate of 8 percent offers ot of scope for deveopment. India's share in ornamenta fish trade is estimated to be ess than 1% of the goba trade. God fish is the most common and preferred fish because of its varied coouration and morphoogica charecteristics and the common breeds being grown are comet, ion head, oranda, fringe tai, vei tai, fan tai, teescopic eye. Deveopment of cuture technoogies is the major answer to a ong term sustainabe trade of ornamenta fishes. The areas adjacent to the metropoitian cities ike Kokata, Chennai, Mumbai have become major breeding centres for the fresh water ornamenta fishes due to the ready urban market and access to export business. In recent years, breeding units for ornamenta fishes have been estabished in states ike Keraa, Andra Pradesh, Odisha and Bihar. EXERCISES Activities Visit some apiary and note down the activities of honeybees, the nearby fowers they visit. Aso make a ist of machine/equipments required for setting up of an apiary. Make a ist of pants used in ac cuture. Paste the eaves of such pants in your notebooks. Visit a sericuture farm. Note down the activities of sik worms. Take photographs and paste them in a notebook. Prepare a terrarium at home by taking hep of your famiy members. Visit some mushroom growing unit near to your ocaity. Make a ist of different 182