Sustainable and profitable crop and livestock systems in south-central coastal Vietnam

Transcription

1 Sustainable and profitable crop and livestock systems in south-central coastal Vietnam ACIAR PROCEEDINGS 143

2 Sustainable and profitable crop and livestock systems in south-central coastal Vietnam Proceedings of the final workshop held in Quy Nhon, Vietnam, 5 6 March 2013 Editors: Surender Mann, Mary C. Webb and Richard W. Bell 2015

3 The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) was established in June 1982 by an Act of the Australian Parliament. ACIAR operates as part of Australia s international development cooperation program, with a mission to achieve more productive and sustainable agricultural systems, for the benefit of developing countries and Australia. It commissions collaborative research between Australian and developing-country researchers in areas where Australia has special research competence. It also administers Australia s contribution to the International Agricultural Research Centres. Where trade names are used this constitutes neither endorsement of nor discrimination against any product by ACIAR. ACIAR PROCEEDINGS SERIES This series of publications includes the full proceedings of research workshops or symposia organised or supported by ACIAR. Numbers in this series are distributed internationally to selected individuals and scientific institutions, and are also available from ACIAR s website at <aciar.gov.au>. The papers in ACIAR Proceedings are peer reviewed. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) 2015 This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from ACIAR, GPO Box 1571, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia, aciar@aciar.gov.au Mann S., Webb M.C. and Bell R.W. (eds) Sustainable and profitable crop and livestock systems in south-central coastal Vietnam. Proceedings of the final workshop held in Quy Nhon, Vietnam, 5 6 March ACIAR Proceedings No Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research: Canberra. 240 pp. ACIAR Proceedings ISSN (print), ISSN (online) ISBN (print) ISBN (PDF) Technical editing by Mary Webb, Canberra Design by Peter Nolan, Canberra Printing by CanPrint Cover: Smallholder crop and livestock management systems and their implications in south-central coastal Vietnam. (Photo: Richard W. Bell)

4 Improving the value and effectiveness of manure Hoang Thi Thai Hoa 1, Do Dinh Thuc 1, Nguyen Viet Vinh 1, Richard W. Bell 2 and Surender Mann 2 Abstract Organic amendments are very important in maintaining the soil productivity of sands. This research aimed at exploring the effects of variations affecting manure quality and nutrient availability that occur as a result of manure handling and storage. Secondly, the research evaluated the effects of these variations on the yield of peanut as well as soil properties of sands to which they are applied. The study was conducted by carrying out experiments on: (1) manure storage techniques; (2) manure storage using the pit method in three provinces; and (3) use of a combination of inorganic fertilisers and manure as a viable option for crop production for farmers. Our results indicated that pit storage produced better quality manure than the heap storage method traditionally used by farmers and could be a suitable option for extended storage of manure. In the field experiments, application of different organic treatments gave higher yields compared with application of inorganic fertiliser alone. The highest gross margins were found with an application rate of 10 tonnes manure/ hectare produced by storage in a pit (manure:rice straw ratio of 1:0.5). Only few changes in soil properties were found after the peanut crop but incorporation of different types of organic amendments improved all soil properties more than application of inorganic fertiliser alone. Introduction Manure is an important source of nutrients for crop production which is used by many smallholder farmers in Vietnam who cannot afford the recommended rates of chemical fertilisers. Hoang Thi Thai Hoa et al. (2015) indicated there is a risk of increasing nutrient losses if the transition from open grazing of livestock to stall feeding is not accompanied by adoption of improved manure handling techniques. Nutrient losses during collection and storage of manure on smallholder farms have been studied less frequently than utilisation of nutrients from applied manure (Powell and Williams 1995). However, it is 1 Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue, Vietnam 2 School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia hoanghoa1973@yahoo.com difficult to assess the combined effects of all factors on nutrient utilisation from manures because, among other reasons, there is a the lack of information on nutrient losses during manure handling. Repeated applications of mature compost made from farmyard manure or rice straw and crop residues are often recommended in Vietnam in order to maintain soil fertility. However, the use of composted organic materials has been gradually decreasing over the last few decades, because of shortages of labour and animal production as well as the convenience of using chemical fertilisers (Pham Quang Ha and Tran Thuc Son 2002). In some areas of central coastal Vietnam, direct application of crop residues for crop production has been practised. In some cases, manure produced on intensive livestock farms is used in a raw form, while some farmers mix manure with a little animal bedding materials or straw. The composting of manure varies with farming practice. Farmers use manure and a range of diverse organic materials, 91

5 such as rice straw, peanut stems and aquatic plants, to make compost. The ability of organic materials to supply balanced plant nutrition, increase soil fertility and build up the level of organic matter in soils is strongly influenced by their decomposition rate and the nutrient content in the soil. However, the behaviour of various organic materials in soils is not yet clear because of the diverse nature of components and varying levels of compost maturity. Resource-limited farmers maintain soil fertility through management of organic inputs. Those who have limited cash-flow options rely largely on the limited available organic resources for agricultural production. To sustain high crop yields and maintain soil fertility, it is important to work out the optimal rates of combinations of fertilisers and manures in the cropping system (Clark et al. 1998; Petersen et al. 1999; Pinitpaitoon et al. 2011). In highly weathered and nutrient-poor soils, such as the coastal sandy soils of central Vietnam, nominal addition of plant residues and manures can make substantial improvements to soil quality and crop yields (Ponnamperuma 1984; Meelu et al. 1994; Yadvinder-Singh et al. 1995). The use and management of crop residues and farmyard manure is an increasingly important aspect of environmentally sound sustainable agriculture (Timsina and Connor 2001). There is limited research focused on the effect of different types of organic amendments on crop productivity and soil fertility in coastal sands. Considerable emphasis in the recent past has been given to improve rice production in these soils using different management strategies (Tran Thi Thu Ha 2006; Hoang Thi Thai Hoa 2007). However, there has been a very limited focus on the quality of manure to improve soil fertility, productivity and nutrient use efficiency in these fragile soils. The objectives of this study were to: (i) compare the quality and nutrient availability of composts prepared by mixing cattle manure with crop residues in heaps and pits; (ii) evaluate the effect of compost quality in combination with inorganic fertilisers on yield and economics of peanut cropping; and (iii) examine possible short-term changes in soil quality following organic amendment of sands in southcentral coastal (SCC) Vietnam. Materials and methods Manure storage techniques (experiment 1) This study was conducted in Cat Trinh commune, Phu Cat district, Binh Dinh province, from October to December The experiment consisted of four treatments with three replicates in a single household (Table 1). Collection and method of manure storage Fresh cattle excreta with dung and rice straw litter were collected from 2 3 nearby cattle farms (the number depended on the availability of manure) and mixed thoroughly to overcome differences in quality that could have occurred as a result of different residence times in the collection pile (all manures were <15 days old). This mixture was then mixed with rice straw (previously chopped to 20 cm) in a volume ratio of 1:0.5. One tonne (t) of the final mix was then treated with 10 kg of lime and 10 kg of superphosphate before storage (Vu Huu Yem 1995) in a heap or pit. Table 1. Treatments used in experiment 1 Treatment abbreviation Type of manure Method of storage Amount of manure + straw (t) CFH Cattle dung Control (farmer practice in open compost heap on soil) CFP Cattle dung mixed with rice straw from farmer household (1:1 ratio) Compost pit in brick enclosure covered with plastic (1 m 1 m 0.7 m) CTH CTP Cattle dung + rice straw (1:0.5 ratio) Cattle dung + rice straw (1:0.5 ratio) Compost heap on compacted earth covered with plastic (1 m 1 m 0.7 m) Compost pit in brick enclosure covered with plastic (1 m 1 m 0.7 m)

6 Heaps were formed in a conical shape with 1 m basal diameter and 0.7 m height. Pits of 1 m 1 m and 0.7 m deep were built with bricks and filled with manure mix on a base constructed of compacted earth. Heaps and pits were covered with plastic, except for the farmer practice (control). Replicated heaps and pits had the same shape and dimensions and composted material was sampled from each of the heaps and pits for laboratory analysis. Management and monitoring The mix of manure and straw in heaps and pits was turned three times (after 40, 70 and 90 days of storage) as per the local farmer practice. The turning was done by removing all the material from the heaps/ pits and weighing it, then rebuilding the heaps and pits by placing the surface material at the bottom and vice versa to homogenise the heap. Temperature was measured throughout the experiment every morning at 9 am and every afternoon at 1 pm by placing a thermometer in the centre of the heap/pit. Sampling and laboratory analysis Six samples from each treatment (Table 1), each weighing approximately 0.5 kg, were collected from the piles at the start and the end of the composting period (90 days), and comprised two samples each from the upper surface, centre and bottom. Hence, the total number of samples was 24. Samples were thoroughly mixed on a plastic sheet and one subsample of 0.3 kg was taken and packed in a polythene bag, sealed and stored at 4 C in a cool box, before analysing for mineral nitrogen (N), total N, phosphorus (P), potassium (K), water content and ph. Soil sampling for mineral N, P and K To assess N losses through leaching from stored manure, soil samples were taken from underneath the heaps/pits at 0 20 cm and >80 cm depth at the start and end of the experiment (90 days). Control samples were also taken at five different points within the field where the peanut experiment (see below) was located. These samples were taken from the same depths, then bulked per depth. Samples were analysed the following day for ph, organic carbon (C), total N, mineral N ammonium-n (NH 4 -N) and nitrate-n (NO 3 -N) total P and K. Samples were oven dried at 65 C and ground to pass through a 1 mm sieve. Organic C was analysed by wet oxidation (Walkley Black) and total N was determined using the Kjeldahl method. Potassium was measured by flame photometry after digestion with nitric acid (HNO 3 ) and hydrochloric acid (HCl). Phosphorus was measured colorimetrically using the molybdate-blue method. Mineral N was determined after extraction with 1 M potassium chloride following the Kjeldahl method. A ratio (1:5 manure:water) was used to determine the ph. All the samples were analysed following methods described by Page et al. (1996). Manure storage using the pit method in three provinces (experiment 2) Experiment 1 showed that composting in the pits was the best in terms of nutrient contents (see Results and discussion below). Therefore, to validate the findings, the study was extended to five households in each of Cat Trinh commune (Binh Dinh province), An Chan commune (Phu Yen province) and Phuoc Dinh commune (Ninh Thuan province). The study was carried out from June to August 2011 in Ninh Thuan and from September to December 2011 in Binh Dinh and Phu Yen. Pit composting within a brick-walled enclosure was compared with farmer practice. The manure collected from the farms was mixed thoroughly to homogenise differences in quality. Each household collected 1 t of manure and divided it into two parts (half for pit composting and the rest for farmer practice). Rice straw was added in the same ratio as described previously. The pits were turned three times during storage (after 30 days, 60 days and 90 days of storage), as described above. Combined effect of inorganic fertilisers and manure on peanut yield and economic efficiency (experiments 3 and 4) Treatments and crop performance parameters Two trials were conducted in Cat Trinh commune, Phu Cat district, Binh Dinh province. The first trial, conducted in spring 2011, used four organic amendments as shown in Table 1, plus a control to give five treatments, with two application methods surface broadcast and in rows of 30 cm width and mixed to 10 cm depth (Table 2). All treatments in Table 2 were laid out in a splitplot design with three replicates. Each main plot (application method) had an area of 50 m 2 with five subplots (manure treatment) of 10 m 2 each. All treatments had inorganic fertiliser application of 93

7 30 kg/ha N, 39 kg/ha P, 50 kg/ha K and 500 kg/ha lime (control), together with 10 t/ha manure stored using the different storage methods. The fertiliser rates were based on the field survey reported in Hoang Thi Thai Hoa et al. (2015). They also correspond with the guidelines on fertiliser application rates for peanut from the extension office and also reported by Ho Huy Cuong (unpublished data 2008). Table 2. Treatments applied for peanut trial in spring 2011 (experiment 3) Method of Fertiliser and manure (per ha) application Surface Control: 30 kg N + 39 kg P + 50 kg K kg lime (NPK) NPK + 10 t CFH NPK + 10 t CFP NPK + 10 t CTH NPK + 10 t CTP Row Control: NPK NPK + 10 t CFH NPK + 10 t CFP NPK + 10 t CTH NPK + 10 t CTP Note: N = nitrogen (urea); P = phosphorus (thermophosphate); K = potassium (potassium chloride); CFH = cattle dung with heap composting (control); CFP = cattle dung mixed with rice straw from farmer household with pit composting; CTH = cattle dung + rice straw (1:0.5) with heap composting; CTP = cattle dung + rice straw (1:0.5) with pit composting A second trial was conducted in spring 2012, comprising 10 treatments (experiment 4), with five types of organic amendments made in five households (using the pit composting method) as described above (experiment 2) and compared with a control (compost from their own households made by the heap composting method). All treatments were applied with N, P, K, lime and manure as described above. All treatments were laid out in a factorial design with three replicates. Nitrogen, P and K were applied as urea (46% N), thermophosphate (7% P) and muriate of potash (MOP = potassium chloride (KCl), 50% K). Lime (calcium carbonate, 56% Ca) was broadcast 2 weeks before sowing and incorporated to a soil depth of 20 cm. The required amount of organic amendments and P were applied only at sowing time either in rows or broadcast by hand on the surface of the soil (Table 2). Nitrogen and K fertilisers were applied in rows at two stages of plant growth: (1) one-third of the amount at full expansion of the third leaf; and (2) the remaining two-thirds just before flowering. Local peanut (Arachis hypogea L.) variety Ly, which is frequently used in central Vietnam, was chosen for these trials. Peanut seeds were planted with 30 cm between rows and 10 cm between seeds to reach a plant population of about 330,000 plants/ha. At harvesting stage, sampling to estimate biomass, pod yield and other components was carried out by using a quadrat measuring 1 m 2. The dates of sowing and harvest were 24 December 2010 and 15 April 2011 for experiment 3, and 23 January and 10 May 2012 for experiment 4, respectively. Sampling and analyses of soils and organic materials Composite soil samples were collected at 0 20 cm from each plot before and after the experiments in 2011 and The chemical properties analysed included ph measured in 1 M potassium chloride (ph KCl ), organic C, total N, total P, total K, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and mineral N. The analyses were performed using the methods given in Page et al. (1996). Samples of organic amendments were collected before applying them in these field trials. They were dried at 70 C for the determination of N content and 105 C for 6 hours for total C, P and K concentrations following the methods mentioned above. All the analyses were carried out at the Soil Science Department of Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry. Results and discussion Manure storage method Effect of manure storage on manure quality The conditions under which manure was stored affected its final quality and nutrient composition (Table 3). After 90 days of storage, ph increased slightly for treatments CTH and CTP, although the difference was not significant. There there was no significant difference between storage in heaps or pits (Table 3). The total amount of manure dry matter decreased to about a quarter of its initial amount after 90 days of storage, partly as a result of changes in the mass fraction of organic matter in the stored manure. The decline in dry matter during storage (Table 3) was 94

8 not only due to C mineralisation, but also a high rate of decomposition as a result of high temperatures during storage as evidened by the decreased amount of organic C levels. Leaching of dissolved organic matter and consumption by invertebrates also contributed to the loss. The total amounts of N, P and K contained in the stored manure decreased during storage due to a decrease in their mass fraction over time. The mass fractions of total N, mineral N, P and K varied significantly between storage practices (p < 0.05) (Table 3). The C:N ratios of the manure stored in heaps were greater on average than those of the manure stored in pits under cover, whereas the C:P ratios of the manure stored in heaps were lower than the ones stored in pits. The manure stored under cover in pits retained significantly more mineral N and K during storage. Most of the mineral N in the manure was low in the NH 4 -N fraction at the beginning of storage and increased after 90 days of storage except treatment CTH. The manure stored in pits had significantly higher mass fractions of total N and total K than the manure in heaps. When compared with the quality of the manure at the beginning of storage, the manure stored in pits had 11% more mass fractions of N, and 20% more K after 90 days of storage. In the manure stored in heaps under the control treatment, the mass fraction of total N declined by 4% and that of K by 63% during storage. In the case of organic manures and crop residues, the C:N ratio can be used as the index for predicting the N mineralisation. Soil chemical properties of compost after storage Nitrogen losses through leaching were assessed by sampling the soil at different depths underneath the pits and heaps as reflected by concentrations of NH 4 -N and NO 3 -N in the soil after 90 days of storage (Table 4). Both NH 4 -N and NO 3 -N concentrations fluctuated with soil depth and storage method. In general, total N, P and K were found in higher concentrations below 80 cm depth, suggesting that they leached during storage. The mineralisable N pool in the untreated soil was much lower compared with the soil that was amended with organic materials (Table 4). This suggests a high potential of such soils to mineralise N from organic residues. Srinivas et al. (2006) showed that under aerobic conditions there was a net immobilisation or mineralisation as a function of the organic amendments used. Table 3. Effect of manure storage on some quality indicators of manure before and after 90 days (experiment 1) Treatment a Dry matter ph KCl C N NH 4 + (mg/kg) NO 3 (mg/kg) Day 0 (beginning of experiment) CFH 46.7 a 7.9 a 55.5 b 0.9 b 23.3 b 228 a 0.14 a 0.40 a CFP 32.8 c 7.8 a 51.1 a 1.0 a 44.0 a 234 a 0.15 a 0.37 a CTH 37.5 b 7.4 a 59.5 c 1.1 a 51.0 a 241 a 0.11 b 0.33 a CTP 37.5 b 7.4 a 59.5 c 1.1 a 51.0 a 241 a 0.11 b 0.33 a LSD After 90 days of storage CFH 36.3 a 7.9 a 38.4 a 0.8 b 62.0 ab 236 c 0.19 a 0.25 b CFP 35.9 a 7.8 a 39.9 a 1.2 a 72.0 a 234 c 0.17 ab 0.44 a CTH 30.3 b 8.2 a 33.9 b 0.9 b 43.2 c 314 b 0.15 b 0.30 b CTP 36.2 a 8.0 a 36.8 b 1.2 a 61.2 b 270 a 0.16 b 0.52 a LSD a CFH = cattle dung with heap composting (control); CFP = cattle dung mixed with rice straw from farmer household with pit composting; CTH = cattle dung + rice straw (1:0.5) with heap composting; CTP = cattle dung + rice straw (1:0.5) with pit composting Note: ph KCl = ph measured in 1 M potassium chloride; C = carbon; N = nitrogen; NH + 4 = ammonium N; NO 3 = nitrate N; P = phosphorus; K = potassium; LSD 0.05 = least significant difference (p < 0.05); means followed by the same letter(s) within the columns do not differ significantly at p < 0.05 P K 95

9 Table 4. Soil chemical properties at different depths after 90 days of manure storage (experiment 1) Treatment a Nitrogen (N) Ammonium N (NH 4 +) (mg/kg) Nitrate N (NO 3 ) (mg/kg) Phosphorus Potassium Control cm CFH c 7.9 b c b 0.24 d CFP d 11.3 a 96.9 b a 0.37 a CTH b 6.8 b 89.1 a a 0.29 c CTP a 12.4 a 92.1 a a 0.34 b >80 cm CFH a 20.3 b 91.8 d b 0.34 b CFP b 14.6 a 65.9 a b 0.22 a CTH a 18.0 b 86.8 c a 0.31 b CTP b 13.8 a 72.1 b a 0.26 a a Control = soil taken from nearby field; CFH = cattle dung with heap composting (control); CFP = cattle dung mixed with rice straw from farmer household with pit composting; CTH = cattle dung + rice straw (1:0.5) with heap composting; CTP = cattle dung + rice straw (1:0.5) with pit composting Note: means followed by the same letter(s) within the columns do not differ significantly at p < 0.05 Effect of application method and combination of inorganic fertilisers and manure on peanut yield, economic efficiency and soil characteristics Effects of different organic amendments on peanut yield and economic efficiency The combination of organic amendments and inorganic fertilisers significantly outperformed the NPK control (inorganic fertiliser only) for peanut yield (Table 5). However, among the treatments with organic amendment, there were no clear differences between application methods (surface broadcast or row). The response of peanut to the combined application of inorganic fertiliser and organic amendments was similar to that observed by Tinh (1997). Treatments comprising a 1:0.5 ratio of manure to rice straw composted in either pits (CTP) or heaps (CTH) generally performed better than that composted using farmer practice either in pits (CFP) or heaps (CFH). Increase in the number of pods per plant, number of filled pods per plant and 100 seed weight correlated well with the pod yield of peanut (data not shown). Pod yields in the treatments with 10 t/ha manure (1:0.5) stored in a the pit were significantly higher than other treatments for both application methods (broadcast and row), particularly under row application (Table 5). The highest gross margins were found with manure stored in pits (1:0.5) at an application rate of 10 t/ha (VND28,190,000 and VND26,440,000) in row and surface application, respectively (Table 5). The value:cost ratio (VCR) and agronomic efficiency were highest with these treatments also. Such results indicate that the application of organic amendments in these trials could bring higher profits for peanut growers, especially with row application. Effects of different organic amendments on soil characteristics (peanut field) On average, maximum ph values were observed under NPK + CTH treatments when broadcast on the soil surface (Table 6). Although the addition of organic matter may not directly affect soil ph in the short term, soils that receive significant amounts of organic amendments tend to maintain (buffer) soil ph values for longer periods of time (Evanylo and McGuinn 2000). Organic C content was also affected by application of inorganic fertiliser and organic amendments. On average, maximum organic C values of 1.5% were found in NPK + CFP treatments, which might have enhanced the biomass of peanut and hence the input of crop residues. The result was the same for both surface broadcast and row application, so application method had no effect on organic C content in this case (Kha 1996). 96

10 Table 5. Yield of peanut and economic efficiency evaluation in spring season 2011 (experiment 3) Application method Treatment Pod yield (t/ha) Total revenue (VND 000/ha) Gross margin (VND 000/ha) Agronomic efficiency (kg pod/t manure) Value:cost ratio (VCR) Surface NPK 2.95 c 73,700 11,340 NPK + CFH 3.52 abc 87,875 21, NPK + CFP 3.57 abc 89,325 22, NPK + CTH 3.52 abc 87,975 21, NPK + CTP 3.71 ab 92,800 26, Row NPK 3.08 bc 77,075 11,715 NPK + CFH 3.52 abc 88,050 18, NPK + CFP 3.75 a 93,700 24, NPK + CTH 3.68 ab 91,875 22, NPK + CTP 3.90 a 97,550 28, Note: NPK = inorganic fertiliser comprising 30 kg/ha nitrogen (N), 39 kg/ha phosphorus (P), 50 kg/ha potassium (K) and 500 kg/ha lime; CFH = cattle dung with heap composting; CFP = cattle dung mixed with rice straw from farmer household with pit composting; CTH = cattle dung + rice straw (1:0.5) with heap composting; CTP = cattle dung + rice straw (1:0.5) with pit composting; Means followed by the same letter(s) within the columns do not differ significantly at p < 0.05 Table 6. Characteristics of soils (0 20 cm) after peanut harvest (experiment 3) Application method Fertiliser ph KCl Org. C Total N NH 4 + (mg/kg) NO 3 (mg/kg) P K CEC (cmol c /kg) Surface NPK 5.5 a 1.2 c f 20.3 c 9.4 d 0.02 a 0.04 b 0.6 d NPK + CFH 5.3 b 1.3 b f 24.5 bc 12.9 c 0.02 a 0.05 a 1.0 c NPK + CFP 5.2 cd 1.5 a de 28.4 a 15.2 b 0.01 b 0.04 b 1.7 b NPK + CTH 5.4 a 1.3 b c 30.4 a 16.4 b 0.01 b 0.04 b 2.7 a NPK + CTP 5.3 b 1.4 a b 29.4 a 10.4 cd 0.02 a 0.03 c 1.9 b Row NPK 5.2 cd 1.3 b e 22.5 c 12.6 c 0.02 a 0.04 b 1.1 c NPK + CFH 5.1 d 1.2 c d 26.3 b 18.3 a 0.02 a 0.04 b 1.8 b NPK + CFP 5.3 b 1.5 a c 29.4 a 15.3 b 0.01 b 0.04 b 1.3 c NPK + CTH 5.3 b 1.3 b a 30.2 a 14.5 bc 0.02 a 0.04 b 2.3 a NPK + CTP 5.3 b 1.4 a a 28.9 a 15.5 b 0.02 a 0.04 b 1.7 b Note: ph KCl = ph measured in 1 M potassium chloride; C = carbon; N = nitrogen; NH + 4 = ammonium N; NO 3 = nitrate N; P = phosphorus; K = potassium; CEC = cation exchange capacity; CFH = cattle dung with heap composting (control); CFP = cattle dung mixed with rice straw from farmer household with pit composting; CTH = cattle dung + rice straw (1:0.5) with heap composting; CTP = cattle dung + rice straw (1:0.5) with pit composting; means followed by the same letter(s) within the columns do not differ significantly at p < 0.05 Total N increased significantly with fertilisation and different types of organic amendment application in most case. This is probably due to the fact that the leguminous crops are able to utilise N from symbiotic fixation as well as from manures and inorganic fertilisers (Myers and Wood 1987). The effect on CEC was more pronounced in NPK + CTH treatments with both application methods. This might be related to differences in humification of organic amendments and crop residues. Effects of organic amendments collected from different farmers on peanut yield and economic efficiency Addition of organic amendments from different households increased yield of peanut, expecially from manure stored in pits from the Tran Minh Tinh household (Table 7). However, with pit composting, pod yield was not significantly different among the five households. 97

11 The gross margins among the five households were comparatively higher for composting in pits than in heaps (Table 7). Value:cost ratios (VCRs) for pit composting were marginally higher than for heap composting. Such results indicate that the application of organic amendments in these trials could bring higher profits for peanut growers if pit composting were practised. Effect of composted material on soils collected from the peanut field Maximum ph values were found in soils with organic amendments from pit composting compared with heap composting (Table 8); however, the difference was not significant. Maximum soil organic C values of 1.21% resulted from organic amendments made by pit composting. No significant differences were observed for total N, P, K and CEC between pit and heap composting methods. Conclusions Manure handling and storage affected nutrient retention and other quality parameters of compost. Our results suggest that storage of manure in pits could be more suitable for long periods with the aim of retaining organic matter and nutrients for smallholder crop livestock systems in SCC Vietnam. Loss of more soluble fractions of nutrients, especially N and K via leaching, was evident during storage and composting. Covering manure during composting appeared to have a positive effect on its quality when stored for up to 90 days. Heaps in the open air retained approximately 20% less manure mass than pits but the manure was of better quality in the pits. The differences in nutrient retention between storage systems were not significant after 90 days of storage (data not shown). Table 7. Yield of peanut and economic efficiency in spring season 2011 (experiment 4) Composting method Name of household Pod yield (t/ha) Total revenue (VND 000/ha) Gross margin (VND 000/ha) Value:cost ratio (VCR) Pit Nguyen Van Tai 3.87 a 96,750 27, Le Van Xin 4.00 a 100,000 30, Tran Minh Tinh 4.07 a 101,750 32, Le Dinh Tuong 3.97 a 99,250 29, Mac Thong Chin 3.83 a 95,750 26, Heap Nguyen Van Tai 3.70 a 92,500 25, Le Van Xin 3.77 a 94,250 27, Tran Minh Tinh 3.80 a 95,000 28, Le Dinh Tuong 3.57 b 89,250 22, Mac Thong Chin 3.60 ab 90,000 23, Note: means followed by the same letter(s) within the columns do not differ significantly at p < 0.05 Table 8. Characteristics of soils at the end of the peanut trial (experiment 3) Composting method ph KCl Organic C CEC (cmol c /kg) N P K Pit 5.32 a 1.21 a 1.26 a a a a Heap 5.29 a 1.14 b 1.22 a a a a LSD Note: ph KCl = ph measured in 1 M potassium chloride; C = carbon; CEC = cation exchange capacity; N = nitrogen; NH + 4 = ammonium N; NO 3 = nitrate N; P = phosphorus; K = potassium; means followed by the same letter(s) within the columns do not differ significantly at p < 0.05; average values calculated from five households in each application type 98

12 The study revealed that the four types of organic amendments with two application methods had significant positive effects on pod yield in peanut in 2011 compared with NPK fertiliser alone. Different types of organic amendments produced from different households applied to peanut crops in 2012 improved pod yields, signifying the importance of using organic materials in sandy soils. The increase of peanut yield per t of organic amendment prepared in a pit was higher for both row and surface application and follows: cattle manure in pit (1:0.5) > cattle manure in pit (farmer ratio) > cattle manure in heap (1:0.5) > cattle manure in heap (farmer ratio). The highest gross margin and value:cost ratio (VCR) were also found for the organic amendments with pit composting in the multiple farm experiment. Although the changes in soil properties were small, the results did reveal that different types of organic amendments improved soil properties compared with inorganic fertiliser application alone. References Clark M.S., Horwath W.R., Shennan C. and Scow K.M Changes in soil chemical properties resulting form organic and low-input farming practices. Agronomy Journal 90, Evanylo G. and McGuinn R Measuring, assessing, and comparing laboratory and field test kit parameters of soil quality attributes. Publication No Virginia Cooperative Extension: Blacksburg, VA. Accessible at < html>. Hoang Thi Thai Hoa Effect of farmyard manure rates on rice fields and soil fertility in coastal sandy soils of Thua Thien Hue province. Vietnam Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development 160, Hoang Thi Thai Ho, Do Dinh Thuc, Chen W., Mann S. and Bell R.W Natural organic resources, nutrient balance and farming systems of south-central coastal Vietnam. Pp in Sustainable and profitable crop and livestock systems in south-central coastal Vietnam, ed. by S. Mann, M.C. Webb and R.W. Bell. ACIAR Proceedings No Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research: Canberra. [These proceedings] Kha V.M Chemical fertilizer in integrated plant nutrient systems. Pp in Fertilizer handbook. Agricultural Publishing House: Hanoi. [In Vietnamese] Meelu O.P., Yadvinder-Singh and Bijay-Singh Green manuring for soil productivity improvement. FAO World Soil Resources Reports No. 76. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome. Myers R.J.K. and Wood I.M Food legumes in the nitrogen cycle of farming systems. Pp in Food legume improvement for Asian farming systems, ed. by E.S. Wallis and D.E. Byth. ACIAR Proceedings No. 18. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research: Canberra. Page A.L., Miller R.H. and Keeney D.R Methods of soil analysis, chemical and microbiological properties part 2. ASA Monograph No. 9, 2nd edition. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI. Petersen C., Drinkwater L.E. and Wagoner P The Rodale Institute farming systems trial: the first fifteen years. The Rodale Institute: Kutztown, PA. Pham Quang Ha and Tran Thuc Son Some features of fertilizer need and fertilizer production in Vietnam. At < accessed 25 March Pinitpaitoon S., Suwanarit A. and Bell R.W A framework for determining the efficient use of organic and mineral fertilizer in maize cropping. Field Crops Research 124, Ponnamperuma F.N Straw as source of nutrients for wetland rice. Pp in Organic matter and rice, ed. by S. Banta and C.V. Mendoza. Intertnational Rice Research Institute (IRRI): Los Baños, Philippines. Powell J.M. and Williams T.O An overview of mixed farming systems in sub-saharan Africa. Pp in Livestock and sustainable nutrient cycling in mixed farming systems of sub-saharan Africa. Volume II: Technical papers. Proceedings of an International Conference held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, November 1993, ed. by J.M. Powell, S. Fernández- Rivera, T.O. Williams and C. Renard. International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA): Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Srinivas K., Singh H.P., Vanaja M., Sreenivasa Raju A. and Sharma K.L Effect of chemical composition of plant residues on nitrogen mineralization. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 54, 300. Timsina J. and Connor D.J Productivity and management of rice wheat systems: issues and challenges. Field Crops Research 69, Tinh D.V Evaluation of phosphorous fertilizer in peanut yield improvement in coastal sandy soil zone of Thua Thien Hue province, Vietnam. MSc thesis, Chiang Mai University, Thailand. Tran Thi Thu Ha Identification of limiting factors on yield of peanut on alluvial and sandy soils of Thua Thien Hue province, Vietnam. PhD thesis, Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue, Vietnam. [In Vietnamese] Vu Huu Yem Handbook of fertilizer. Agricultural Publishing House: Hanoi. [In Vietnamese] Yadvinder-Singh, Bijay-Singh, Maskina M.S. and Meelu O.P Response of wetland rice to nitrogen from cattle manure and urea in a rice wheat rotation. Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad) 72,