BASELINE SURVEY OF DENDI, AWASSA ZURIA AND HETOSA DISTRICTS OF ETHIOPIA

Transcription

1 BASELINE SURVEY OF DENDI, AWASSA ZURIA AND HETOSA DISTRICTS OF ETHIOPIA ETHIO-ORGANIC SEED ACTION IN COLLABORATION WITH CENTER FOR GENETIC RESOURCES, THE NETHERLANDS JUNE 2007 ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA

2 Table of contents Page List of References iii 1. Background of the Project... 1 In the past, the national breeding approach for crop improvement largely relied on exotic materials and on quantitative traits for increasing volume of grain yield per unit area. This resulted in undue marginalization of the landraces simply because of low productivity on high potential areas. Other valuable traits appreciated by farmers and off-farm consumers i.e. those related to home consumption (taste, cooking quality, nutritional value, shelf-life of cooked produce, etc.) and quality traits for industrial processing were not given the necessary attention. Consequently, some of the released varieties failed to meet the specific needs of the small-scale subsistence farmers Purpose of the Baseline Survey Methodology of the Assessment Basic Data about Dendi District Basic Data about Dendi District Basic Data about Study Locality Area, Population and Land Use Cropping Pattern Crop Calendar Gender Roles in Farm Activities Crop Diversity Assessment Diversity of Crop Types Four square Analysis of Crop Types Analysis of Genetic Diversity of Priority Crop Four Square Analysis of Wheat Varieties Seed Systems Analysis Seed Selection Practices Seed Sources for Priority Crop Crop Market Analysis Summary and Concluding Remarks Basic Data about Awassa Zuria District Basic Data about Study Locality Area, Population and Land Use Farming System Cropping Pattern Crop Calendar Gender Roles in Farm Activities Concerning participation in crop genetic resource management on-farm, there is a clear differentiation in division of labor based on gender. The decision as to who should be involved in the various farm activities is jointly decided by the husband and wife. Likewise, timing of the different farm activities is discussed among the adult family 27 members and decided jointly. In extended families, the elderly members (grand parents) are also involved in decision-making. Most of the farm activities are carried out jointly by male and female family members while some are strictly assigned to a specific gender (Table 6). For instance, women are not involved in plowing by oxen in this locality. Nearly all gender and age groups (men and women including boys and girls) participate in some of the farm activities like weeding, harvesting, transporting harvest and preparing the threshing ground. Men identify the spot suitable for ii

3 threshing (open and even ground usually located close to the homestead. The harvest from the field is piled at the selected site. When preparing the threshing ground, adult men remove bushes and the grass cover. Elder women and girls do the plastering using fresh cow-dung. Boys take part in fetching Crop Diversity Assessment Diversity of Crop Types Four-square Analysis of Crop Types Analysis of Genetic Diversity of Priority Crop Four-square Analysis of Maize Varieties Seed Systems Analysis Seed Selection Practices for Maize and Haricot Bean Demand and Supply for Maize and Haricot Bean Seed Sources and Constraints Faced in Relation to Seed Supply Crop Marketing Summary and Concluding Remarks Basic Data about Hetosa District Basic Data about Hetosa District Description of Gonde Finchema Farm Community Area, Population and Land Use Cropping Pattern Seed supply system and related services in Gonde locality According to farmers, more reliable stakeholders in the area are the Arsi Rural Development Bank (ARDB) and the recently reorganized Hetosa Farmers Union. The provision of all sorts of agricultural inputs and credit services for the community and the surrounding districts rests on only this single Union. Regardless of the increasingly growing demand for malt in the country, the Asela Malt Factory is not encouraging local production of malt barley, but in the contrary imports thousands of tones of malt barley every year. FAO and SG 2000 are the only organizations that have seed programs in some kebeles of the district Gender Differentiation in Farm Activities Crop Diversity Assessment Four Square Analysis of Crop Types Analysis of Genetic Diversity of Priority Crop Seed Systems Seed Selection Practices Seed Sources for Priority Crops The formal seed sector operated by district ARDB and Farmers Union is the means for the distribution of certified seeds of major crops. This system, however, contributes little as far as the demand of farmers for seed is considered. The Farmers Union supplies seeds of bread wheat, barley, faba bean, field pea, rapeseed, and maize that is usually obtained from the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise. Seed are also exchanged or distributed through the informal mechanism, which includes exchange among neighbours, market, gift from relatives and friends Grain Marketing Major Constraints of Crop Production Summary and Recommendations List of Reference List of References iii

4 1. Background of the Project Ethio-Organic Seed Action (EOSA) is a national, not-for-profit, non-governmental organization promoting on-farm conservation and utilization of crop genetic resources. Though the primary focus is on restoration and conservation of local crop varieties threatened from displacement by newly introduced improved varieties, EOSA is also favoring the conservation and utilization of other associated crops within the agroecosystem. EOSA gives due recognition to farmers' role as creators, managers, and primary users of the crop diversity generated on their farms. Therefore, the strategy followed for on-farm conservation of local crop genetic resources involves a dynamic system whereby the crops continue to evolve along with the changes in growing conditions. Farmers are the primary actors in the conservation and management of crop genetic resources on-farm and EOSA plays a role of facilitation by providing technical assistance and advisory services towards building local capacity of farmers for variety improvement. The overall conservation strategy allows that the crop varieties produced by farmers meet their immediate needs (own consumption and marketing) and also the demand of future generations (for consumption, breeding and other uses). As an agricultural development practitioner, EOSA makes its contribution to empower farmer communities through self-reliance in seed supply (the basic element in crop production) and capacity building for participatory variety selection and improvement. EOSA's overall implementation strategy promotes collaboration of relevant stakeholders i.e. farmers, research institutions, agricultural extension workers, food processing industries, official certification bodies and donor organizations. This enables EOSA to pool financial resources and technical expertise as well as facilitating experience sharing opportunities. The latter takes place at three levels: among technical experts, agricultural development workers and also among farmers from different localities. Significant progress has been made over the last few years in terms of reintroduction/restoration of landraces, organizing farmers to multiply good quality seed, organizing farmer conservators (institutionalizing as an autonomous community based organizations), orienting the research focus to include qualitative traits (especially for industrial processing), linking farmer producers with food processing industries, and arranging experience sharing visits within and outside the country. In the past, the national breeding approach for crop improvement largely relied on exotic materials and on quantitative traits for increasing volume of grain yield per unit area. This resulted in undue marginalization of the landraces simply because of low productivity on high potential areas. Other valuable traits appreciated by farmers and off- 1

5 farm consumers i.e. those related to home consumption (taste, cooking quality, nutritional value, shelf-life of cooked produce, etc.) and quality traits for industrial processing were not given the necessary attention. Consequently, some of the released varieties failed to meet the specific needs of the small-scale subsistence farmers. The goal of this project is, therefore, to better understand the options for, and scale up genetic resources conservation and utilization practices of farmer communities through participatory selection and/or breeding of their own local varieties of food crops for which there is no appropriate public or private sector supply. To this effect, EOSA is prepared to pilot a one-year project by employing a Farmers' Field School approach. The Farmers' Field School (FFS) approach for Participatory plant breeding (PPB) is a process that combines improving local crop varieties and upgrading technical capabilities of farmers. In its broad sense, participatory plant breeding involves close collaboration between researchers, farmers, and potentially other stakeholders to bring about genetic improvement within a crop species (Sperling et al. 2001; Bellon, 2004). It helps participant farmers to become more knowledgeable, skilled and confident on plant genetic resources management activities thereby favoring the conservation and improvement of these materials on-farm. Participant farmers will be taught on simple variety selection and breeding technologies (as appropriate) to develop locally adapted varieties that are better fitting to the local environment while retaining the valuable traits highly appreciated by the farmers themselves, both as producers and consumers. 2

6 Therefore, the FFS approach is contributing positively towards empowering farmers to be self-sufficient in seed supply as well as promoting their own experimentation and variety development. The Farmers' Field School exercise will enable farmers to build their skills and selfconfidence in identifying and analyzing problems that may be encountered as well as taking appropriate actions to prevent and/reduce risks. The group dynamics is expected to promote farmers critical thinking. Through such a process, EOSA aims to raise farmers awareness concerning the relationship between biodiversity, food security, and participatory plant breeding. 2. Purpose of the Baseline Survey The main purpose of the survey was to lay the foundation for conducting pilot project on Participatory Plant Breeding in a Farmers' Field School scheme. Information generated from the survey would help to better understand the current realities and plan pertinent strategies for participatory crop improvement that address the felt-needs of farmers in the study area. It also enables to document the level of crop diversity and other basic information about the study localities before project intervention. 3. Methodology of the Assessment The baseline survey was conducted in two administrative regions at three selected zones - West Shewa (Dendi district), Sidama (Awassa Zuria district) and Arsi (Hetosa district) from March to June It was organized using both primary and secondary information collected through observation, group discussion with farmers and key informants (individuals with specialized knowledge of particular subject). Participants of the group discussion were randomly selected from the community in a gender and age balanced scheme. Secondary data was gathered from zonal and district Agriculture and Rural Development Bureau (ARDB), and farmers unions. Thorough discussions were made with farmers and other stakeholders on the trend of loss of crop diversity, cropping patterns, seed selection practices, and local seed supply system and marketing chains. 3

7 PART ONE BASELINE SURVEY OF WEST SHEWA ZONE (GINCHI AREA) 4

8 1.1. Basic Data about Dendi District Dendi district (district) is located in West Shewa zone of Oromia Regional State. It covers an area of 107,875 ha and has a population of 192,784. Out of these, 99,475 are male and the remaining 93,309 are female. The district is divided into 44 Kebeles (also known as Peasant Associations). The administrative center for the district is based in Ginchi town, which is located 90 km west of Addis Ababa, on the way to Nekemte. The altitude of the district varies between 2,000 and 3,288 meters above sea level while the annual rainfall ranges from 500mm to 1,172mm. The total amount of rainfall and its seasonal distribution is fairly adequate for crop production. The main cropping season extends from June through January. The mean maximum temperature is 23.80C and the mean minimum temperature is 9.30C. The hottest months are April and May whereas the coolest months are July and August. According to data from the district Agricultural and Rural Development Office, there are 20,215 households residing within Dendi district. Of these, 16,092 are male-headed households while the remaining (4,123) are female-headed. The average family size per household varies between 5 and 7 persons. The economically active work force (above 15 and below 65 years of age) is estimated to be 49%. Current land use pattern of the district is presented in Table 2. The soil types within the district are categorized into the following classes: 46% red soil, 42% black clay soils, 6% brown soils, and 6% gray soils. The red soils are well-drained soils whereas the black clay soils are characterized by heavy water-logging during the main rains and cracking during the dry season. There are 8 perennial rivers in Dendi district that flow out to the neighbouring districts and beyond. The source of river Awash is located within one of the watersheds in the district. Crop farming and livestock rearing are the major sources of livelihood for the population residing within Dendi district, like many other rural areas in Ethiopia. To diversify their income sources, some households are engaged in fattening oxen, fattening sheep, petty trading, traditional small-scale irrigation using gravitational force and a few others using motorized pumps. Irrigation enables farmers to produce harvest during the off-season and earn additional income. Crops grown by irrigation include cash crops such as onion, garlic, shallot, and pepper. 5

9 The farming system is a typical cereal-based crop-livestock mixed farming system. The types of livestock reared include cattle, sheep, goats, horses, mules, donkeys, poultry and bees. Bee keeping is also common in the district and practiced since the old days. Recently, improved beehives were introduced into the district and some farmers are using them. There are 103 improved beehives, 454 Kenyan (transitional) types and 4,513 local beehives. Further details in livestock holding are presented in Table 3. Major crops grown in the district include: wheat, tef, barley, faba bean, field pea, chick pea, grass pea, lentils, fenugreek, linseed, black cumin, Ethiopian caraway (nech azmud in Amharic), and noug. Maize, sorghum, safflower, and emmer wheat are grown to a lesser extent, largely for own home consumption Basic Data about Study Locality Area, Population and Land Use The survey was carried out in Awash Boloto Kebele (kebele is the lowest level local administrative unit), which is one of the 44 kebeles within Dendi district. As data from the local agricultural and rural development office indicate, Awash Boloto covers an area of 1,560 ha and has a total population of 2,614. Out of these, 1,503 are male and 1,111 are female. It is a 100% rural kebele with no urban center (town). Concerning social services, there is no school, health center or grain mill within the kebele. The total number of households residing within the kebele is 355. Among these, 247 male and 66 femaleheaded households have their own farmland holding while the remaining (108 male and 4 female) households are landless. The average landholding per household is 4.5 ha. Individual landholdings range from 8 ha (for betteroff households) to 1 ha for poor households. Current land use pattern of the kebele is presented in Table 4. In terms of agro-ecological zonation, Awash Boloto falls into one category - woina dega (mid altitude) zone. The soil classes include: vertisols (43%), loamy soils (44%), and silty 6

10 soils (13%). Crop types grown in the study area include: tef, wheat, chick pea, lentil, grass pea, fenugreek, faba bean, field pea, cumin, Ethiopian caraway, noug, linseed, safflower, maize and sorghum. Among these, black cumin, Ethiopian caraway, fenugreek and tef are major cash crops. According to data from the local agricultural extension office, average yield levels under farmers condition are presented in Table 5 below. Livestock holding of residents of Awash Boloto kebele include cattle (1798), sheep (661), goats (17), horses (74), mules (5), donkeys (341), poultry (883) and beehives (44). There are 12 transitional beehives (Kenyan types) newly introduced into the locality last production season Cropping Pattern Cropping patterns practiced within the community include sole cropping, mixed cropping, sequential cropping and crop rotation. Fallowing was abandoned and not practiced anymore mainly due to shortage of farmland. It is not enough to sustain the family if some plots are left unplanted. Crops planted as sole crop per farm plot include tef, wheat, chickpea and grass pea. Those planted in mixed stand in one farm plot include faba bean and field pea; maize, cabbage and abesha potato ('oromo dinich'); black cumin and safflower; Ethiopian caraway and safflower; sorghum and noug, or sorghum and linseed. The crop rotation pattern basically follows cereals after pulses or vice versa. For instance a farm plot planted by one of the pulse crops (field pea, faba bean, grass pea, lentils or fenugreek) is allotted for growing tef the next season. Priority is given to tef than other crops because the pulses enrich soil fertility and suppress weeds. The practice significantly reduces the amount of inorganic fertilizer to be applied on tef the next season. This is highly valued by farmers for the very reason that it reduces production costs. A farm plot planted with sorghum and wheat is planted with tef the following season, whereas a farm plot planted with cumin may be followed by tef, wheat or cumin the following season. 7

11 Sequential cropping during one growing season is also a common practice in Awash Boloto. For instance, after harvesting maize, farmers may plant short maturing pulses such as lentils, chickpea, fenugreek or grass pea depending on personal preference and suitability to the microclimate. In cases when wheat matures early and is harvested in October, lentils are planted right away. Regarding use of organic manure, the practice is limited to farmyard plots (especially on maize) and tef plots located nearby the homestead. Inorganic fertilizers (di-ammonium phosphate and urea) are widely used on tef, wheat, maize, and chick pea Crop Calendar The following table shows the crop calendar for farm activities in Awash Boloto kebele Gender Roles in Farm Activities Concerning participation in crop genetic resource management on-farm, there is a clear differentiation in division of labour based on gender. The decision as to when each farm activity needs to be carried out and who should take part in each activity is discussed among the adult family members (both men and women). Most of the farm activities are carried out jointly by male and female family members while some are strictly assigned to a specific gender (Table 7). For instance, it is uncommon to see women do plowing by 8

12 oxen in this locality. On the other hand, nearly all gender and age groups (men and women including boys and girls) participate in some of the farm activities like weeding, transporting harvest and threshing. When transporting harvest, adult men and women do the loading and unloading while boys and girls walk the loaded donkeys to and from the harvest field. The harvest is collected at one spot (the threshing site) where it is piled by the adult men in a specific style (Figure 1). Women assist in delivering the harvest to be piled. In preparing the threshing ground, adult men identify the spot suitable for threshing (open and even ground) and then remove Figure 1. Piles of harvested crops before threshing the bushes and grass cover. Elder women and girls do the plastering using fresh cow-dung. Boys also take part in fetching water to mix the cow-dung paste and moisten the soil surface. 9

13 10

14 1.3. Crop Diversity Assessment Diversity of Crop Types Having diversity between and within species is a norm rather than an exception among the farmer communities of Awash Boloto. The number of varieties grown by the farmers include: tef (4), wheat (8), barley (1), chick pea (4), grass pea (1), lentil (1), fenugreek (2), 11

15 faba bean (2), field pea (2), maize (2), cumin (2), noug (1), linseed (2), safflower (1) and sorghum (3). Table 8. Crop listing and categorization by uses Four square Analysis of Crop Types Group of farmers were asked to categorize the crop types grown in the kebele based on the area coverage and number of people growing these crops. Results are presented in Table 9. Small areas, in this context, refer to crops grown by a household on plots of land having an area less than or equal to 0.25 ha (locally termed as 1 temad1). Large areas refer to crops grown covering an area of ha of land. The reasons why crops have variable land allocation, as commented by farmers, vary from one crop to the other as (Table 10). 1 Temad is a local land measurement unit equivalent to one quarter of a hectare. 12

16 Regarding the most profitable crops, the informant farmers mentioned fenugreek, Ethiopian caraway and cumin as the top three. The reasons were that: (a) these are cash crops with attractive market price, (b) they are grown without fertilizer i.e. there is no need for external inputs implying lower cost of production, and (c) relatively lower cost of production compared to other cereals like tef and wheat that demand high labour input. Ethiopian caraway also gives more production per ha than cumin Analysis of Genetic Diversity of Priority Crop Wheat is selected as a priority crop for the pilot FFS-PPB to be initiated at Ginchi for four basic reasons. The first one is that durum wheat is highly appreciated by the farmers as food crop. Secondly, durum wheat is the most seriously threatened crop from loss of diversity on farmers fields. Some three decades ago, durum wheat was the once popular wheat variety grown in the locality. The diversity in durum wheat landraces was threatened from displacement by the newly introduced bread wheat varieties. The displacement took place gradually over nearly three decades or so. Currently the occurrence of durum wheat landraces is very rare i.e. they are hardly observed in crop fields during the main growing season. Therefore, there is a great need for reintroduction and restoration of durum wheat landrace diversity. Thirdly, there is no formal seed supply for landrace wheat in the study area. Fourthly, durum wheat landraces are national heritages that need to be conserved for the benefit of the future generation. Landraces form the source material from which improved varieties would be developed in the future. The list of wheat varieties known and grown by the farmers in Awash Boloto along with their preferred and non-preferred traits are presented in Table 11 below. 13

17 Dishes prepared from the purple-seeded landraces are generally claimed to be tastier than those from white-seeded wheat. Some farmers appreciate the special aroma of injera from purple-seeded landrace wheat. Hence, the purple-seeded wheat is highly appreciated by farmers for home consumption. On the other hand, dishes prepared from the white-seeded wheat are largely used for special occasions because the dish appears more appealing. The white-seeded wheat are largely targeted for marketing, as urban consumers prefer the white grain color, which is considered to be more prestigious. Preference ranking of the wheat varieties was carried out by men and women groups separately (Tables 12a and b). 14

18 1.3.4 Four Square Analysis of Wheat Varieties Farmers were asked to categorize the different wheat varieties grown in the locality based on area coverage and number of people growing them (Table 13). Small areas in this context refer to crops grown by a household on areas equal to or less than 0.25 ha of land. Large areas refer to crops grown covering an area of ha of land. The reasons why the wheat varieties have variable land allocation, as reported by the farmers, include the following (Table 14). 15

19 For maize and sorghum, seed selection involves close observation of individual plants throughout the growing period. Maize cobs and sorghum heads selected for seed purpose are stored without threshing, tied together as a bundle and hanged inside the hut over the fire place. The smoke helps to control storage pests and also keep the seed moisture content to a minimum Among the wheat varieties, the informant farmers rated Genne as the most profitable. The reasons mentioned were that: Genne fetches better price in the market than other wheat varieties, and the demand is also high because of its best malting quality Seed Systems Analysis Seed Selection Practices Seed selection practices vary depending on crop type and farmer preferences. Some farmers practice thorough evaluation of the growing plants throughout the growing season while some others carry out selection during or after harvest. Both adult men and women of the household participate in seed selection. As reported by the key informants, selection criteria and practices are getting less and less complex as diversity within crop species declines. Among crop types grown at Awash Boloto, no special selection is practiced for grass pea, field pea, emmer wheat, fenugreek, cumin, noug, linseed and safflower to set aside and store seed stock separately from grain for home consumption. However, seeds for planting are checked for being free from damage by storage pests and also plumpness so as to have good emergence upon planting. This is practiced by every household and 16

20 remains a standard norm that all farmers used to do as a default. Some households do not level in order to prevent mold growth. Threshing is done when planting date is due. Regarding faba bean, selection is carried out in the field by observing the standing crop in bulk. The main traits observed are number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod and plant height. Obviously, those plants producing higher number of pods and seeds per plant are preferred for these are high yielding. The selected plots are harvested and threshed separately from the rest of the harvest. Very tall varieties are not selected for seed because they are prone to lodging when strong winds prevail. The details concerning seed selection are summarized in Table 15. For tef, wheat and barley, seed selection is not based on individual plant observation. Right before planting, part of the stored produce is withdrawn and winnowed by the women to remove if there are some chaff and immature seeds that are lighter in weight. Such seeds are carefully removed as they result in poor emergence. The grains to be used for seed are always checked for grain size (full maturity), seed purity and being free from damage by storage pests (weevils). 17

21 1.4.2 Seed Sources for Priority Crop Seed sources for the farmers could be categorized into two major groups: formal and informal sources. The formal seed supply includes the local agricultural extension office and the agricultural research center. The former supplies certified seeds mainly maize, wheat and tef. The latter, however, is not directly involved in seed supply as such, but conducts simple demonstration trials within the locality. Therefore, it contributes to familiarization of the new varieties to farmers in the vicinity of the trial sites. The informal seed sources include own saving, neighbours, relatives and friends, traditional seed experts and the local markets both within and outside the village. Under normal conditions, every farmer saves seeds of all crop types grown. Regarding the amount saved, they usually set aside more than what is sufficient for one time planting as a risk aversion strategy. Such a practice allows them to replant in case the first planting fails for one reason or another. It also provides a social safety-net mechanism because farmers facing seed shortage have the chance to borrow/buy from households having reserve seed stock. However, this may not hold true for resource-poor farmers who often times face difficulty to sustain their families all year round. Even in such cases, farmers give priority to seed and save what is sufficient for one time planting and find other options to feed their families whenever their food stock is depleted. In cases when a household faces seed shortage or when they feel that their seed stock needs to be renewed, both men and women are involved in deciding where to get seed and in the searching process. Men are responsible to search and acquire seed when the particular variety in question is accessible from distant localities. Women are involved in searching for seed within their locality. Women are known to be versatile in identification of varieties and are largely involved in cases of purchasing seeds from the local markets. Seeds could be acquired through exchange (bartering), and/or cash purchase from neighbours, friends or relatives in the village. Depending on mutual agreement, the payment for seed could be made right away (cash purchase) or could be a seed loan to be paid later when the harvest is ready. During the group discussion, it was realized that there are a few farmers who currently grow one or two of the wheat landraces in Awash Boloto and neighbouring kebeles. For some landraces that cannot be found within the kebele, the possible options to access seed are from markets in the neighbouring kebeles and traditional seed experts (elder farmers) in neighbouring villages. Along with EOSA staff, knowledgeable farmers from Awash Boloto will be involved in seed purchase for inclusion in the FFS trials. 18

22 1.5 Crop Market Analysis Although there is no market within Awash Boloto kebele, the farmers are engaged in grain marketing. The nearest market is at Ginchi town, which is located 8 kms from the Awash Boloto Farmers Training Center. On the average, farmers walk about hours to sell their grains at Ginchi market. Farmers in distant villages of the kebele travel more than 8 kms, as they are located further away from the main access road. The means of transportation include donkeys, cars and carrying. Donkeys are the primary and dependable means of transportation used most frequently by the farmers. Different kinds of dealers are involved in grain marketing as wholesale and retail traders. These include: (1) individual farmers, (2) farmer traders (assemblers), (3) wholesale traders, (4) retailers, (5) Farmers' Union, and (6) Hundee an indigenous NGO operating within Dendi district. Brief description of these is given in Table 16 below. 19

23 1.6. Summary and Concluding Remarks As the pilot phase is just one cropping season, the Farmers' Field School approach will be introduced to initiate participatory variety evaluation and selection activities on durum wheat landraces. Hence, no breeding work as such will be carried out for the project duration is too short to see sound effect from breeding. Wheat landraces at the disposal of EOSA (accessible from other project operational areas) and those to be collected from the study locality will be evaluated for adaptation, agronomic and other valuable traits. Participant farmers and facilitators will conduct joint evaluation throughout the growing season. By the last FFS session, participants will be able to summarize what they have learned and achieved, and make plans for the following season field studies. That means, farmers will identify best adapted types and some other gaps that need to be improved through participatory plant breeding. The pilot phase is, therefore, expected to be a predecessor for a long term project to exercise crop variety improvement/enhancement through participatory plant breeding. Based on the findings of the baseline survey and discussions with the farmers, the marketing aspect is found to be an add-on to the FFS module that would be taken up at a later stage. There are four main reasons for this. Firstly, farmer communities are the primary consumers constituting 85% of the consumer population. Hence, finding markets for the landrace wheats is not an issue of concern at all. Secondly, home consumption qualities are of priority interest to the farm households. Thirdly, markets need to be assessed for selected specific products. At this stage, the specific landraces to be promoted are not yet identified because the selection should be based on farmers' own evaluation and preferences. Currently, EOSA has a number of wheat landraces that need to be evaluated for adaptation to the locality and farmers preference. And, lastly EOSA already has practical experience in linking durum wheat growing farmers to food processing industries that could easily be replicated in the study area. The demand by these industries is so high that it is far from being satisfied in the short run, even if all farmers were able to supply the whole harvest directly to the food industries. Hence, further detailed surveys on market assessment will be conducted later to assess the potentials and opportunities for the selected landrace wheats. By introducing several durum wheat landraces, EOSA plans to diversify the seed resource base of farmers for better harvest security. EOSA strongly believes that it is not possible to achieve food security of farm households by focusing only on one or two varieties. Likewise, none of the respondent farmers was interested to specialize on growing only one wheat variety as such. Farmers need a wide range of materials that would fit into their microenvironment 20

24 and meet the diverse household production and consumption needs. Therefore, having diversity is the best interest of farmers in the study area and EOSA is working towards empowering them in order to achieve this goal. 21

25 PART TWO BASELINE SURVEY OF SIDAMA ZONE (AWASSA AREA) 22

26 2.1. Basic Data about Awassa Zuria District Awassa Zuria district is found in Sidama zone of Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPR). It covers an area of 92,000 ha and has an estimated population of 105,000 according to the previous district boundary. Out of these, women constitute 53,550 (51%). The district is divided into 23 kebeles (also known as Peasant Associations). The administrative center for the district is based at Dore Bafeno town, which is located some 20 km away from Awassa - the capital for the Region. Hawassa Zuria district is partially bordered by Lake Awassa. The mean altitude of the district is 1,700 meters above sea level and the average annual rainfall ranges between mm. The rainy season extends from March through September. Mean annual temperature ranges from C. As informed by the district Agricultural and Rural Development Office, basic data about the district are under compilation. There has been substantial restructuring of district boundaries and some kebeles have moved out to neighboring districts for ease of sharing administrative responsibility. Hence, previous data about district are not good enough to use for statistical purpose. Currently, land registration and certification is also on process and is expected to be completed in the coming two months time or so. Land use, livestock holding and other pertinent data, therefore, need to be adjusted according to the new district boundary. In terms of agro-climatic zone, Hawassa zuria district falls within dry woina-dega (or mid altitude) category. The soil type within the district is generally categorized as sandy soil. Consequently, the soils are loose and prone to water erosion during the heavy rains and also to wind erosion during the dry season when crops are harvested. Deep gullies are found here and there indicating severe soil erosion from the torrential rains during the main rainy season. There is no river that flows within the district. The only water resource available is Lake Awassa, one of the biggest lakes within the rift valley. Crop farming and livestock rearing are the two major sources of livelihood for the population in Awassa zuria district. Typical of the crop farming system is the cultivation of enset2, a perennial root crop that forms the basic staple. Most of the kebeles within the district are self-sufficient in food production while a few are not and are supported by a safety-net program. To supplement household income, some households are engaged in petty trading and vegetable cultivation using traditional small-scale irrigation (by 2 Enset is a perennial root crop domesticated and used as a food crop only in Ethiopia. 23

27 gravitational force). Only households having farm plot nearby the lake have the opportunity to exercise irrigation. Crops grown by irrigation include cash crops such as onion, shallot, carrots, head cabbage, lettuce, tomato, Swiss chard, green pepper and beet root Basic Data about Study Locality Area, Population and Land Use The survey was carried out in Jara Galelcha kebele (kebele is the lowest level local administrative unit). As data from the local agricultural and rural development office indicate, Jara Galelcha kebele covers an area of 960 ha and has a total population of 7,570 people. Out of these, 3,028 are male and 4,542 are female. The total number of households residing within the kebele is 1,225. Among these, 1,025 (84%) are male-headed households while the remaining 200 (16%) are female-headed households. Current land use pattern of the kebele appears as follows (Table 2). Social services available within the kebele include: a primary school (first cycle), a health post, a Farmers Training Center (FTC), an agricultural extension office, 3 grain mills, 8 churches and a mosque. The FTC is located 17 km away from Awassa town. The water supply for the kebele includes one developed water tap that serves several villagers (locally called bono) and 33 water wells Farming System The farming system is a typical crop-livestock mixed farming system whereby one complements the other (Figure 1). The average landholding per household is 0.5 ha, too small compared to other areas where cereal-based farming systems predominate. This happened mainly due to the high population density and continuous fragmentation of farmlands through generations. Grazing area is also very small (0.1 ha or lesser per household) and continually declining from time to time. Crop residue, therefore, constitutes the major source of feed for the livestock. Livestock graze freely on the cultivated land once crops are harvested. The types of livestock reared include cattle, sheep, goats, horses, mules, donkeys, and poultry. Bee keeping is practiced to a 24

28 lesser extent and there are 60 traditional beehives in the kebele. Improved beehives were introduced very recently and there are only 3 Kenyan type (transitional) beehives being evaluated. Details on the number of livestock holding are presented in Table 3. Like the district, Jara Galelcha kebele falls into one category in terms of agro-ecological zonation dry woina-dega (mid altitude). The soil class is also 100% sandy soil. Crop types grown in the kebele include both annual and perennial types. The main ones are maize, haricot bean, enset, coffee, Irish potato, sweet potato, soya bean, pepper, sugar cane, onion, head cabbage, carrot, beet root, lettuce, and celery. Among these, haricot bean, pepper, sugar cane, soya bean, and Irish potato are major cash crops. Coffee is grown to a lesser extent by a few households because of the relatively dry climate in Jara Galelcha kebele. Coffee prefers wet woina-dega climate and the neighboring districts to the South are known to be major coffee producers. The records show that there are some 860 coffee trees (CBD-resistant types) recently planted within the district. Fruit trees are also increasingly gaining popularity within the kebele and largely serve as income source to the farm households. Among these are avocado, guava, mango and banana. Although these might be grown by many households, a household may have only one or two trees of avocado, guava or any one of the other fruit trees. Figure 1. Cattle going out for grazing Cropping Pattern Cropping patterns practiced within the community include sole cropping, intercropping, mixed cropping, sequential and relay cropping. Fallowing was abandoned long time ago and not practiced anymore because of severe shortage of farmland. Crops planted as a sole crop per farm plot include tef, haricot bean, pepper, potato, sweet potato, and enset. Those planted in mixed stand per farm plot include maize and haricot bean. Haricot beans are used for relay cropping because of their short growth cycle. Farmers cultivate the young maize seedlings to loosen soil surface and control weed growth (locally called shilshalo). While carrying out shilshalo, farmers plant haricot beans in between the maize stands. They also defoliate the lower leaves of maize plants to allow good penetration of sunlight to the newly emerging bean plants. The beans mature in 3 months time and are harvested before maize reaches full maturity. Sometimes, haricot beans are planted for the second time as sole crop after harvesting maize. Likewise, haricot beans may also be planted sequentially following harvest of Irish potato. 25

29 Crop rotation is not a common practice in the kebele due to the fact that perennial crops (such as enset, coffee, sugar cane and fruit trees) are grown in the home gardens and plots nearby the homestead. Regarding use of organic manuring, the practice is limited to farm plots nearby the homestead, especially on maize, pepper and enset. Inorganic fertilizers (di-ammonium phosphate and urea) are largely used on tef, maize, haricot beans and to a lesser extent on vegetables Crop Calendar There are differences in terms of length of maturity period among the three Irish potato varieties grown in Jara Galelcha. The local type known as Durame is a short maturing type and is harvested in three months time whereas the variety named as Japan is an intermediate type maturing in 4 months. The third variety, Bolbo, is a late maturing type and requires five months to reach full maturity. Having varieties with varying maturity period helps farmers to stagger harvest over a prolonged period of time. The following table summarizes the seasonal calendar for farm operations in the surveyed village. Note: LP = land preparation, S = sowing/planting, W = weeding, S* = seedling raising at nursery, P* = transplanting, H = harvesting, C 1 = first cultivation, and C 2 = second cultivation (earthing up soil to enhance tuber formation). S 1 and S 2 represent first and second planting for crops harvested twice every cropping year. W 1 and W 2 indicate first and second weeding respectively. 26

30 2.2.5 Gender Roles in Farm Activities Concerning participation in crop genetic resource management on-farm, there is a clear differentiation in division of labor based on gender. The decision as to who should be involved in the various farm activities is jointly decided by the husband and wife. Likewise, timing of the different farm activities is discussed among the adult family members and decided jointly. In extended families, the elderly members (grand parents) are also involved in decision-making. Most of the farm activities are carried out jointly by male and female family members while some are strictly assigned to a specific gender (Table 6). For instance, women are not involved in plowing by oxen in this locality. Nearly all gender and age groups (men and women including boys and girls) participate in some of the farm activities like weeding, harvesting, transporting harvest and preparing the 27

31 threshing ground. Men identify the spot suitable for threshing (open and even ground usually located close to the homestead. The harvest from the field is piled at the selected site. When preparing the threshing ground, adult men remove bushes and the grass cover. Elder women and girls do the plastering using fresh cow-dung. Boys take part in fetching water to mix the cow-dung paste. 28

32 2.3. Crop Diversity Assessment Diversity of Crop Types Having diversity between and within species is a norm rather than an exception among the farmer communities of Jara Galelcha kebele. Both annual and perennial crop types are grown by the farmers in the kebele. These include annual crops (cereals, pulses, spices, root and tuber crops), fruit trees as well as beverage and stimulants. Because of the presence of perennial crops such as enset and coffee, the homestead gardens and fields near the home compound are ever green all year round. Only fields allotted to cereal and pulses remain free after harvest and used for grazing by animals. 29

33 The number of varieties grown by the farmers include: maize (3), haricot bean (3), tef (3), pepper (2), sweet potato (2), Irish potato (3), sugar cane (2), banana (2), enset (12), and coffee (1). For details, see tables 7a and 7b. Enset is one of the Ethiopian domesticates and Sidama zone hosts rich diversity. The only coffee variety available in the kebele is the improved coffee berry disease resistant type supplied through the formal system. This is because the relatively dry climate of the kebele is not favourable for coffee production and only some households started experimenting by trying this new variety. The listing of enset clones came up with 12 clones that are grown by the informant farmers (Table 7b). The number of varieties (within species diversity) is the highest for the major staple crop, enset. All the enset clones could be categorized as landrace because enset is domesticated in Ethiopia. There is no improved variety as such other than what the farmers have developed through years of continuous cultivation and use. However, the list of enset clones is not exhaustive because it is based on what the informant farmers currently have on their farms (sample survey). Some more clones are expected to be included if some more informants were included. Nevertheless, it is indicative of the rich diversity available within Sidama zone. The byproducts of enset, including the green and dried leaves, leaf-sheath, dried psuedostem sheath, etc., have multiple uses in the community such as animal feed, wrapping material, bedding, in fencing replacing nails, source of fuel, and some more. The fiber extracted during processing is used to make ropes, twines, bags and baskets. Nearly all the plant parts (excluding only the fibrous roots) are usable. Despite its overall significance, enset is not a suitable candidate for PPB because of its long growth cycle. On the average, an enset plant requires 8 years to complete its growth cycle. In terms of propagation method and source of planting materials, the crop types grown in Jara Galelcha kebele are categorized into three classes. Details are presented in Table 8 below. Concerning sources of planting materials, the major source for almost all crops is own saving, meaning that farmers save seeds from harvest every year with the exception of vegetables. For the vegetables, farmers buy new seeds every year because they can not produce viable seeds effectively. The same holds true for maize hybrids. The hybrids are high yielding only when seeds are used for the first time. As reported by the farmers, 30

34 substantial decline in grain yield level was experienced when they replant seeds saved from hybrid varieties (i.e. reuse seeds for second and third cycle planting). Table 8. Crop categorization based on sources of planting materials Four-square Analysis of Crop Types Group of farmers were asked to categorize the crop types grown in the kebele based on area coverage and the number of people growing these crops. Small areas in this context refers to crops grown by a household on plots of land having an area of less than or equal to 0.12 ha (1/2 temad3). Large areas refer to crops grown covering an area of ha of land. Summary of the crop categorization is presented in table 9. 3 Temad is a local land measurement unit equivalent to one-quarter of a hectare. 31

35 The reasons why different crops have variable land allocation are summarized in the following table. The informant farmers mentioned sugar cane and chat as the most profitable crops. The reasons were that: (1) these two cops have attractive market price, (2) there is growing market demand, (3) both are grown without fertilizer (there is no need for external inputs), and (4) require less labour for management once the stand is well established. The latter two reasons imply lower cost of production compared to other crops that require intensive management Analysis of Genetic Diversity of Priority Crop Maize is selected as a priority crop for the pilot FFS to be initiated in Jara Galelcha. This stems from the very fact that: (1) maize is the major food crop for the farmers in the surveyed kebele, and (2) the old (long adapted) farmers variety known as Sidancho is reportedly lost due to displacement with the improved maize varieties supplied through the formal system. The demand by the respondent farmers was so great, but there is no supply available in the locality. The informant farmers eagerly requested if EOSA would be able to provide them with Sidancho variety, possibly for the current (2007) planting season. However, EOSA couldn't help them because the time gap is too short as maize is already due to be planted in late March following the on-set of the short rains. Therefore, the situation calls for a coordinated action for restoration of the old landrace materials to diversify the choice of planting materials for the farmers in the locality (who frequently face shortage of maize seed) and also to conserve on-farm as a source material for future breeding. The list of maize varieties known and grown by the community is presented in Table 11 below. 32

36 2.3.4 Four-square Analysis of Maize Varieties Group of farmers were asked to categorize the maize varieties grown in the kebele based on area coverage and the number of people growing these crops (Table 12). Small areas in this context refers to varieties grown by a household on farm plots having an area of less than or equal to 0.12 ha (1/2 temad4). Large areas refer to varieties grown covering an area more than 0.12 ha. Among the three maize varieties, the farmers reported that Sidancho is the rarest one or even considered as nearly lost. Only a few elderly farmers in the neighbouring locality (Shamena) presumably have some seed of Sidancho from the old days. The informant farmers were asked to compare the different varieties of the two major food crops (i.e. maize and haricot bean) considering some of the highly valued traits. Results of the ranking exercise are presented in Tables 13 and 14 respectively. 4 Temad is a local land measurement unit equivalent to one-quarter of a hectare. 33

37 Interestingly, the local market demand for Logomo variety is so high and it fetches better price than the other two. The main reason for this is because the variety is getting rare and the amount supplied to the market is very limited Seed Systems Analysis Seed Selection Practices for Maize and Haricot Bean Both adult men and women take part in seed selection. The informant farmers told that the selection criteria are the same both for landrace and improved varieties of maize. The same holds true for haricot bean varieties. Further details are summarized in Table 15 below. 34

38 Table 15. Seed selection practices for maize and haricot bean varieties Adult men and women of the household participate in deciding how much to set aside for seed purpose. Both also decide jointly as to where to get new seed when they think of refreshing their seed stock and/or want to acquire additional seed in cases of shortage. Concerning maize, they look for new seed supply from the local agricultural development office - the only functional formal seed source in the locality. Farmers search for new seed every year because what is supplied is hybrid maize seed that is not good to save and reuse for second time planting. However, the informant farmers severely complained that there is serious maize seed shortage in the study area. In cases when they do not get enough seed supply (which is a common phenomenon), they are obligated to reuse what was saved from the last harvest. The problem of using hybrid maize seeds for subsequent planting is that grain yield declines substantially the following year. According to the experience of the informant farmers, yield declines could be as much as quintals per hectare (1 quintal = 100 kg). The first year a farmer, on the average, may get 25 quintals per ha and when seed is reused for the second time, grain yield level could drop to as low as 10 quintals per hectare. This is substantial loss in terms of annual food production and, hence, the farmers desperately seek to access good quality seed every year. 35

39 2.4.2 Demand and Supply for Maize and Haricot Bean As records of the local agricultural extension office indicate, the demand and supply for maize seed in Jara Galelcha kebele appears as follows (Table 16). The demand shows what was requested by maize grower farmers in the kebele whereas the amount supplied shows what the formal sector managed to supply for the particular production season. For the last three years, the deficit is over 75%. This implies that farmers have to revert to using poor quality seed for lack of option. As the data show, the formal sector was able to supply only 24%, 7.4% and 11.8% of farmers seed demand for improved maize varieties respectively for the years 2005, 2006 and This implies that each year the farmers lose substantial quantity of harvest simply due to reusing poor quality seed. Similarly, the demand for improved haricot bean variety in 2006 was 200 quintals, but the amount supplied was only 13 quintals. The supply was relatively better for soya bean the same year. The amount of soya seed requested for the variety known as Williams was 16.5 quintals and the farmers were able to receive 13.5 quintals Seed Sources and Constraints Faced in Relation to Seed Supply The Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE) is the only formal institution multiplying and supplying certified seeds in the country. However, the amount produced by the organization is limited and not sufficient to satisfy the national demand for maize seed. Estimates show that the national demand for seed is more than 150,000 tons per annum while the supply by the formal sector is only 20% (i.e. 30,000 tons) (ESE/WI/ICARDA 2006). Out of this, the share of ESE is 90%. Even if one of the seed multiplication and processing plants of ESE is located near Awassa town, the farmers in neighbouring kebeles including Hawassa Zuria continue to experience serious shortage every year. There is no other public (formal) seed supplier that is operational in the study area. A few years back, a private company known as Greenwood Pvt. Co. Ltd. was reportedly involved in supplying maize seeds in the locality. However, 36

40 the quality was very poor and farmers complain that it resulted in poor emergence. Therefore, they experienced serious harvest loss after investing additional money to buy these seeds. There were also some private dealers who were engaged in maize seed supplying business, but the quality of the seeds was very poor as reported by the key informants. Some of these businessmen buy ordinary grain from the market, treat it with chemicals and use wrong labels. They illegally (without authorization) use the labels of ESE to cheat farmers so that they would think what is supplied is good quality seed. Such businessmen are reportedly under legal persecution. The private businessmen used the gap in the formal sector seed supply to make large profits by exploiting farmers who are so desperate to access good quality maize seed. Therefore, any action taken by EOSA to bridge this gap in seed supply is the priority need of the farmers in Jara Galelcha kebele and is also highly appreciated by officials of the zonal and local agricultural and rural development offices Crop Marketing As part of the baseline information, this section briefly highlights about grain marketing in the study locality. Both men and women farmers are involved in grain marketing even if there is no local market within Jara Galelcha kebele. Farmers sell their produce in Tula (a town in the neighbouring district) and also at Awassa market. The buyers include individual consumers in the respective towns, retailers and wholesale traders who collect grain from the local markets and supply to dealers in other major towns. As earlier studies indicate, the proportion of grain produce marketed for maize, haricot bean and tef are estimated to be as follows. The largest share (67%) of maize and haricot bean produce is consumed by the farmers themselves while 27% is used for marketing. The remaining 3% constitutes what is set aside for seed purpose. Regarding tef, the largest share (85%) is used for sale, 10% for home consumption and 2% is saved for seed. At this stage of the survey, it was not necessary to carry out detailed market study. Because, primarily the interest of farmers in maize production is meeting household subsistence needs than is marketing. Therefore, further assessment will be carried out at a later stage, as appropriate, when products to be dealt with are specifically identified Summary and Concluding Remarks The project duration is too short to see sound effect from any form of plant breeding initiative. Since the pilot phase is just one cropping season, the intention now is introducing a Farmers' Field School approach so as to initiate participatory variety 37

41 evaluation and selection activities. Participant farmers and facilitators are expected to conduct joint evaluation throughout the growing season. By the end of the season, farmers would be able to identify best adapted types and some other gaps that need to be improved through participatory plant breeding during the following phase. The pilot phase is, therefore, expected to be a predecessor for a long term project to exercise crop variety improvement/enhancement through participatory plant breeding. However, while this baseline survey is being conducted it was already the main planting season for maize in the study area. Maize is planted in March following the on-set of the short rains. Therefore, the planting season for 2007 was completed before EOSA is in a position to understand what the ground realities look like and the priority needs of farmers are around Awassa. EOSA was not operational in this region and, therefore, had no prior information. The priority needs of farmers apparently turned out to be shortage of maize seed and restoration of the long adapted local maize variety, Sidancho. Hence, it appears that it may not possible to initiate the FFS in this particular locality. The current realities suggest that the marketing aspect is to be conducted at a later stage due to the following main reasons. (1) Home consumption needs are of priority interest to the farm households. (2) Farmer communities are the primary consumers utilizing over 70% of the produce. 3) Markets need to be assessed for selected specific products/varieties and this is yet to be identified. Detailed surveys on market assessment will, therefore, be conducted later to assess the potentials and opportunities for these selected materials. EOSA's priority interest is to diversify the choice of planting materials and restoration of diversity in order to ensure that farmers would be in a position to attain better harvest security. EOSA strongly believes that it is not possible to achieve food security of farm households by focusing only on one or two varieties. Farmers need a wide range of planting materials that would fit into their microenvironment and also meet the diverse household production and consumption needs. Therefore, having diversity is the best interest of farmers in the study area and EOSA is working towards empowering them in order to achieve this goal. 38

42 PART THREE BASELINE SURVEY OF ARSI ZONE (GONDE AREA) 39

43 3.1. Basic Data about Hetosa District Hetosa district is one of the 22 districts of Arsi zone of the Oromia Regional State. It covers an area of 67,021 hectares, of which 20% is highland, 48% mid-altitude and the remaining 32% low land. Population of the district is estimated to be 113,969 inhabitants, of which 57,092 are male and the remaining 56,877 are female. The district is divided into 23 Kebeles (the smallest administrative unit). The administrative center for the district is based at Eteya town, which is located at 25 km North East of Asella town (Arsi zone capital ) and at 150 km southeast of Addis Ababa. The altitude of the district ranges from 1700 to 4000 masl, and the average annual rainfall ranges from mm. The mean maximum temperature is 23Cº while the mean minimum temperature is 9Cº. The area is characterized by bimodal rainfall pattern and has two cropping seasons. The short rainy season extends from February to April and the long and the major one covers the time between July and November in most cases. Soil of the district is dominantly clay loam, which is easily workable. Texturally, the soil of the district can be categorized as loamy (51%), clay (30%), and sandy (19%). There are 6 perennial rivers in the district namely Guna, Wereka, Hadha, Boneya, Boru, and Gonde. Farmers use the last three rivers in small irrigation scheme. The topography of Hetosa district is largely flat land (51%), undulating (24%), valley (15%) and mountainous (10%). The number of households in the district is about 21,034 (Report from Agric. & Rural Devt. Office, 1998). Of these, 18,149 are male-headed households while the remaining (2,885) are female-headed. The average family size per household ranges from 6 to 9, which seems relatively high because most males are married to two wives. Generally, the district is characterized by mixed crop-livestock farming system. However, the dominant livelihood source of the community in Hetosa is crop production (70%) of which bread wheat contributes to about 70% of the total production in the district. There is a gradual expansion of cropland as compared to other activities, mainly due to fertile soil and plainy nature of the topography (51% of the landscape). The major crops (especially 40

44 for cash purpose) include wheat, potato, rapeseed, faba bean and field pea. A few farmers are involved in fattening of cattle, sheep, goat, grain retailing, petty trading, traditional small-scale irrigation (using Boneya, Boru, and Gonde rivers). On-farm employment during weeding, harvesting (loading & unloading), threshing, and packing is also one of the income sources for a number of households. Historically, Hetosa district is known for its highest livestock population. With an intensive expansion of crop production, however, there is a gradual shrinkage in grazing land that negatively affects the livestock rearing in the area. The types of livestock include cattle, sheep, goat, horse, mules, donkey, poultry and bee keeping. Distribution and adoption of improved breeds (heifers), bulls, modern bee hives and chicken is a common exercise for the last four decades. Field crop production is the dominant sector compared to others (perennial, horticultural, etc). Wheat, barley, teff, maize, sorghum, faba bean, field pea, rapeseed, haricot bean, lentil, linseed in that order are the common field crops currently produced in the district. The dominant vegetable crops grown by most households include irish potato, onion, garlic, beetroot, carrot, cabbage, etc. Based on observations and information from the farmers interview, potato is currently becoming one of the important crops both as source of cash income and in supporting household food security Description of Gonde Finchema Farm Community Area, Population and Land Use The survey was conducted in Gonde Finchema kebele or farmers association which is one of the 23 kebeles of the district. This farming community is located at about 2250 masl between Asella (capital of the zone) and Eteya (capital of the district). It represents midaltitude agro-ecology of the region. The target community is about 15 km from Asela and 160 km from Addis Ababa. According to the information from Kulumsa Research Cenetr, the soil is clay-loam, which is fertile containing total nitrogen content of 0.25 %, total phosphorus content of 30 ppm (using Melic procedure). The average annual rainfall (analyzing the recent 10 years data) is 662 mm, while the mean maximum temperature is 23Cº and the mean minimum temperature is 9.6Cº. Data from Plan and Program Bureau of the zone indicated that total population of Gonde is 5611, out of which 2819 are male and 2792 are female. Concerning social services, there is 41

45 one school, two grain mills, and one market place within the kebele. The total number of households residing in this kebele is 738 of which 646 are maleheaded and the remaining 92 femaleheaded. While the landholding of the better-off households ranges between 2 and 5 heactares, that of the poor households remains as low as 0.5 hectare. According to the current land use pattern of Gonde kebele, about 98% is allotted to crop production. Major crop types grown in the study area include: wheat, barley, teff, maize, sorghum, faba bean, field pea, rapeseed, haricot bean, lentil, and linseed, in their order of importance. Production and area under production of major crops are presented in the following table. Based on the information from farmers and district key informants, potato is becoming one of the important crops in the area, playing a major role both in household food security and as source of cash income. There is a declining trend of livestock production in Gonde kebele due to conversion of grazing land into cropland. Major livestock holding of households in the kebele is shown in the following table. There are 43 transitional and 5 modern or improved beehives available at farmers level. 42

46 3.2.2 Cropping Pattern Arsi-Bale highlands are generally considered as barley and wheat belts of the country. Hetosa district of the Arsi zone is one of the areas to which high input exotic wheat varieteis were intensively introudced. Through time, the introduction of exotic varietes of wheat totally displaced the indigenous varieteis of durum wheat, converting almost all farms into monoculture system. Gonde locality is one of the areas to which the practice of green revolution was first introduced. As a result, it remained with monculture system and lost huge level of crop diversity within and among species. To date, bread wheat is the most farm dominating crop. Farmers at present are challenged with shortage of planting materials, particularly as the price of chemical inputs is shooting up, and as the pace of replacing weaker high-input varietes with new ones is getting slow. The following are among the causes that at the intial stage created great bias Land preparation at Gonde, Hetosa district toward growing bread wheat: low labor and capital requirements compared with other crops or livestock managing; better market access as compared to other crops; better yield as compared to other crops; availability of improved varieties and agricultural farm machineries, as well as chemical inputs required for monocropping; and suitability of the topography for agricultural mechanization. In fact, Hetosa historically is a lcoation for green revolution to have its birth in Ethiopia. Initially, the Italians introduced the production of exotic wheat varieties at a commercial scale, as a first trial to adapt modern agriculture in the country itself. This was followed by the agricultural extesnion program known as the Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU) in the sixties through distribution, adaptation and multiplication of exotic wheat varieties and dessimination of agricultural input packages. This made Hetosa district the pioneer for implementing modern extension program in the country. As the elder farmers witness, the negative consequences include: farms are invaded by introduced weeds, insect pests and diseaess; cropping pattern is disrupted and cultural practices are changed, like for example, no crop rotation is practised; pests and weeds are becoming resistant to chemicals; soil fertility is getting depleted; and as a result farmers face economic and food security risks. 43

47 Facing these challenges, farmers are now trying to diversify crops on their farms. To break weed cycle, they have started practising crop rotation where some displaced local crops such as faba bean, field pea, sorghum and rapeseed are coming back to farms. According to discussions made with researchers of Kulumsa Agricultural Research Centre, restoration of cropping patterns through crop rotation already brought a significant economic and agronomic advantage to the farmers. Mixed cropping, however, is still rarely practised in Gonde kebele. Fallowing is unthinkable in the area due to shortage of farmland caused by crop expansion Crop calander There are two cropping seasons that extend from June to December as a main season and March to July as a shorter one. The following table shows the crop calendar for farm activities especially for the main cropping season - genna Chemical input use Gonde area is known for its intensive use of modern varieties together with heavy application of chemical inputs. Besides the use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides such as 2,4-D, U-46, Topik, and Puma Super are widely applied. There is an increasing use of fungicides to manage the most wide spread diseases of bread wheat such as yellow, stem and leaf rusts. The use of organic fertilizers like farmyard manure and compost is mostly limited to plots near the homestead. Currently, the agricultural extension program is also advocating for wider use of compost and other sources of organic fertilizers. 44

48 3.2.5 Seed supply system and related services in Gonde locality Gonde locality is much closer to important local organizations such as Asela Malt Factory and a branch of the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise( ESE). Some of the farmers get access to certified seeds through their Union (Hetosa Farmers Union). Although the linkage it has with farmers and the contributions it makes are quite minimal, Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center is another potential partner to farmers. According to farmers, more reliable stakeholders in the area are the Arsi Rural Development Bank (ARDB) and the recently reorganized Hetosa Farmers Union. The provision of all sorts of agricultural inputs and credit services for the community and the surrounding districts rests on only this single Union. Regardless of the increasingly growing demand for malt in the country, the Asela Malt Factory is not encouraging local production of malt barley, but in the contrary imports thousands of tones of malt barley every year. FAO and SG 2000 are the only organizations that have seed programs in some kebeles of the district Gender Differentiation in Farm Activities Labour for farm activities is based on family members as differntiated by age and sex during land preparation, planting, weeding, harvesting, transporting, threshing, winnowing, for grain storage and marketing. Participation of women during land preparation is while they have equal role during weeding. In general, women s role in decreasing order of contribution is in weeding, threshing, harvesting, planting, and land preparation. Similarly, children have roles to play during crop management in fields like in protecting crops from being attacked by birds and livestock that graze in plots adjacent to the crop fields. Women and children are also largely involved in vegetable production. Although men have an overall responsibility to all farm operations, the decision to grow and/or change a new variety is the decision of both men and women. 45

49 2 2 Weeding, harvesting and threshing are commonly operated by farm machineries and, thus, the role of both gender groups is almost equal and minimal. 46

50 3.3. Crop Diversity Assessment Diversity of Crop Types As situations indicate farmers are gradually trying to get out of the trap of monoculture by increasing crop diversity on their farms. Record from the current survey revealed that the ocurence of diveristy among and within crops is increasing from time to time (see table below). Regardless of its increasing vulnerability to disease pressure, the exotic bread wheat is the most dominant on farms (70% farm coverage), while indigenous durum wheat is totally out of production in the survey area. 47

51 The program of wheat research is strongly dependent on exotic advanced materials from International Research Centers such as CIMMYT and ICARDA, and the strategy is to adapt these materials to wide agro-ecological conditions of the country. Besides, the variety selection process does not involve farmers, and focuses on only grain yield level and disease reactions under on-station conditions. According to discussions made with both women and men farmers, the wheat variety Kubsa is the most popular in the area. It was released 2001/02 from the National Agricultural Research Organization, and is the only better alternative for yield, adaptation, and disease resistance. Farmers also appreciate this variety as easily threshable (male farmers) and for its higher flour yield and better taste (female farmers). Although there is only one late maturing type of sorghum in the study area, sorghum has a multipurpose use value, including its use as source of fuel wood and material for construction. The most appreciated barley variety is farmers variety or a landrace known as Aruso, particularly for its tolerance to harsh conditions and resistance to barley shoot fly Four Square Analysis of Crop Types In attempt to identify the high priority crops, group of farmers have been asked to critically categorize the major crops in the kebele based on area coverage and number of households producing the crops. Small areas, in this context, refer to crops grown by a household on plots of land having an area less than or equal to 0.25 ha (locally termed as 1 timad). Large areas refer to crops grown covering an area of ha of land. 48

52 Table The reasons why crops have variable land allocation, as commented by farmers, include the following: The scenario Some crops are grown by a few households on a large area Many farmers maintain certain crops only on small areas, and some crops grown by a few households Some crops grown for better economic advantage Reasons mentioned by farmers Due to weed problems resulting from monocropping, farmers use crop rotation to break the weed cycle on large farms. Rapeseed, field pea, and linseed are used as a weed-breaking crop for wheat and are also economically beneficial. Tef is grown on a larger area by farmers who have large family size for labor to carry out the tediousness of agronomic practices of tef. Tef also is an important cash crop for those who afford to produce it. Due to shortage of land, sorghum is grown on a small plot closer to residence for home consumption alone. Faba bean and potato are grown closer to residences for diversifying crops for household consumption. Although the selling price is somewhat attractive, lentil and haricot bean are grown in small land size and by a few households due to land shortage and lower yield. Bread wheat for example is suitable for the nature of the farms, some varieties are well adapted to the area, have better yield and market, chemical inputs are available. Barley as an indigenous crop to the study area is well adapted and is also grown for prestige and as an important component of household sources of food Analysis of Genetic Diversity of Priority Crop According to the information from elderly farmers, indigenous durum wheat by large, emmer wheat and naked barley to some extent used to cover all wheat farms before the introduction of bread wheats. As indigenous wheat diversity is pushed off farms because of moncropping, farmers options for planting materials shrunk through time. The vigour and life span of most of the introduced bread wheat varieties hardly extends beyond 4 years, which means just four planting seasons. This necessitates increasing the frequency of introducing new varieties. However, this has always been beyond the capacity of the crop research institution in the country. 49

53 Considering the present condition of farmers and the cropping pattern, it is extremely desirable to promote crop diversification. Durum wheat, sorghum, barley and maize for example, can be cereal crops of priority for Gonde kebele. As a break crop, highland legumes such as faba bean, field pea and lentil, and highland oil crops such as rapeseed and linseed deserve attention. In addition to their contribution to soil fertility and household food supply, these crops are important sources of cash for the farmers. Most of these crops lack support and investment for their improvement being almost neglected crops by the formal sector. Nevertheless, they are vital especially for the poor farmers because of their contribution household food security, source of cash income, and for their suitability for low input production. Durum wheat, for example, can be taken as a crop of top priority for the Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB) program and the Farmers Field School (FFS) in this regard would play an important role. The white-seeded wheats are preferred by urban consumers and are largely targeted for marketing. During the survey, it was found that dishes prepared from the white-seeded wheat are largely used for special occasions just because the dish appears more appealing. There were a number of varieties of bread wheat introduced to the area over the past four decades. At the moment, almost all of them are obsolete and do not exist on farms. There were a few indigenous durum wheat varieties that were in use during those early days. Unfortunately, it is impossible to make detailed comparison between and among the varieties of wheat that were in use. Current farmers, who were mostly too young during those days, have short memory about the performance of the cultivars. Most elder farmers interviewed have the same memory about those varieties just because the life span of the varieties was so short, exceeding not 4 years of potential use, and secondly farmers were not involved during the selection and evaluation of those varieties and their views not 50