Toward Traditional Knowledge Transfer for Resilient Small Farming Systems in the Caribbean. L. Barbara Graham

Transcription

1 Toward Traditional Knowledge Transfer for Resilient Small Farming Systems in the Caribbean L. Barbara Graham

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3 Toward Traditional Knowledge Transfer for Resilient Small Farming Systems in the Caribbean

4 The presentation of the material in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Caribbean Agriculture Research and Development Institute concerning the legal or development status of any country. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by CARDI. The views expressed in this document are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of CARDI and IICA (E-Book) CARDI 2016 CARDI supports and encourages the use and dissemination of the information in this document. This information may be downloaded and printed for private use, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non-commercial services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of CARDI as the source and copyright holder is given and that CARDI s endorsement of users views, products or services is not implied in any way. Cover and book design by Kathryn Duncan This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union.

5 Preface The purpose of the Publication is to contribute to an understanding of the determinants of good practices for resilience in small farming systems in the Caribbean. Climate change and the predictions on the impacts on the natural resources in agro-ecological systems have added another dimension to vulnerabilities and resilience in farming systems. Warming of temperatures and rainfall variability with predictions of longer droughts with drier months reported by Caribbean climate change scientists and described by small farmers as blurred rainfall have resulted in varied responses in traditional practices, including innovations. Even so for many farmers, farm data is showing lower yields in some crops, higher costs of production in small livestock systems and loss of profitability in small farm investments. Farmers are also reducing on the area under production in order to contain rising costs for agri-inputs to control pests and to stabilize soil functions. Failure to act in a time sensitive manner that ensures climate change adaptive capacities for resilience, through good practices in traditional farming systems could pose a threat to food security and sustainable livelihoods in farming communities with undesirable social consequences at the national level. The document captures and shares the experiences of small farmers in the diversity of farming systems across the subregion. It also provides an understanding of why traditional knowledge application in farming practices is the most suited to building resilience with climate change. Furthermore it identifies broad thematic areas for consolidating adaptive capacities to reduce vulnerabilities linked to geography, topography and climate at the farm level. The document is targeted to small farmers and their production practices on the farm. However development partners, research and extension personnel and students with an interest in aspects of sustainable development will find the material useful or engaging. In this manner persons with an interest in sustainable food security and sustainable livelihoods based on traditional practices as defined in the SDGs (2015) will find food for thought in terms of setting priorities for good practices toward resilient small farming systems. Sensitivity to time is emphasized as an important parameter in building adaptive capacities for resilience in farming systems with vulnerabilities to climate shocks. Small farmers in the sub-region are vulnerable to economic shocks including the unpredictability in domestic agriculture markets with high levels of imports such as the Caribbean sub-region. Proof of compatibility of traditional farming productivity versus conventional farming, with agri-business investments including farm credit and agro-food markets could be an issue. Hence among the proposals for diffusion and integration of traditional knowledge in farming practices to the wider farming population is the design and undertaking of a study on the economics of traditional farming systems. Other proposals for a regional approach will also need to be discussed and prioritized. Acknowledgement of support and guidance in the undertaking of this work is due to Caribbean Agriculture Research and Development Institute (CARDI) and Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA) Headquarters in the Caribbean; CARDI Country Officers for providing clarification and additional information on practices in the respective countries, the Rural Agriculture Development Authority (RADA) in Jamaica for photographs and illustrations based on its rich history on traditional farming practices; the National Meteorological Offices in Jamaica and in Saint Lucia and the Water Resources Management Agency in Saint Lucia for downscaled series rainfall data. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN i

6 Contents Figures Tables Boxes Acronyms Executive Summary Chapter 1 Overview of the Policy and Strategic Framework for Caribbean Action 1.1 Introduction 1.1 Current situation 1.3 Justification 1.4 Methodology 1.5 Limitations Chapter 2. Perspectives on resilient farming systems 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Adaptive capacity of traditional farming systems 2.3 Climate change and resilience and traditional farming 2.4 Sustaining the biological components of the farming systems for resilience 2.5 Conclusions Chapter 3. Traditional knowledge and sustainable farming 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Traditional knowledge transfer and systems approach 3.3 An approach to traditional knowledge transfer 3.4 Conclusions Chapter 4 Farming systems in the Caribbean 4.1 Introduction Types of farming systems 4.2 Classification used in farming systems in the Caribbean 4.3 Socio-economic characteristics 4.4 Youth in Caribbean small farming 4.5 Conclusions Chapter 5 Climate Change and Farming Systems 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Global trends in climate change 5.3 Caribbean trends 5.4 Priorities to build adaptive capacities in farming systems Selected specific country indicators of changes Strategies for adaptation to climate 5.5 Rainfall unpredictability and variability in small farming 5.6 Conclusions Chapter 6 Institutional framework for traditional knowledge transfer 6.1 Introduction 6.2 CARDI Research and Development on APP commodities 6.3 Conclusions iv viii ix x xii ii

7 Chapter 7 Summary of findings on traditional farming 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Characteristics of APP farmers 7.3 State of traditional farming Trinidad and Tobago Antigua and Barbuda Barbados Belize Dominica Grenada Guyana Haiti Jamaica Saint Lucia St. Kitts and Nevis St. Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname The Bahamas 7.4 Main conclusions Introduction Farmers perceptions and actions Institutional network for climate adaptation in farming systems Chapter 8 Options for improvements in good practices 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Water management Determinants of harvested water Improving rainwater harvesting experiences in traditional farming Storage in soil forintermittent dry days Public infrastructure for rainwater harvesting for farming Managing water use for efficiency 8.3 Soil Management Mulch and compost Compost Vermicomposting 8.4 Pest Management Cultural practices Biological control measures Physical measures of control 8.5 Managing plant varieties with resistance Introduction Parameter for resistance to drought Regional approach and governance system for food and forage genetic material with drought resistance Chapter 9 Systems approach for sustainable resilient farming 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Program approach for diffusion and integration TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN iii

8 Figures Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure 6. Figure 7. Resilience and adaptive capacity Schematic of farming systems Dominance of small farming in the Caribbean Typical hillside farmer terrain Traditional knowledge in DRR on hillside farm Hillside farmer planting on contours Hillside farmer watering from stored water Figure 8. Youth participation in farming (2007) Figure 9. Youth participation in farming (2010) Figure 10. Youth participation in APP population (2014) Figure 11. Figure 12. Figure 13. Trends in global warming Predictions on global warming and insect pests in agro-ecosystem Rainfall trends in the Caribbean Figure 14. Rainfall distribution map- Jamaica ( ) Figure 15. Rainfall variability in wet areas drying in Jamaica ( ) Figure 16. Warming temperature with climate- Jamaica ( ) Figure 17. Rising temperature in Guyana ( ) Figure 18. Mean monthly rainfall for Saint Lucia ( ) Figure 19. Annual monthly rainfall variability in Saint Lucia ( ) Figure 20. Annual monthly rainfall variability in St Vincent and the Grenadines ( ) 28 Figure 21. Annual monthly rainfall in Guyana ( ) Figure 22. Annual monthly rainfall in Dominica ( ) Figure 23. Gender in Caribbean small farming (2014) Figure 24. Figure 25. Figure 26a. Figure 26b. Figure 27. Figure 28. Figure 29. Caribbean farmer awareness of new technologies Farmers affected by weather-related changes Changes made due to weather Country responses to weather Annual monthly rainfall variability in Trinidad and Tobago ( ) APP Cassava Farmer in Trinidad and Tobago Sweet potatoes Figure 30. Annual Rainfall variability in Antigua and Barbuda ( ) 41 Figure 31. Figure 32. Figure 33. Neem for sweet potato weevil control in Antigua and Barbuda Appearance of sweet potato blight on tuber and foliage of plant Small rainwater harvesting pond in Antigua and Barbuda iv

9 Figure 34. Figure 35 Figure 36. Figure 37. Figure 38 Figure 39. Annual monthly rainfall variability in Barbados Installing steel frame in row Row cover and netting in PAS for hot pepper Fully grown lettuce in aquaponics Lettuce in styrofoam raft in deepwater culture Poor pastures for Sheep Figure 40. Annual monthly rainfall pattern in Belize ( ) 49 Figure 41. Figure 42. Figure 43. Figure 44. Figure 45. Figure 46. Canavalia spps as crop cover for fallow in Belize Mulch in land preparation in Belize Row planting in corn intercropped with beans in Belize Row planting corn with drip in Belize Tunnel structure type greenhouse in Belize Tunnel structure greenhouse with drainage Figure 47. Annual monthly rainfall in Dominica ( ) 52 Figure 48. Figure 49. Figure 50. Figure 51. Figure 52. Figure 53. Figure 54. Figure 55. Figure 56. Figure 57. Figure 58. Figure 59. Land preparation and cassava planting Type of greenhouse covering Types of greenhouse covering Growing in pots IPM tactic for pest control in Dominica. Media and pot culture evaluation in IPM in Dominica Dried coconut branches as shade against heat stress Sterilization of recycled growing media on farm Recycled soil with temperature gauge Contour farming TKT choice for DRR in Dominica Contour farming and step drains in vegetables as TKT choice in Dominica Capacity building field exercise for application of mulch and compost Siting rooftop for vegetable garden in Dominica Figure 60. Annual monthly rainfall variability in Grenada ( ) 59 Figure 61. Figure 62. Figure 63. Aquaponics on farm in Grenada Stored bought water for use on farm Compost making on farm in Grenada Figure 64. Annual monthly rainfall pattern in Guyana ( ) 62 Figure 65. Innovation for water and feed management in livestock 64 Figure 66. Annual monthly rainfall variability in Haiti ( ) 65 Figure 67. Figure 68. Plantains in monoculture Plantains intercropped with vegetables cover Figure 69. Annual rainfall changes in Jamaica ( ) 67 Figure 70. Typical dryland farm with mulch layout and water storage device 68 TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN v

10 Figure 71. Figure 72. Figure 73. Figure 74. Figure 75. Figure 76a. Figure 76b. Figure 77. Figure 78. Hot peppers in dryland farming Traditional knowledge systems application on hillside farms Alley cropping for land management in hillside farms Contour barriers for reduced vulnerability in hillside farms Schematic of layout for planting on contours Innovations in greenhouse for water harvesting Traditional and climate smart innovation in water harvesting Water catchment and storage devices used by livestock farmers Mix of traditional and innovation in livestock Figure 79. Annual monthly rainfall variability in Saint Lucia ( ) 74 Figure 80. Figure 81. Figure 82. Figure 83. Figure 84. Figure 85. Figure 86. Cassava in pure stands in Saint Lucia Cassava intercropped with pigeon peas in Saint Lucia Sweet potato in pure stands in Saint Lucia Standard protected greenhouse with open sides Innovative growing of forage in pots for water saving Forage in storage in backyard Goats in housing in backyard in Saint Lucia Figure 87. Annual monthly rainfall variability in St Kitts and Nevis ( ) 78 Figure 88. Open greenhouse in St Kitts and Nevis with trellis system 79 Figure 89. Annual monthly rainfall variability in St Vincent and the Grenadines ( ) 80 Figure 90. Yield performance in nine sweet potato cultivars on different soils 81 Figure 91. Annual rainfall pattern in Suriname ( ) Figure 92. Annual rainfall pattern in The Bahamas ( ) Figure 93. Figure 94. Figure 95. Figure 96. Figure 97. Figure 98. Figure 99. Figure 100. Figure 101. Figure 102. Figure 103. Figure 104. Figure 105. Figure 106. Basic principles of rainwater runoff harvesting Basic components of rainwater harvesting systems Annual cumulative storage in Dominica with RCE 90 percent Annual cumulative storage in Barbados with RCE 90 percent Innovations of rainwater runoff harvesting among resource poor farmers Rooftop rainwater harvesting on local farm Montserrat Rooftop runoff harvesting system with pump on small farm Typical greenhouse with rainwater harvesting system Storage of harvested water in ferro-cement tank in Dominica Requirements to build ferro-cement tank Typical natural slope for rainwater harvesting Schematic representation of layout for slope as catchment Standard layout of a runoff plot Check dam for participatory approach Saint Lucia vi

11 Figure 107. Figure 108. Figure 109. Figure 110. Figure 111. Figure 112. Figure 113. Figure 114 Figure 115 Figure 116. Figure 117. Figure 118. Figure 119. Figure 120. Figure 121. Figure 122. Figure 123. Figure 124. Figure 125. Figure 126. Figure 127. Figure 128 Figure 129 Figure130 Figure 131 Figure 132 Water catchment system for participatory approach- St Kitts and Nevis Pond and requirements for construction -Antigua and Barbuda Contour bunds for water in soil Semi-circular bunds for water in soil Use of planting dates for crop water use efficiency Drought resistant varieties for efficient use of water Benefits of mulch in dryland farming Benefits of mulch in conventional and conservation agriculture Mulch in bananas Paper mulch an alternative in organic farming Typical mulch characteristic Typical grass mulch Typical compost appearance Lettuce as waste for compost Structure of the compost pile Fresh chicken manure for manure tea and fertilizer Manure tea from fresh plants Red wigglers in vermicomposting Onion as companion crop with broccoli Mexican marigold for companion crop French marigold for control of whitefly French marigold as nematicide Marigold for bio-fumigation Common natural enemies in biological control Solarization in physical control of pests Trapping for insect control TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN vii

12 Tables Table 1: Table 2: Table 3: Table 4: Table 5: Climate Change Vulnerability Index for Caribbean Countries Crop water needs of selected APP crops and livestock Simple calculations for amount of water stored in rainwater harvesting Materials to make ferro-cement tank Effect of mulch on average nutrient content of selected crops viii

13 Boxes Box 1: Box 2: Box 3: Box 4: Box 5: Box 6: Box 7: Box 8: Box 9: Box 10: Box 11: Box 12: Box 13: Box 14: Box 15: Box 16: Traditional knowledge defined Definition of traditional farming systems Agro-ecological systems defined FAO definition of farming systems Sustainable Development Goals (2015) and traditional farming Predictions on climate change, rainfall and temperatures in the Caribbean Climate Change Vulnerability Index explained Youth perspectives on climate change on poor pastures Tunnel structures type and cost Dryland farming defined - Jamaica Online access to rainfall forecast in major farming areas - Belize Rainwater harvesting defined Design rainfall defined Adequacy of storage for crop water needs during traditional dry months Simple calculations for potential rainwater water harvested Flour preparation in IPM TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN ix

14 Acronyms APP ACP CABA CaFAN CAFY CANROP CDB CDEMA CGIAR CARDI CARICOM CARIFORUM CCCCC CCS CCVI CDB CDEMA CIKARD CIMH CSA CSGM DRM DRR EDF EU FAOUN FFS Agriculture Policy Program Africa Caribbean and Pacific Caribbean Agri-business Association Caribbean Farmers Association Network Caribbean Agriculture Forum for Youth Caribbean Network of Rural Women Producers Caribbean Development Bank Caribbean Disaster and Emergency Management Agency Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research Caribbean Agriculture Research and Development Institute Caribbean Community Caribbean Forum Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre CARICOM Community Secretariat Climate Change Vulnerability Index Caribbean Development Bank Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency Centre for Indigenous Knowledge for Agriculture and Rural Development Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology Climate Smart Agriculture Climate Studies Group Mona Disaster Risk Management Disaster Risk Reduction European Development Fund European Union Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Farmer Field School x

15 GCMs GEF Global Climate Models Global Environment Facility GEF SGP UNDP Global Environment Facility Small Grant Program United Nations Development Program ICARDA IICA IPPC IPM LEIA LACCP MALMR MOA MSMEs NMHSs PAS RADA RCMs SDGs SLAFY TKT TMV SLAFY UNEP UNFCCC UNECLAC UWI WBCCK WIPO International Centre for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture International Plant Protection Convention Integrated Pest Management Low external input agriculture Latin America and Caribbean Climate Program Ministry of Agriculture Land and Marine Resources Ministry of Agriculture Medium small and micro size enterprises National Meteorological and Hydrology Services Protected Agriculture System Rural Agriculture Development Authority Regional Climate Models Sustainable Development Goals Saint Lucia Agriculture Forum for Youth Traditional Knowledge Transfer Tobacco Mosaic Virus Saint Lucia Agriculture Forum for Youth United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change United Nations Economic Council for Latin America and the Caribbean University of the West Indies World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Centre World Intellectual Property Organization TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN xi

16 Executive Summary CONTEXT The process to develop the publication for resilient small farming systems in the Caribbean was guided by established sustainable development principles set by the Conference on Sustainable Development (Brundtland, 1987). Also guiding the process was the definition of traditional knowledge as provided in Article 8 of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Traditional knowledge in farming and agriculture is recognized in the second of the two basic concepts of the Conference on Sustainable Development. In the text this concept makes reference to limits on technology on the environment ability to meet present and future needs with ecological, social, economic and institutional considerations. In addition the second goal of the Sustainable Development Goals (2015) targets doubling agriculture productivity and incomes of farmers, ensuring sustainable food production systems and resilient practices, maintaining genetic diversity and utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge. Farming systems are the outcomes of the application of the practices of the science of agriculture and technology for food and feed production. The objective is to ensure sustainable food and nutrition security for all peoples and feed systems for livestock. In this respect the context of resilient farming systems is the same as for sustainable development and for the achievement of food and nutrition security through sustainable agriculture as found in the second Goal of the SDGs (2015). PERSPECTIVES ON RESILIENT FARMING SYSTEMS Chapters 2 and 3 provide information on the link between the science of agriculture in farming systems and the capacity for traditional knowledge application to sustain biological functions of the agro-ecological systems in a manner that reduces vulnerability in farming systems through the building of adaptive capacities for resilience. The importance of adaptive capacity is reinforced at this early stage due to the strong indicators of the threats to what has been the norm in how the natural resources in geographic agro-ecosystems function to support farming systems. These two Chapters also explain the systems approach to farming and the necessity of establishing processes on the farm to enhance the success of targeted improvements using good practices in traditional knowledge. VULNERABILITIES IN FARMING SYSTEMS AND IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE Chapters 4 and 5 describe the long standing vulnerabilities in farming systems including farm size, topography, sociological and socio-economic circumstances of farmers which can and have contributed to increased exposures and sensitivities to vulnerabilities and unsustainability in farming systems. The additional threats brought on by climate change as perceived by farmers and the strategic responses of relevance to adaptation and resilient farming expressed in broader framework documents are briefly referenced. At this stage the publication begins to describe practices based on traditional knowledge and innovations influenced by traditional knowledge, which farmers in the region are already using. The strong evidence of rainfall variability and warming temperatures regionally and at the country levels are presented as well as the geographic differences in these climatic changes as there are implications for differentiations in coordination of field research in areas such as management of plant varieties under drought conditions or IPM approaches. INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT FOR CARIBBEAN SMALL FARMING Chapter 6 introduces the institutional support and capacities in the region to provide technical assistance including knowledge building at the farmer level and guidance in research aspects for resilient farming systems. CARDI s role as the lead research and development institution providing leadership in traditional knowledge transfer and the partnership arrangements are described. STATE OF TRADITIONAL FARMING IN THE CARIBBEAN AND OPTIONS FOR TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER Chapters 7 and 8 provide concise descriptions of the state of traditional farming in the respective countries including the practices and how they are carried out, the innovations used by farmers to respond to changes in rainfall patterns xii

17 and the challenges they continue to experience, some with increased levels, as weather changes. Droughts, increase in pests and diseases with higher cost to control infestation and to access water for the farm including infrastructure costs in rainwater harvesting, changing of crops and reduction in areas of production, higher cost of feeds due to poor pastures, and uncertainties in planting dates as rainfall pattern changes, are some of the challenges. with insect nettings, drips and mulch, to various types of greenhouses, some with provisions for different types of nettings, hydroponics, rainwater harvesting systems with solar and showing evidence of good management with profitability. Due to the availability of the 2015 online publication titled Tropical Greenhouse Growers Manual ( options for protected agriculture system for resilient farming were dealt with only in brief. The options provided to reduce vulnerabilities and to build adaptation to climate change are focused on principles and approaches for resilience in the farming system and not on a specific commodity. This is deliberate as focus on management practices for individual crops or individual livestock farmer does not account for the effects of the practice on the entire farming system and can cause farmers to lose sight of the additional and longer-term benefits to the entire system s capacity to remain resilient. Furthermore the farmer is effectively managing a unit of land and not just a crop and particularly so traditional farming companion benefits to the soil environment for microbial functionality is of extreme significance to sustainable plant growth over the longer term. Because many of the innovation mentioned were not described in the relevant base documents some seemingly smart practices could not be evaluated for longevity and were not elaborated on in the options. The focus on water management primarily on harvesting and managing water utilization as well as soil water use efficiencies through cropping associations, application of mulch and compost and other conservation practices are dealt with fairly extensively. Because of the strong relationship between water and soil in farming systems there were times when these were brought together. Intercropping for efficient soil water or nutrient use often crossed over with natural IPM tactics such as companion planting. These of course are some of the special benefits of traditional knowledge application in farming systems. PROTECTED AGRICULTURE SYSTEMS Modification of the environment through protected agriculture systems was described in many of the experiences of farmers. Many of the innovations mentioned were wide and varied from row planting A REGIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR RESILIENT FARMING Chapter 9 briefly describes the need to consider a broader implementation framework approach. It will be challenging, if not beyond the resources and current support available to small farmers, for the large populations and those most vulnerable to derive the optimum benefits from traditional knowledge in farming systems, that could counter the predictions of threats from climate changes. Such an achievement would be particularly difficult in the circumstances of entirely rainfed farmers operating on hillsides. A broader national and regional framework needs to be in place. This could take many forms including a broader governance framework for sustainable household food security and livelihoods. Strategically developed, the framework would highlight the substantive benefits to the state of natural resources for sustainability of farming systems and associated enterprises over the longer term; its contribution to landscape development in climate smart community based programs; to management of the forest for food and forages and for renewable energy for farm production activities as well as controlled systems for rainwater harvesting. Most significantly is the potential benefit to the preservation of a soil environment that sustains microbial functions for plant growth, as plants are the only systems that can trap light energy and later transform it for economic productivity. Suggestions for a Programme Framework are shown below: 1. Promote organic farming as an enterprise with traditional knowledge approaches as the brand under which farmers will operate and work towards standards that satisfy certification of organic farms. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN xiii

18 2. Promote agro parks based on traditional knowledge production practices and using climate smart approaches such as solar and wind. The concept of agro-parks as good tools for promoting investment in farming is reaping a level of success in Jamaica. Agro-parks are also highly recommended by FAO in the drive towards household food security. They lend themselves to innovation systems and can accommodate and integrate all aspects of traditional knowledge application on the farm and in valuechains and are commercially viable. 5. Create incentives for agri-chemical suppliers that sell bio-pesticides, encourage standards for labeling of natural pesticides and promote research and development in plants with possible bio-pesticide properties, at the level of institutions. 6. Promote and encourage research on the economics of traditional knowledge application in small farming and extending this to the entire enterprise (plantlivestock association) and not just on individual commodities. 3. Promote a landscape approach to traditional knowledge practices especially in protected areas, create legume parks for agri-tourism and encourage permaculture as part of forest protection and stability of ecosystem services. 7. Develop and implement a Communication Strategy to impact a participatory approach to encourage farmers to adopt best practices in farming systems based on the understanding of the principles of resilience and productivity in agro-ecosystems. 4. Promote selective and interesting traditional knowledge practices for introduction into school garden programs and competitions (companion planting, crop rotation, multi-species cropping systems for food security, forage and agro-ecosystem stability, integrated farming livestock and crops, legume farms for forage using trees with attractive legume flowers). These require relatively low maintenance and will be more suited to young people. These proposals have implications for funding and technical assistance in a number of areas that would need to be developed into projects. It is possible that with the right fit into the sustainable development framework and with people-centered adaptation to climate change some of these ideas could be developed into project sufficiently ready to attract funding under the Adaptation Fund, the GEF, the Green Climate Fund or from those other partners with interest in food and nutrition security through resilient farming. xiv

19 CHAPTER 1 Overview of the policy and institutional framework for sustainable farming systems in the Caribbean 1.1 INTRODUCTION The Caribbean Action under the Programme entitled Agriculture Policy Programme (APP) with focus on the Caribbean and Pacific is funded under the 10th European Development Fund (EDF) and executed through a Contribution Agreement signed between the European Union (EU) and the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA). The APP is being implemented in collaboration with the Caribbean Agriculture Research and Development Institute (CARDI) and the CARICOM Secretariat (CCS). The specific objective of the Action is to contribute to enhance regional capabilities in the Caribbean and the Pacific and to inter-regional capabilities of the agricultural sectors in eradicating poverty. The specific objective is to increase the capability of Regional Agricultural Development Organization of the Caribbean and the Pacific regions to address the development of smallholder agriculture. The specific outcomes of the Action are expected to improve: Policy regimes and incentive schemes for smallholders in the regional development strategies to be achieved through strengthening regional agricultural development policy and strategy. Food security at national and local level by increasing production and productivity of selected commercial and nutritionally-valuable agricultural produce by using technological and organizational solutions that address specific development constraints of smallholder groups and rural communities through improving the transfer and adoption of research technologies and Regional institutional capacity through contributing to agricultural enterprises development through improved market linkages. These outcomes are to be achieved through actions taken in three components namely: Strengthening regional agricultural development policy and strategy Improving the transfer, adoption and research technologies and Contribute to agricultural enterprises development through improved market linkages. The main beneficiaries are stakeholders in the (15) CARIFORUM States as follows: Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, St. Kitts and Nevis, St Vincent and the Grenadines, The Bahamas, Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname. The stakeholders are as follows: Small producers and entrepreneurs including Medium small and micro size enterprises (MSMEs) in the Caribbean, particularly those organized associations and networks, including but not limited to Caribbean Farmers Networks (CaFAN), Caribbean Agri-business Association (CABA), Caribbean Network of Rural Women Producers (CANROP) and Caribbean Agriculture Forum for Youth (CAFY), to enhance their managerial and technical capacities. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 1

20 Policy advisors, technicians, and Extension services in the Ministries of Agriculture and producer organizations in CARIFORUM to enhance capacity for creating the enabling policy environment for small producers and Regional agricultural development institutions, including but not limited to CARIFORUM, CARDI, University of the West Indies (UWI) and IICA to strengthen capacity for delivering support services to small producers and processors 1.2 CURRENT SITUATION There is a wide variety of innovative practices and traditional knowledge use in agriculture in the Caribbean region by farmers and farmer groups, agro processors and other stakeholders. Many of these vary from country to country and if such knowledge and practices can be shared among regional countries, it can improve the sustainability of agriculture in the region. This information needs to be captured and documented for sustainability of agricultural production. Based on the above, during 2014 a baseline survey of farmers, youth and women s groups and processors was conducted to collect primary data on farmers, bio data, information on new and improved technologies used, production data and information on climate change adaptation capacity. The preliminary analysis of the survey results pointed to some critical findings with respect to respondents perceptions and practices. These findings will be used as a base to identify and provide more detailed information on the specific farmer traditional knowledge and practices and innovative practices applied in general for enhanced farm productivity, with particular focus on responding to climate change impacts, and in particular for the targeted commodity groups prioritized under the APP. 1.3 JUSTIFICATION This activity is essential to complete the process started with the APP country baseline surveys in order to obtain a snapshot of the status of the agriculture industry in the various countries in CARIFORUM, with a focus on the priority APP commodities, including roots and tubers, cereal and grain legumes, hot peppers, vegetables grown under protected agriculture systems, and bananas and small ruminants. The information provided by the baseline has already been used to design validation trials, developments of improved technological farming systems packages and training programmes for stakeholders under Component 2 of the APP. It will also establish the baseline without APP to measure the results with APP for the several activities to be implemented under C2. The preparation of a publication that presents the findings of the baseline and augment or complements these findings with other available information will be an important contribution to expanding the reach of the contribution to the APP and to the knowledge management pool on farming systems in the region. In order to deliver on the expected outputs of Component 2, CARDI engaged the services of a Caribbean agriculture consultant for two months to prepare content for a publication which will present updated reader friendly information for agriculture stakeholders, students and other general interest groups on good farming practices in the region that can be adopted or adapted to build resilience in food and feed production systems. In this respect the publication is in electronic form and is searchable friendly in its descriptions of farmer traditional knowledge and innovative practices. It is designed to promote awareness, enhance understanding and provide current research information in the situation of good sustainable farming practices in the Caribbean. 1.4 METHODOLOGY Approach: Work on the Publication began with a review of the main background document which provided information on Outcome of the APP 2014 baseline survey of farmers, youth groups, women s groups and processors conducted to collect primary data on farmers, bio data, information on innovations, new technologies and weatherrelated changes in small farming. Other documents provided included (a) Baseline Study on Existing Sustainable 2

21 Practices, Models and Technologies used by farmers in Barbados and six countries of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS). (b) Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for Agriculture (c) Smallholder rural producers and climate-smart agricultural production and marketing profile and analysis of 13 English-speaking Caribbean countries, IICA and IFAD ( ). A Regional Consultation on Traditional Farmer Knowledge and Innovative Practices organized undertaken by APP C2 also provided information for inputs into the document. The findings were supplemented by extensive online searches on relevant projects and programs undertaken in the region in support of small farmers including research and development work conducted by CARDI and capacity building programs of the Ministries of Agriculture in traditional knowledge transfer. In view of the predictions of impacts of climate change on agro ecological systems with potential threats to sustainable farming systems extensive reviews were also conducted on indicators of changes in the region. The objective was to begin a process of prioritization of where the best options for adaptation to climate change and resilience existed in small farming systems. There were also many discussions by telephone and Skype with stakeholders across the region on some of the key areas identified as of concern within the different populations and commodity groups. This networking also extended to the National Meteorological Stations in order to access monthly location based rainfall series data in order to substantiate farmers perception of increasingly unpredictable and threatening weather-related events. 1.5 LIMITATIONS The work experienced certain limitations mostly in the quality of the responses on the APP Survey. While the farmers provided an extensive list of on-going activities on the farms, the details of how the activities were carried out were often unclear making it challenging to determine whether a situation was general or specific to one individual. In these circumstances it was difficult to assess the extent to which the system was being impacted. Yields were in general either not reported or reported in a form that did not support a conclusion on performance of the commodity or the practices, innovations or technology that was being applied. On some occasions the commodity being discussed or described was not named. Youth representation was low being under one percent of the respondents resulting in just two young persons making any meaningful contribution. On the other hand CARDI Officers did provide good support to strengthen the information gathered thereby contributing to a body of good quality material for the areas addressed in the publication. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 3

22 CHAPTER 2 Perspectives on resilient farming systems 2.1 INTRODUCTION Resilient farming systems are demonstrated in the capacity of the farm and the farm household within that system to prevent, mitigate or cope with risk and to recover from shocks (environmental, economic, social). It requires an on-going process of time sensitive actions that sustain farm productivity during and after changes that are unfavorable to crop productivity and animal health in the system. This is often described as the adaptive capacity of the farming system. It is a dynamic notion and is achieved by discreet interventions that farmers and their development partners implement onfarm and off-farm to sustain productivity in their farming activities. Critical to the success of achieving adaptive capacity is the ability to measure the level of vulnerability of the farming system to threats and to anticipate the impact and timing of the hazard. Topography, geography, soils and climate, are the main factors of agro-ecological systems that determine exposure to vulnerability of farming systems. These four are often referred to as state factors as their state often govern what happens in agro-ecological systems and particularly how plant life will thrive under changes in conditions or functions of these factors. Socio-economic and socio-cultural circumstances of the farming population are often factors in the sensitivity to the threat or hazard and will also influence vulnerability. Figure 1 below depicts resilience achieved through a process to develop adaptive capacities that sustain the state of terrestrial systems to continue function and provide all the natural services of ecosystems. Figure 1. Vulnerability and Resilience: Adapted from (Carpenter et al 2001)- 4

23 In the same way building adaptive capacities in farming systems is the obvious route to resilient farming. This process requires a time sensitive approach (Smit and Wendell 2002). It also requires the identification and focus on the ability of those components of the farming system that can be enhanced to accommodate or cope with the anticipated changes in the systems. The intention is to ensure the preservation, restoration or improvement of the essential basic structures and functions (IPPC, 2012) of the farming system. As a priority these workings of these functions and structures would be to ultimately contribute to food security and livelihoods and other necessary ecosystems services such as protection of ecosystem water. 2.2 ADAPTIVE CAPACITY OF TRADITIONAL FARMING SYSTEM IS HIGHLY DEPENDENT ON BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS OF AGRO-ECOSYSTEMS Resilient farming systems are highly dependent on the natural resources in agro-ecosystems. Among these natural resources are organisms called decomposers that live mostly in soil or on the soil surface where they feed on and breakdown organic matter into a soluble form that plants can use for growth. Soils that are built on organic matter are referred to as organic soils. They are highly fertile and they can hold much more water than normal and for a longer time than non-organic soils. They do not erode easily during high rainfall events and so they do not loose fertility as easily as soils that are managed using conventional methods such as chemical fertilizers. Plants function best when the soil environment supports the growth of the range of decomposers. In the absence of decomposers there would be no breakdown and large accumulations of dead organic matter would sequester the nutrients required to support plant growth making them unavailable in traditional farming practices. These systems would display weak capacities to survive unfavorable weather, to achieve desirable levels of productivity and would be more restricted in the choice of crops that could be grown. Substances such as carbon, water and nitrogen would not be as readily returned to the agro-ecosystem in the absence of decomposers. Significantly reduced amounts of inorganic substances such as phosphates, carbon dioxide and ammonium would be available in the growing environment of the plants. Organically released minerals for plant growth in this form means that traditional farmers who do not depend on chemical fertilizers to augment soils are able to grow their plants well in enriched soils, high in fertility and well structured for water holding capacity and for reduced landslips and soil erosions during intense rainfall events. These farmers also have the same adequate soil and water conditions to make choices in crop selections and sustain productivity over time while using these more cost effective production methods. 2.3 CLIMATE CHANGE AND RESILIENCE AND TRADITIONAL FARMING The predictions are that climate will create changes that will impact the state of precipitation, soils and temperature regimes in agro-ecosystems. The changes in all three will vary based on location. These predictions add a new dimension to resilience thinking in farming systems due to the fact that functioning of plants, animals and decomposers (the biological components) is determined by geography and topography, climate and soils, the state factors (Jenny 1941; Jenny and Anderson 1947). Climate change is arguably the single most important determinant in all of these factors. The real significance for Caribbean small farming systems is that in terms of geography all the island systems are highly exposed to impacts of annual rainfall events from hurricanes and from three to four months of extended dry periods. In terms of topography thousands of small farmers operate on hillsides across the region. They experience soil erosion, loss of soil fertility and flooding in low-lying areas. Some countries are already experiencing changing temperature regimes and farmers confirm that where there is evidence of higher incidence of pests and diseases the response includes increasingly higher applications of chemical pesticides with lesser inputs of organic pesticides. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 5

24 2.4 SUSTAINING THE BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS OF THE FARMING SYSTEM FOR RESILIENCE The achievement of resilient farming will demand more of those practices that ensure that the farming environment and in particularly the soil and water environment is managed in a manner that consistently build organic soils for plant growth for food and forage in natural agro ecosystem. The selective protection and conservation of genetic resources is another area to be given consideration. Plants are the only organisms capable of trapping light energy for conversion to a form of energy to be used by other organisms. Temperatures are expected to affect the insect populations, which could have an impact on beneficial insect population associations in farming systems or could bring new pests and diseases as agroecosystems change. Insect populations could also change with impact of climate change genetic diversity in farming systems. Temperatures and feed preferences of insects will encourage inward or outward migration of insect pests and other pathogens. On the other hand a developmental approach to build adaptive capacities using targeted good practices in traditional knowledge transfer could contribute to national programs towards resilient farming systems across the region. 2.5 CONCLUSIONS Resilient farming systems are the outcomes of the impact of adaptive capacities that reduce the extent of changes on the systems thereby allowing for preservation and restoration of the system. Traditional knowledge transfer is highly dependent on sustainable healthy organic environment in soils interacting with natural resources (plants, animals and decomposers) in the agro-ecological systems to support plant growth and food productivity in the farming system. Climate change, the dominant state factor in agro-ecosystems, has added a new dimension to resilience in farming systems as based on predictions, natural resources in agro-ecosystems are likely to change as climate itself changes with uncertainties in rainfall amounts, temperature regimes and soils based on geography and topography. Resilience in traditional farming systems for sustainable productivity and livelihoods means building capacities to reduce existing vulnerabilities such as exposure and sensitivities from geography and topography and markets as well as increasingly adjusting practices for adaptation to climate change in agro-ecosystems. Vulnerabilities in farming systems include loss of soil fertility, soil erosion, rapid runoff from high rainfall events resulting in degradation of soil and leaching of minerals due to fertilizer applications and loss of soil microbial organism (decomposers). The degree of exposure and the sensitivity of the separate components or processes of the system influence the vulnerability of a farming system. For example poor organic content insufficient to support microbial life could have a cascading effect on soil quality pushed by farmer response of increasingly higher levels of chemical fertilizers and other soil additives to supply plant nutrients in a form that will ultimately increase unfavourable conditions for microbial life in soils. 6

25 CHAPTER 3 Traditional knowledge and sustainable farming systems 3.1 INTRODUCTION Traditional knowledge is complex and has several definitions (Box 1). It refers to the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities around the world. In the context of farming systems traditional knowledge has one common distinction from all other types of good practices in food production: farming is based on systems of knowledge and practices of indigenous people maintained, developed and passed through centuries from generation to generation. The significance of traditional knowledge in modern approaches to sustainable development and by extension sustainable farming systems for agriculture productivity is well established. i. Almost two decades of work by scientists in the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) to value participatory technology development, using traditional practices and indigenous knowledge of local populations as a starting point. ii. Promotion of indigenous knowledge systems as a critical resource base for the development and the design of sustainable agricultural systems by the Centre for Indigenous Knowledge for Agriculture and Rural Development (CIKARD) iii. Traditional knowledge is providing empirical insight into crop domestication, breeding and management (Conklin (1957; Boster (1994); Nabhan (1985); Brush (2000); Johns and Keen (1986); Salik, Calinese and Knapp (1997). iv. Traditional knowledge is also providing principles and practices of shifting agriculture, agro- ecology, agro -forestry, crop rotation, pest and soil management and other agricultural activities (Brunch R. 1992). BOX 1 Traditional knowledge defined Traditional knowledge refers to the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities around the World Convention on Biological Diversity (Article 8) Traditional knowledge refers to the complex bodies and systems of knowledge, know how, practices and representations which are maintained and developed by local or indigenous communities through the history UNESCO/ICSU (2002) Traditional knowledge is mainly of a practical nature, particularly in such fields as agriculture, fisheries, health, horticulture, forestry and environmental management in general. Traditional knowledge can make a significant contribution to sustainable development. Traditional knowledge is a living body of knowledge that is developed sustained and passed from generation to generation within a community often forming part of its culture or spiritual identity. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 7

26 The literature does not provide a definition for traditional farming systems. However based on the context provided so far the document proposes the following definition: BOX 2 Definition of traditional farming systems Traditional farming systems may be considered a living body of agricultural knowledge passed on from generation to generation. It includes know how and skills in food production practices that have been developed and sustained over decades. Its living nature also means that it is dynamic and innovative yet resilient TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER AND SYSTEMS APPROACH Traditional knowledge transfer in farming is a systems approach with certain common characteristics linked together to protect production processes and the distinctive and sustained nature of the practice. The combination of know how and skills is intended to achieve longer-term generational objectives for agro-ecosystem functionality in sustainable food and livelihoods by adherence to the following: Sustainability and productivity in plant varieties and livestock breeds through cropping patterns in diversified systems and breeding stocks, that mimics the natural biodiversity of agro-ecological systems. BOX 3 Agro-ecological systems defined An agro-ecological system is ecosystem functionality from interactions that include biotic or living crop plant varieties and livestock breed; micro flora (bacteria, fungi) and micro fauna (protozoa, nematodes and arthropods) or decomposers in soil. Abiotic components of the system include water, atmosphere and soil minerals that provide ecosystem services in the form of energy flows as food production chains Integrated pest management and natural biodiversity to control plant and animal pests and diseases. Integrated plant nutrition to sustain and enhance soil fertility and soil structure for enhanced water holding capacity. Optimal return of residue organic material to the land through incorporation of green plant material and manure after land clearing left in the field after the harvest as well as animal waste from organic livestock systems. Minimal disturbance of the soil environment through no tillage or minimum tillage (conservation tillage) to optimize the benefits of soil micro organisms in soil quality. Efficient use of direct rainfall and water stored in soil in order to protect or conserve agro-ecosystem water through cover crops, mulch and compost, planting on mounds and ridges, tiered planting associations above and below ground, shifting cultivation, fallow and rotational fallow. No inputs or limited inputs from chemical fertilizers for enhanced soil fertility or from synthetic pesticides and herbicides for crop protection from pests and diseases and for weed control. Integrated farming systems. The concept of systems approach in knowledge transfer is best explained within the context of a Farming Systems Framework (Figure 2). The schematic adapted from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) shows the external and internal processes that work together to provide tangible results in the production of food and feed to satisfy food and nutrition security and to generate sustainable livelihoods. Based on this schematic FAO also provides a definition for a farming system. 8

27 Figure 2. Schematic Representation of Farming Systems modified with Climate Change BOX 4 FAO definition of farming systems (FAO) defines a farming system as follows: A farming system can be considered as being a population of individual farms that have broadly similar resource bases, enterprise patterns and household livelihoods and constraints and for which similar development strategies and interventions would be appropriate. Source: Adapted from FAO-PEOPLE CENTERED APPROACHES FARMING SYSTEMS Climate is added to the original schematic because of the established fact that climate change is causing changes in rainfall and temperature that are affecting and will continue to affect farming activities through effects on agro-ecological systems. Three sets of variables are noted in the schematic: The first is climate ( rainfall and temperature) based on predictions of future variability, to which all other variables must adapt. The second are policies, and the range of institutions providing tangible and intangible inputs to farm activities and receiving tangible and intangible outputs from the production activities. The third is the combination of production related inputs covering natural, physical, financial, human and social resources. In the broad scheme of global warming agriculture is said to face the greatest threat from climate change (Devendra 2012). For the Caribbean rainfall and temperatures are the two variables of significance. Also of immediate interest in the schematic are the many processes involved in the farming system and the small space given to knowledge management in the schematic. Of further note is that traditional knowledge does not own this space. This is shared space with other types of transfer systems, some of which are not necessarily compatible with traditional knowledge. What this suggests is that traditional knowledge transfer in farming systems demands a targeted approach. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 9

28 3.3 AN APPROACH TO TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER Holder et al (1999) provide an example of a good practice in traditional knowledge management for targeting improvements in established farming systems. This practice is also suited to the transfer of traditional knowledge as it is based on a systems approach. It describes the transfer of Good Practices in Disaster Risk Management (DRM) in a Slash and Burn farming systems in Belize. Critical aspects of the transfer to note are: (a) The target is improvement in an established farming system; (b) The process is practical and is designed using practices and resources familiar to the farmers, (c) The knowledge transferred satisfies the improvements in specific objectives of the farming system and (d) The integration of the knowledge transferred is easily adaptable for use by smallholders. The system described by Holder et al (1999) is a small mixed farming system with low external input agriculture (LEIA). In response to climate change the community agreed on climate adaptation for enhanced sustainability in fodder for sheep production and in vegetables using protected agriculture. Forage production and mulching are two of the traditional practices in Belize. The process employed includes four steps as follows: 1) A description of the farming system in which the traditional practice will be transferred. The farming system is characterized by the use of animal power and natural forms of energy and is almost completely independent of fossil fuel as a form of energy. This system displays the typical systems approach whereby there are a number of processes to the inputs resulting in a loop which results in sustainable outputs of food security at household and community levels, sustainable livelihoods for the community and most importantly the capacity to purchase their own production resources to keep the farming system intact, among other things. The processes involved in the farming system include mixed integrated farming designed to use weather and natural resources efficiently, ensure food security and income generation, sustain a collective approach to marketing, procurement and problem- solving, promote capacity building in crop, soil, animal management, and conservation practices in energy and other environmental services. 2) A description of the menu of practices from the traditional farming system Menu of practices for climate adaptation (weather-related) described in the Slash and Burn include multiple farming systems (dry season forages, forage protein banks, housing for sheep or goats, diversified cropping systems, plastic mulching, tunnel structures and drip irrigation; collective approach to planting schedules and patterns; soil management (organic matter, green manure other crop residue; conservation of energy and environment services, water, energy and biodiversity). 3) Descriptive of a design for system to improve protein feed Sheep raised in improved forages in a system of rotation which assists in control of internal parasites, and prevention of overgrazing. Housing on drained or high ground in order to prevent hoof diseases, extreme weather and thieves and daily supplement to provide balanced nutrition. The processes would include (a) cost estimates for all inputs (b) timeliness and flows in implementation activities (establish improved pastures, fencing timing of readiness of protein banks (d) procedure for maintenance, regular deworming program foot rot monitoring during the wet period (d) the expected benefits such as fecundity and growth rates and the institutional support in terms of improved breeds, capacity building in areas such as intensive pasture management and protein bank development. 4) Descriptive of a crop production system in protected agriculture 10

29 Vegetable grown in a range of protected agriculture practices including tunnel with shading, row planting, and mulch with and without fertigation, pesticides and with on-farm seed nursery. The processes would include: (a) cost estimates for all inputs; (b) timeliness and flows in implementation activities; (c) the expected benefits (d) the institutional support in terms of improved seeds, capacity building in areas such as safe pesticide use, irrigation management mulch and row planting and seedling nursery practices, managing varieties resistant to flooding. 5) Descriptive of a design of a system for vegetables in open field Beds prepared with a fine tilt fertilized with vegetable grown in a range of protected agriculture practices including tunnel with shading, row planting, and mulch with and without fertigation, pesticides and with on-farm seed nursery. The processes would include: (a) cost estimates for all inputs; (b) timeliness and flows in implementation activities; (c) the expected benefits and (d) the institutional support in terms of improved seeds, capacity building in areas such as safe pesticide use, irrigation management, mulch and row planting and seedling nursery practices, managing varieties resistant to flooding. The process described above would be suited to the transfer of almost any traditional practice in the farming system of a commodity group, farmer s organization or an agro-ecological group. However farmers who chose to use this approach must take seriously the systems approach to targeting good practices. This is in line with the FAO Farming System Schematic adopted above, as well as the findings of a FAO 2011 Study on existing sustainable practices that described as ad hoc the approach to integrating sustainable practices in farming systems in the region. 3.4 CONCLUSIONS The benefits of traditional knowledge practices are well established within the global agriculture community and predictions are that climate change will likely increasingly impact knowledge transfer in farming systems. Traditional farming is based on indigenous practices and innovations that do not threaten the integrity of the principle of traditional approach. Transfer of traditional knowledge is a targeted results-oriented approach within an established farming system i.e. a farming system used by a number of farmers and focused on improvements in pest and soil management, agro-forestry, cropping systems and other agro-ecological practices based on tradition. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 11

30 CHAPTER 4 Farming systems in the Caribbean 4.1 INTRODUCTION Farming systems are the outcomes of the application of the practices of the science of agriculture for food production. The objective is to ensure sustainable food and nutrition security for all peoples and feeding systems for livestock. Food and nutrition is ranked in second place in the 2015 Sustainable Development Goals (Box 5). The principles and practices of traditional farming are given recognition in the second of the two basic concepts of sustainable development stated in Box 5. BOX 5 Sustainable Development Goals (2015) and traditional farming Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland 1987). It contains within it two basic concepts: People-centered, positive livelihood outcomes, and dynamic Limits of technology on the environment ability to meet present and future needs with ecological, social, economic and institutional considerations. SDGs # 2 (2015) states: End hunger, achieve food security and achieve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture identifies 5 targets. Three of the five targets in this goal are directly related to sustainable farming systems food and nutrition security, while Target 2.4 refers to resilient agricultural practices. Target 2.3: By 2030 double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers in particular women, indigenous people, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-profit employment. Target 2.4: By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality. Target 2.5: By 2020 maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed banks at the national and regional levels, and promote access to and fair equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed Types of farming systems Globally farming systems are in general classified based on different combinations of the wide range of diverse inputs available to them, the choice of outputs, the many processes involved in utilization of inputs, the generation of outputs and the sustainability of the farming system. In this way a type of farm may be classified based on any of the following processes in the system. 12

31 Inputs to the farm including climate, topography, soil and human (money, labour and machinery). Outputs of the system whether they be crops, animals or products or a mix of all three. Processes such as ploughing, planting, weed and pest control, harvesting and grazing. Commercial, where the majority of the produce is sold to make a profit. Intensive, where the farming system is characterized by high inputs of capital, heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides, labour and technologies relative to land area and producing high yield per acre. Extensive, where the system is highly mechanized and using larger areas of land to produce less yield per hectare than in intensive farming Subsistence farming, where inputs are usually low, producing low yields per hectare and is primarily for home consumption by the farmers. Mixed farming and integrated farming system using both crops and animals in different combinations. 4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN The Caribbean by tradition uses three different categories of classification within which it is possible to identify one of the types of farms mentioned above. These are as follows: Large commercial farms growing traditional crops for fresh produce export (bananas, coffee, cocoa, citrus, spices and sugar from sugarcane ) and to supply large and medium sized agro-processing facilities. Mostly these farms use slash and burn for land clearing followed by modern technologies such as improved seeds and quality control systems for reliable soil and water management. In this way while most of the farms are rainfed there are provisions for ready access to irrigation when necessary. Commercial farmers also have the necessary financial resources to access technology, expertise and capacities including research to manage productivity. In addition the farms are located on the better agricultural lands. The operation may be intensive as in the case of coffee and bananas or extensive as in the case of large livestock. A distinctive feature of commercial farms is that they all have a well-established marketing system. Semi-commercial medium size farms growing both for export and for agro-processing facilities as well as for food security. These farms also use slash and burn practices for land clearing and are mostly rainfed, sometimes entirely, while some do have access to irrigation usually by hand or overhead sprinklers. Technical support in the management of the farming practices is usually accessed through the Extension Services of the Ministries of Agriculture. Small farming usually five acres and under growing crops or keeping small livestock or operating an integrated system of crops and small livestock. Typically these farms use traditional practices such as slash and burn, conservation agriculture approaches and are largely rainfed. Many of these farms have no other source of water for agriculture except from direct rainfall. A limited number practice various forms of rainwater harvesting and storage. Small farmers and their system of farming dominate Caribbean food production systems. Due to their large numbers and dominance in the region, they have even less access to the extension services. Common characteristics of small farms are they are mostly located on hillsides or on the poorer agricultural soils, mostly they do not have established contractual arrangements with the domestic markets and are often exposed to risks associated with weather, with changes in fresh food prices in the domestic market as well as with unstable livelihoods at the household level. As a result small farmers and their systems are normally considered among the most vulnerable to the risks to which farms are exposed. A number of recent studies and publications describe very well the socio-economic and socio-ecological characteristics of these systems (Bourne and Le Franc 1980; OECS/EDADU/FAO 1999; Renwick, 2010; IICA/IFAD 2015). TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 13

32 The dominant aspects of these two areas that contribute to vulnerabilities in farming systems are briefly addressed below. Some of theses vulnerabilities can be felt differently at the household levels due to the level of sensitivity to the risk. This is particularly so where farm income is insufficient to purchase inputs to make the farm profitable and where farmers are not equipped to apply low input practices that incorporate material already on the farm into cultivation and crop protection and livestock animal practices on the farm. 4.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS Knowledge transfer and capacity to respond: Small farmers in the region rely heavily on traditional language including informal meetings among themselves for farming advice (Renwick 2010). Next to slash and burn for land clearing, the planting guidelines published in the annual 187 year old Mac Donald s Almanac is still central to the practices of thousands of farmers. General reviews spanning revealed the following social and economic status of small farming: In the earliest decade only a small portion of crop farmers used chemicals for soil enhancement, pest control or weed control and only a few livestock farmers used commercial services, veterinary assistance or feed concentrates. Crop varieties were not fully investigated and documented, as the range of advice that was offered was limited because farmers were unable to afford the costs of making changes. Extension personnel were too few in number making advice on farming methods limited and sometimes inconsistent Farmers were not prepared to take risks as the farming output was the only source of achieving household food security and other livelihood needs. Two decades later farmers were facing additional challenges in water shortages, increased incidence of pests and diseases, no improvements in access to land and to credit and weak access to markets (OECS/EDADU/FAO (1999). Increasingly there was competition for the better quality land and for productive labour. Caribbean small farming is also characterized by: Small farm size, fragmentation of farms (Figure3), lands with soil of lower fertility and weak access to water for the entire harvest, as most farms are rainfed. With no alternative access to water for irrigation most small farms are often exposed to drought conditions during the dry season, sufficient to stop planting Thousands of small farms are located in difficult hillside terrains (Figure 4) making them vulnerable to risks from disasters during heavy rainfall and high wind events from the annual hurricane seasons. Farms are mostly rainfed and are exposed to impacts of droughts during the dry months and farmers are forced to harvest and store water. 14

33 Figure 3: Dominance of small sized farms in Caribbean small farming Source: FAO - Data source Agriculture Census 2007 Figure 4: Typical terrain of hillside farms in the region Jamaica Source: RADA TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 15

34 Farmers across the region use many practices based on traditional knowledge to reduce vulnerabilities to risks from impacts of rainfall events on these hillside farms. Such practices include but are not limited to grass barriers (Figure 5) and plant on contours (Figure 6) to control soil loss and water runoff and incorporation of compost to improve soil structure. To manage dry seasons, rainfed farmers also use rainwater stored in drums (Figure 7) and plant cover crops. Figure 5: Hillside farmers use grass barrier built to control erosion from runoff during high rainfall events - Dominica Source: FAO Figure 6: Hillside farmers plant on counters to reduce soil loss and to slow rainwater runoff in the cultivation - Jamaica Source: RADA Jamaica 16

35 Figure 7: Hillside farmer and wife water with hose using stored water during dry days Source: IICA/IFAD 4.4 YOUTH IN CARIBBEAN SMALL FARMING There is a common perception across the region that youth participation in farming is below desired levels. However there is no known agreement on what should be considered a reasonable level of youth involvement in farming. In addition there are inconsistencies in the age cohort in which youth should be placed. Three examples of this are shown below: Figure 8 below is based on data gathered on percent youth of total farming population during the Census of Agriculture- Jamaica (2007) showing 20.9 percent youth participation. Here youth is counted in the age cohort 34 years and under. Data collected during 2010 in a regional study on praedial larceny in CARICOM Member States (CDEMA, 2010), show youth in the age cohort 25 years and under (Figure 9 below) Data collected during the 2014 APP Baseline is shown below (Figure 10) using another set of age cohorts with youth 25 years and under and the next age cohort between over 25 years and 60 years and under. The total farmer population surveyed was 906 indicating less than one percent youth participation TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 17

36 Figure 8: Years operating farm holding by youth (34 years and under) (Percentages) Figure 9: Youth participation in Caribbean farming in 2010 Source: Analysis of praedial larceny in CARICOM member states (2010) 18

37 Figure 10: Youth participation in Caribbean Farming 2014 Source: APP Baseline Study 2014 On the basis of the above there is no sound ground to determine the level of youth participation in farming or to support the next step of objective planning for their role in building resilient farming. It is reasonable to believe that were the United Nations definition of 16 years to 34 years and under, adopted and adhered to by all partners involved in the conduct of studies and surveys this approach could provide some solution to the current situation. This approach to a baseline survey of youth capacities and contribution in small farming would provide better information on an enabling environment for traditional knowledge transfer among youth, discreetly shaped to influence resilience in farming systems. 4.5 CONCLUSIONS Farming systems and the practices and principles of traditional knowledge in small-scale farming systems are reflected in the basic concepts of Sustainable Development (1987) and recognized for potential contributions to the second goal of the SDGs (2015) Small farming systems in the Caribbean are by nature traditional in practice, form the largest population among all farmers and are considered among the most vulnerable to risks to agriculture due to size and fragmentation of the farms, topography of farms and general weak access to livelihood assets (farm knowledge and income) at the household level. There appears to be no common agreement on how to classify and assess youth participation in farming. This situation if not addressed will deny youth the quality of deliberations which can change the livelihood circumstances of young people living in rural areas which are by nature agriculture communities where household poverty levels continue to remain higher than the rest of the country. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 19

38 CHAPTER 5 Climate Change and Farming systems 5.1 INTRODUCTION Climate change with extreme weather events and disasters is affecting and will continue to affect farming activities through effects on agro-ecosystems (Chapter 2). The likely implications for sustainable food and nutrition security and livelihoods at national and household levels are of concern to Governments and peoples of the Caribbean. As a result climate change has introduced an additional element of uncertainty in determining what is needed to improve productivity in small farming systems. In view of the implications for food security, climate change is recognized in the national agriculture policies and strategies of many of the countries. Also the critical elements of those policies and strategies can be found in the National Climate Adaptation Strategies, and have been reported on in the National Communications to the United Nations Framework Committee on Climate Change (UNFCCC). On a broad geographic scale climate is the factor that most strongly determines agro-ecosystem processes and functionality (Chapter 2). Based on Climate Change Vulnerability Index for Latin America Climate Change the risks for impact are extreme for Haiti, Dominican Republic, Jamaica and Belize; high for Dominica and Guyana; medium for Antigua and Barbuda, Suriname, St. Kitts and Nevis and Trinidad and Tobago; and low for Saint Lucia, The Bahamas, Grenada, St Vincent and the Grenadines and Barbados. 5.2 GLOBAL TRENDS IN CLIMATE CHANGE Current predictions are that during the 21 st century global surface temperatures will rise by 0.3 to 1.7 degrees minimum (Figure 11) creating even more challenges to sustainable development. Figure 11: Trends in global warming Expected impacts of warming temperatures and weather related events such as droughts, variability and intensity of rainfall and species behaviour, primarily plants for food and fodder growing in agroecological zones are reasonably of major concern to the Caribbean region. Source: wikipedia.org/wiki/global_warming 20

39 The predictions are that climate will affect agro-ecosystems (Figure 12) in other areas including: Changes in sunshine hours (light energy) and winds. Soil characteristics that could change vegetation and in land use practices (VA RALLYAY, 2007), including the crops that can be grown and the type of farming that can be practiced in any region with the potential to change the geographic boundaries of agro ecological systems. Changes in temperatures will have significant implications for the population dynamics of pests, as well as for the occurrence and severity of invasive species (Bale et al. 2002). Water in agro-ecosystems sufficient for plants and soil organisms has generated the most concern for the farming community globally. However this essential resource remains largely unpredictable with much variability at broad geographic and even at the farm level. On the other hand the literature reports some conclusive findings that changes in temperature will fundamentally alter relationship with pest and insects. For example patterns of outbreaks for arthropod pathogens such as fungi are expected to vary (Stacey and Fellowes 2002). Figure 12: Predictions on global warming and pests and diseases Climate change will fundamentally alter our relationship with pest insects. Top left, the cabbage looper ate 20% more leaf area when lima beans were grown at carbon-dioxide concentrations. Top right, Argentine ants (shown tending aphids) out-compete native ants at higher temperatures. Bottom left, the potato psyllid did not establish itself on earlier attempts, but its migration to California was successful. Bottom right, mosquitoes, which carry dengue fever and malaria, emerge smaller when they breed in warmer water and must blood-feed more frequently. Source: CARIBBEAN TRENDS IN CLIMATE CHANGE AND PRIORITIES FOR FARMING SYSTEMS Predictions on climate change for the Caribbean are gleaned from published work on vulnerability index to climate change in Latin America and the Caribbean (Box 6 and Table 1) and from work by the Climate Studies Group (CSGM) at the University of the West Indies, Mona, in Jamaica (Figure 13 below). According to the Latin American Study the likely physical impacts of climate change will be influenced by the sensitivity of the affected population and the capacity or adaptability, in a timely manner. In this respect the expected result of the knowledge transfer options provided in the document must, as a minimum, show measurable changes in small farmers sensitivity to variations in targeted vulnerabilities in the system. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 21

40 BOX 6 Predictions on climate change, rainfall and temperatures in the Caribbean The predictions are that the Caribbean region is likely to experience low to severe consequences as a result of climate change. These will include changes in temperature and precipitation (rainfall mostly), including shifts in frequency and intensity of extreme related events. Changes will also affect livelihoods, economies, the environment and natural resource availability, among others. The consequences of these physical impacts are determined not only by the countries exposure to variations but also by the underlying sensitivity of a population to the impacts and the institutional capacity to implement effective adaptation. It is possible to lower vulnerability by reducing the sensitivity of the affected populations and by improving capacity to adapt to the changing climate. Adopted from: CAF Development Bank of LATIN AMERICA (2014) Vulnerability Index to climate change in LAC Region Climate Change Vulnerability Index (CCVI) conducted under the Latin American Climate Change Programme (LACCP) indicate that Caribbean APP countries vary in their exposure to risk from climate change (Table 1). Table 1. Vulnerability Index for Caribbean Countries Country Rank Score Risk Category Haiti Dominican Republic Extreme Extreme Jamaica Belize Extreme Extreme Dominica: Guyana High High Antigua and Barbuda Suriname Medium Medium St Kitts and Nevis Trinidad and Tobago Medium Medium Saint Lucia The Bahamas Low Low Grenada St Vincent and the Grenadines Low Low Barbados Low BOX 7 Climate Change Vulnerability Index explained Climate Change Vulnerability Index (CCVI) is made up of three component indices, which in themselves constitute discrete risk indices Exposure Index (50%) Sensitivity Index (25%) Adaptive Capacity Index (25%). Risk indices offer a comparable quantified assessment of climate change risks across the LAC region. The indices are presented on a scale of 0-10, where values closer to 0 represent higher risk and values closer to 10 represent lower risk. Index values are divided into four risk categories to aid interpretation: extreme risk (0-2.5), high risk (>2.5-5), medium risk (>5-7.5) and low risk (>7.5-10). Adapted from: Vulnerability Index in Climate Change in LAC Region Climate Change Vulnerability Index is made up of exposure index, sensitivity index and adaptive capacity index (Chapter 2 and Box 7). The Climate Studies Group (CSGM) at the University of the West Indies, Mona provides data on impact of climate change on rainfall and temperature in the Caribbean region. According to the CSGM climate has changed in the Caribbean by a general tendency between (Figure 13). Maximum number of consecutive dry days is increasing where dry day is equal to where precipitation is less than I mm. Rainfall is highly variable with greatest 5-day rainfall increasing with more heavy rains and flooding and increased frequency of droughts (Taylor et al 2007). 22

41 Figure 13: Percent annual rainfall is increasing in the Caribbean but is not significant Source: Climate Studies Group Mona The CSGM also reports that temperatures are hotter, dry spells are longer, rainfall events more intense and hurricanes are of longer duration and increasing intensity since the 1990 s. Percent of total rainfall coming from heavy rainfall events is also increasing though the trend is not statistically significant. Sea levels are also rising with implications for flooding and salt-water intrusion in wells where water is pumped for irrigation PRIORITIES TO BUILD ADAPTIVE CAPACITIES FOR REDUCED VULNERABILITY IN FARMING SYSTEMS The predictions on increased frequency in droughts, rainfall variability and temperature rises are of major importance to considerations for good practices to target and build adaptive capacities for resilience in climate change. Predictions on wetter seasons and more intense rainfall (see later) have implications for priorities that integrate traditional knowledge transfer with disaster risk reduction (DRR) from hydro-meteorological events in order to reduce sensitivity of vulnerable farms especially those on hillsides as well as those exposed to annual droughts. Based on the foregoing Caribbean farming is at the stage where urgent measures need to be put in place to ensure the diffusion of an adequate understanding of the relationships in farming systems with climate change to the level of actors including small farmers. These would be public sector bodies and other stakeholders with special focus on small farmers who are the most sensitive to unfavourable weather related events impacting farming Selected specific country indicators of changes due to climate. Specific country indicators on Jamaica and Guyana provide evidence of variations in climate change impacts and the type of impacts. Changing rainfall and warming in Jamaica Rainfall distribution with greatest intensity is in the easternmost and westernmost parishes, and lowest across the southern plains during the period (Figure 14). TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 23

42 Figure 14: Map of Jamaica showing mean distribution Source: www. Google.com CSGM data shows trend in rainfall variability across the island where the east seems to getting less rainfall as the drier west gets more rainfall and there is general warming trend across island (Figures 15 and 16 below). Figure 15: Drying in the east is the greatest change in wet areas Source: Climate Studies Group Mona Jamaica 24

43 Figure 16: Apparent warming trend in the eastern end of the island Jamaica Source: Climate Studies Group Mona Warming in Guyana According to an UNECLAC Study (2014) there has been a warming trend (Figure 17) in temperature in Guyana observed from data during the period The Study reports as follows among other observations: Climate change is anticipated to have potentially disastrous impacts on the economic viability of the agricultural sector, insomuch as traditional agricultural practices render the agriculture sector climate dependent. Increased temperature and increased intensity, timing and occurrence of hydro-events are expected to challenge plant and animal viability. Under these circumstances vector control is expected to become more difficult, which may further prejudice the prosperity of plant, livestock and fisheries growth. UNECLAC- Assessment of the Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture Sector in Guyana (2014) Figure 17: Hydro-meteorological data from Guyana confirm rising temperatures in that country. Source: Assessment of the Economic impact of Climate Change on the Agriculture Economy of Guyana UNECLAC TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 25

44 The location based climate changes were recorded as average monthly temperature and precipitation data for the rice growing areas in Mahaica, Abary, Berbice, New Amsterdam, Essequibo and Rose Hall. Noticeably temperature appears to be rising faster than precipitation over the period. Higher temperatures are typically associated with sterility in rice flowers and lower yield. This should be of concern to rice growers in small farming and deserves consideration for adaptation to weather in rice farming systems Strategies for adaptation to climate in farming in selected countries SAINT LUCIA Saint Lucia (with a low CCVI) is focused on agriculture as modeling exercises indicators are showing rainfall is likely to decrease and agriculture is most likely the first sector to be seriously affected. RCMs conducted in Saint Lucia in 2009 showed likelihood that Saint Lucia would be drier (in the mean) by the end of the century with a decrease of up to 57 percent by the end of the century. GCMs predict median decrease of up to 22 percent for annual rainfall during the same period. However GCMs also show that percent change will increase and will likely double to percent by the 2080 s. Another conclusion is that climate change will likely make the dry period earlier in the year and June-July drier suggesting probabilities of significant shifts in growing seasons in Saint Lucia and longer dry seasons (Graham, 2015). The National Climate Adaptation Strategy proposes the following actions toward adaptation to climate: Strategies to manage the windows of wet and dry periods predicted during modeling exercises in the country. Build adaptive capacities at all levels of the agriculture sector to establish rainwater-harvesting capacities including public infrastructure facilities to store water in order to extend growing periods Establish collaboration with relevant institutions such as Caribbean Agriculture Research and Development Institute (CARDI) and the Department of Agriculture at Sir Arthur Lewis Community College for support in a systematic approach to climate change adaptation in food and animal feed farming systems. Strengthen and diversify disaster risk management and disaster risk reduction measures for improved land management for agriculture. Protection and management of biodiversity and habitat productivity in agro ecosystems and forests for sustainable planting material. HAITI Haiti with a number one ranking on the LAC CCVI is included among the countries provided with Outlook and Options by the World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal (WBCCK). The key trends observed in Haiti indicate that mean annual rainfall has decreased by 5 mm. per month per decade since With this prediction climate adaptation options for agriculture were as follows: Actions to develop and conserve fertile lands, improve irrigation and water storage (tanks) Promote resistant crop varieties and integrate appropriate technologies Promote low impact crops in areas of low fertility Give consideration to weather early warning systems that benefit agro-ecological zones Develop a community based approach to climate adaptation in agriculture Exploit the potential that exists to establish rainwater-harvesting infrastructure, which could offer greater access to smallholders to water for irrigation. Research gaps and needs were identified as well and included rationale to establish small irrigation schemes which take advantage of rainwater harvesting structures, that could offer greater potential for yield sustainability, particularly for rural subsistence farmers. 26

45 5. 5 RAINFALL UNPREDICTABILITY AND VARIABILITY IN CARIBBEAN SMALL FARMING Ten years series data ( ) accessed from the WBCCK confirm that Caribbean farmers are experiencing changes in rainfall from a bimodal pattern to varying levels of unpredictability in annual monthly rainfall. Farmers describe this as blurred rainfall that challenges planting dates. The CSGM (Figure 13) and the National Meteorological Office in Saint Lucia (Figures 18) provide Charts indicating changes in rainfall amounts but advise that the annual changes observed were not significant. On the other hand the annual monthly rainfall data from the ten years series confirm farmers perception that rainfall is blurred and monthly amounts are no longer predictable. The normal wet season has become a series of peaks thereby losing the traditionally bimodal pattern in the island systems. In this situation crop farmers are challenged by uncertainties in planting dates and by extension harvesting dates to satisfy the seasonal market windows. Figure 18: Rainfall Chart of mean monthly rainfall for Saint Lucia for four decades Source: National Meteorological Office Saint Lucia Figure 19: Downscaled Chart using 10-year series data for Saint Lucia showing variability in monthly peaks Data Source: data.worldbank.org/climate-change TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 27

46 Countries such as St Vincent and the Grenadines (Figure 20) show less variability in rainfall, while Guyana (Figure 21) shows geographic shifts in rainfall patterns and even less variability but what appears to be trends in higher rainfall since On the other hand annual monthly rainfall in Dominica has maintained the bimodal pattern (Figure 22) at this stage. Figure 20: Downscaled from 10 year series data rainfall, comparatively there is less variability in monthly peaks Data Source: data.worldbank.org/climate-change Based on the above while rainfall events are predicted to change with climate it appears that country specific experiences will likely be sufficiently different to exhibit different impact at the local level and in farming systems in different agroecological zones in the same country. This means that while capacity building will be a common goal for resilience the timing required to reducing vulnerability could be more urgent in some of the countries and the farming systems than for others. The likelihood is that country specific approaches for farming system adaptation through traditional knowledge transfer could vary, in timing and choice of knowledge transfer. 28

47 Figure 21: Total monthly rainfall for Guyana showing typical pattern of the mainland countries and very little evidence of variability in annual monthly amounts Data Source: www. Data.worldbank.org/climate-change Figure 22: Total monthly rainfall showing persistence in bimodal pattern with two annual droughts Data Source: data.worldbank.org/climate-change TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 29

48 5.6 CONCLUSIONS Climate is changing with extreme events and disasters and will continue to affect farming activities through effects on agro-ecosystems. The indicators of climate change in the Caribbean are evidenced in rainfall variability and amounts and warming trends in some countries. However the changes in rainfall amounts are not considered significant at this time. Based on CCVI for LACC the risk for impact are extreme for Haiti, Dominican Republic, Jamaica and Belize; high for Dominica and Guyana; medium for Antigua and Barbados, Suriname, St Kitts and Nevis and Trinidad and Tobago; and low for Saint Lucia, The Bahamas, Grenada, St Vincent and the Grenadines and Barbados. Small farmers are seeing these changes in rainfall due to climate on the farms and describe them as blurred rainfall. 30

49 CHAPTER 6 Institutional framework for traditional knowledge transfer 6.1 INTRODUCTION The lead regional research and development institution amongst CARICOM member countries is CARDI. Tasked with this responsibility CARDI meets the needs of research and development in the region under four objectives, namely: To provide for the research and development needs of the agriculture of the Region as identified in national plans and policies To provide an appropriate research and development service to the agricultural sector of Member States To provide and extend the application of new technologies in production, processing, storage and distribution of agricultural products of Member States To provide for the co-ordination and integration of the research and development efforts of Member States where this is possible and desirable. CARDI has been playing a major role in the planning and implementation of technology generation transfer towards sustainable small farming systems since The institution s involvement in processes towards sustainable farming systems covers technology generation and adaptation (system, variety, breed selected for application), validation (taking the technology to the wider environment), on-farm trial in agro-ecological zones, production scales and the practical application. Follow-up field tests, preparation of the technology packages and demonstration exercises to enhance the utilization and adoption of the practice is achieved through collaboration with other regional and national institutions with interest in agriculture. These institutions include the University of the West Indies, Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC), Caribbean Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology (CIMH), members of the international community such as IICA, FAO, and Center for Technical Assistance, among others, the Ministries of Agriculture across the region and other private or quasi government institutions in support of actions towards sustainable agriculture. Of relevance to the APP initiative is that CARDI is already in a partnership with CIMH, FAO and NMHSs in a programme to increase and sustain agricultural productivity at the farm level in the Caribbean, through improved dissemination and application of weather and climate information using an integrated and coordinated approach CARDI S RESEARCH ON CARIBBEAN APP COMMODITIES CARDI s selection of practices and processes include an extensive list of cultivars and practices of interest to APP commodities. These include actions on commodities as follows: TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 31

50 Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) Characterization of sweet potato varieties found in various countries for production, productivity and value-added. Multiplication and the distribution of disease free planting materials to farmers Development and transfer of production techniques and investment profiles Continuous pest and disease management, germplasm acquisition and the distribution of post harvest practices. Farmers provided with planting schedules on best planting dates in Antigua and Barbuda for sweet potato Control of pests in St Kitts and Nevis using the Bleach Bottle Taiwanese combination. Hot peppers (Capsicum spps.) Breeder seeds for commercial cultivars were established for Red Congo, Yellow Congo, Scotch Bonnet, Cayenne, Tiger, Teeth, CARDI Red and West Indies Red, and commercial seeds produced in Belize, while Antigua and Barbuda and Barbados produced seeds for use by farmers in the region. Extensive work in hot peppers conducted using seeds of improved varieties of West Indies Red, CARDI Green, Morunga Red, Hood, Bejeaucal, Faria and Scorpion. Farmers have received supplies of seeds and several hectares established in Barbados. Cereals (Zea mays) Corn and soybean established in Belize and comparative evaluation conducted with yellow corn hybrids and the more popular grown CARDI YC 001. Fruits and vegetables Research and development actions include (a) pest management in callalloo (Amaranthus spps.) in Jamaica (b) cabbage and lettuce in Trinidad and Tobago (c) tomato and sweet peppers in Vincent and the Grenadines and (d) IPM in tomatoes. Small ruminants Research into the development of feeding programs, especially forage-based feeding systems, improved high yielding grasses and forage, legumes, improved breeds and sustainable production systems. Agriculture technicians and farmers trained in the manufacture of sillage and molasses urea blocks. Identifying improved forage species that yield high dry matter, for more animals per unit area of land. 6.3 CONCLUSION CARDI is well placed to provide the technical leadership to build adaptive capacities for resilient farming systems in the Caribbean. 32

51 CHAPTER 7 Summary of findings on traditional small farming systems 7.1 INTRODUCTION Traditionally the risks to agriculture from rainfall events are the loss of crops, animals, and farmhouses from landslips and soil erosion. Flooding on low-lying areas under cultivation and increase in insect pests and other forms of plant and animal diseases are also familiar experiences to small farmers. However the climate (precipitation and temperature) resulting from global warming (Chapter 5) can also change agricultural soils, change agro-ecosystems and threaten plant and animal species with significant implications for higher level national and regional objectives for agriculture contribution to GDP, sustainable livelihoods, women and youth empowerment and food and nutrition security. Not to be left behind smallholders are changing agricultural practices due to observations of climatic and environmental change (Chapter 3). By extension traditional practices in farming systems are also being impacted by new innovations, technologies and climate smart practices, though ad hoc. There is therefore much to be gained towards resilient farming systems by adopting a discreet approach to build capacities to select and utilize traditional knowledge for optimum benefits through a systems approach that starts with prioritization of the most sustainable practices for farming with weather changes. There is sufficient evidence of the significant role that traditional knowledge can play in sustainability and resilience in small farming systems through adaptation to climate change by simply exploiting some of the principles of traditional knowledge with which small farmers are already familiar. This section of the document provides information on traditional small farming as observed in 2014 and the state of readiness to receive technical support to reduce vulnerabilities in farming systems. 7.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FARMING POPULATION Demography: From the sampling of a total of 906 farmers 77% were within the age group years and 18 % was in the age group 60 years and over, with 1% in the age group 25 years and under. Only two countries recorded female farmers less than 25 years and under and in 50 per cent of the countries there were no farmers represented in the age group 25 years and under. Women farmers were represented in all the countries (Figure 23). In Antigua and Barbuda and in Saint Lucia there was more than 40 percent women representation in the respective country level farming population. Except for Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname and Belize representation of women was above 20 percent. The higher representation of women in farming in Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Lucia and Barbados with 30 percent was noted. However there was no indication from the country reports of favourable conditions that would have accounted for this situation. Typically Caribbean women in TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 33

52 farming are more involved in the selling of the fresh produce in the village and urban markets, or in areas such as weeding and carrying or seedling nurseries and less in the field production activities. However the Census of Agriculture ( ) for Saint Lucia did report an increase of 30 percent in the number of women operating their own farms. Women who sell in urban and village markets also take back to the farm important information on prices and consumer preferences in fresh produce. Figure 23: Gender representation in the Caribbean in small farming (2014) Most of the farmers (79 percent) were dependent on farming for their primary income; famers in Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, Grenada and Dominica were less aware of new technologies (Figure 24). All farmers (Figure 25) were affected by changes in weather but only 25 per cent (Figure 26) said that they had made changes due to weather related factors. Figure 24: Awareness of new technologies 34

53 Figure 25: Farmers affected by change in weather Figure 26a: Types of changes made by farmers due to weather changes TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 35

54 Figure 26b: Responses by practice to weather-related changes by Country Against this background the Chapter provides brief country specific descriptions and summaries of the state of traditional knowledge in the seven selected commodities, innovations, new technologies adopted and evidence of climate adaptation practices in the farming populations of the fourteen countries and the selected commodities namely; Cassava (Manihot esculenta), Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), Hot peppers (Capsicum annuum) Rice (Oryza spps), Corn (Zea mays), Plantains and Banana (Musa spps), Vegetables (primarily tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), Beans (Phaseolus spp), and leafy vegetables Cruciferous vegetables), Goats and Sheep. The Chapter also provides conclusions on the main challenges facing small farmers, menus of good practices at the country level and indicators of priorities and options for a Caribbean regional traditional knowledge transfer program with tangible results in productivity, resilience and sustainability in the farming systems with the selected commodities. 7.3 STATE OF TRADITIONAL PRACTICES WITH CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE COUNTRIES These practices include information from the 2014 APP Baseline Survey and other documents provided by CARDI augmented by information gathered from the Ministries of Agriculture, CARDI Country Offices and from Internet searches of projects undertaken in the region as well as where appropriate outside of the region. A CARDI Regional Consultation on Farmers Traditional Knowledge and Innovative Practices provided clarification on some of the practices described. The format follows closely the process used to gather responses from farmers Trinidad and Tobago Climate: Rainfall is concentrated in the months of June through December, with intense showers occurring in July and in November (Figure 27 below). The two peaks are still quite distinct compared to some of the other Caribbean SIDS. February to April were consistently dry months with no peaks over the period During the dry months of February to April drought plagues the island s central interior. 36

55 Figure 27: Rainfall pattern showing less variability than some of the other countries Data Source: sdwebx.worldbank.org Traditional practices of cassava and sweet potato farmers Cassava: The practice used by farmers is a mix Figure 28: APP Cassava farmer in Trinidad and Tobago of traditional practices with the guidelines of the Ministry of Agriculture and CARDI. Cassava is grown mainly as a monoculture but at times include intercropping. Planting is on any moist soil but the crop is better on well-drained sandy clay loams. Land clearing is mainly brush, cut away all grass and trees, plough and add manure followed by contour drains. On some soils (Couva Series, Freeport Series, Mc. Bean Series, Cunupia Series, Princess Town Clay), limestone application of two to four tons per hectare is incorporated into the soil three to four months before planting. Compost manure is usually added. Disease free material is usually cut from plants 8-15 months. The cuttings are selected from the middle of the stem in lengths 30 cm long with an average of 9-12 nodes. Bundles of the setts are dipped in fungicide or insecticide solution for about 15 minutes and drained before planting. Planting is done on ridges 50cm to 90 cm at a 45 degrees angle leaving about two to three nodes above ground. Planting is best when the rainfall is well distributed throughout the growing period, making May the most popular planting month. However, earlier planting in April can result in much higher yield in tubers. Many farmers are still guided by the Mac Donald Farmers Almanac, while there are others who wait for the rains. In the past no chemicals were used. However in recent times some farmers have applied fertilizers, mainly NPK or single fertilizers (Calcium Nitrate, Muriate of Potash and Triple Super Phosphate). Farmers also report that there is a progressive return to production without fertilizer application. It is important to note that the MOA conducts farmer training in use and application of compost and mulch in farming. Weed control in the first three months is by spraying with pre-emergent herbicides after which further weeding is with hoes. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 37

56 Where fertilizers are used some of the farmers plant directly into the land before fertilizer is added. Farmers also practice intercropping, fallow and crop rotation to improve soil condition and to rest soil. As part of soil management vetiver grass is also used for barriers to soil loss and erosion. Farmers have added better record keeping to their practices and have affirmed that CARDI and MOA recommendations are giving better yield results than traditional practices alone but did not describe these. However except for the use of chemical fertilizers and the limited use of herbicides, there was no evidence of a clear move away from the application of traditional knowledge. The local varieties of cassava grown by the farmers include Maracas Black Stick, White Stick, and Blue Stick. The introduced varieties included M. Col 22, CIAT Hybrid, CMAL 40 and M Mex Sweet potato: Sweet potato did not receive much mention from the farmers. However the crop is also grown in well-drained sandy clay loams as waterlogged soils inhibit tuberization while dry soils with sporadic wetting promote tuber cracking and irregular shaped tubers. In Trinidad and Tobago mulching is applied to reduce cracking of tuber. Planting is from October to December during which rainfall amounts can supply adequate moisture for plant growth while the months of January and February are much drier and allow for better filling of the tubers. While rainfall pattern is suited to these planting dates for the crop, there is still need for careful monitoring for evidence of impact of climate change in rainfall pattern. The crop is also grown under good sunlight. As for cassava the farmers use a mix of MOA and CARDI guidelines. Figure 29: Sweet potato Source: Land preparation is the same as for cassava except that ridges are 1 m apart and cm high. As is normal ploughing is done along the contour lines, to ensure good drainage. Planting material is usually slips taken from plants two-three months old or as small tubers. The cuttings are usually 30 cm long, terminal buds are intact and all the mature leaves are removed. As for cassava the cuttings are soaked in insecticide and sun dried instead of drained before planting. Some farmers maintain a nursery for rapid multiplication of the slips. Hand hoe and cutlass is used for planting slips 30 cm apart with 5-6 cm of the vine tip above the soil. Farmers use large amounts of chicken manure rotavated into the soil. Planting density is about 40,000 slips per hectare. Weed control is mainly by application of chemical herbicides. Sweet potato normally requires high levels of potash as early as six weeks after planting hence the practice includes applications of NPK usually placed in drill holes about 15 cm away from the base of the root. However care needs to be taken on nitrogen application as this promotes foliar growth at expense of tuberization, hence there needs to be a focus on potash. Local varieties grown include Chicken Foot, 0 49, A 28/7 and C 99. Farmers also grow introduced varieties such as Carrot, Margarita, Never Miss, Centennial, 84 BM 75, TIS 9191, and TIS Hot peppers: The main practice for hot peppers is brush, cut and clear vegetation (Hot Pepper Manual, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources (MALMR). Plough and rotavate soil to depth of a cm, incorporating manure into the soil at kgs per hectare (1-2 tons per acre). Beds are made 6 meters wide (20 feet) with 38

57 ridge on top for planting (in heavy clay soils) and simple ridges and furrows for loam and sandy soil. Good drainage is important. Planting is done in the cooler times of the day preferably evenings. Roots of seedlings are drenched in insecticide against cutting insect pests (mole crickets and soil beetles) and with fungicide after planting. Normal planting density is between 5,400-4,400 per hectare (2,700-2,200 plants per acre) or between 1 m- 1.5 m apart and 1.m 2m apart (3-4 feet apart and 4 feet -6 feet apart). Mulch is practiced, herbicides are used and IPM is recommended. Roots are moulded about two weeks after planting at which time fertilizer is also applied. The growing stage of the plant is a good estimate of the fertilizer to be applied: phosphorus at young stage, nitrogen at the growing stage and potassium at the flowering stage. The local varieties grown are Scotch Bonnet, Hood, CARDI Green and West Indian Red. The latter two varieties are resistant to Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV). Innovations, new technologies and weather related practices: Spraying in the evening to prevent or reduce chemical burn due to high temperatures and sowing seeds directly in the soil under protected agriculture are two practices by farmers. New technology application awareness in the country includes the use of hormones and the use of potash instead of phosphate in root crops. Farmers were also aware of the use of hydroponics, irrigation timers, fertigation, grow bags in natural soil in greenhouses, drip irrigation without pumps and mechanization on the farm. Mostly the farmers said that they had not adopted these practices due to high cost of adoption especially in the case of greenhouses technology. The farmers also expressed satisfaction with crop performance that the current practices as described above worked best for them and that there were no profits to adopting the new practices. Challenges: Unpredictability of planting seasons, huge loses due to rotting of cassava tubers; shorter planting seasons as well as reduced and delayed production were some of the experiences from weather changes. The new demands for irrigation during dry season and drainage during wet season and the acquisition of new machinery to control flooding in intense rainfall was at a high cost to the farmers. Farmers also experienced increased pests and disease infestation. Less than one quarter of the farmers made any adjustments based on weather impacts. Where changes were made they were mainly to reschedule planting times, reduce planting and labour to cut costs and to increase water use efficiency. The latter included improvements on irrigation systems including year round drip, use of spaghetti tubes and drippers and improved drainage. However, the farmers did express an interest in the greenhouse technology used in Dominica Traditional practices in small livestock Farmers focus is on ensuring high quality breeds through males only from selective breeding stock. Pasture grazing is a common practice. Livestock farmers were experiencing limited availability of fresh grass due to frequent bush fires and this resulted in high cost of feed. Delayed veterinary services, theft and weak access to financing and grants are other challenges for these farmers Challenges in traditional farming Pests and disease control: The main complaint was the high and increasing cost of control of pests and diseases in crops. Main pests and diseases in cassava are the Cassava shoot fly, Cassava blight, rust and super elongation. In the case of sweet potato the main pests are sweet potato stem borer (Megastes grandalis), mole crickets, leaf ants and viruses. Hot peppers are mainly thrips, mites and anthracnose. Incidences included increasing levels of fungal, bacterial and mite diseases. Many diseases are not properly documented and as a result they are not easily identified. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 39

58 Water and soil management: Water availability for irrigation when necessary is the other concern of farmers. Also associated with soil and water are problems with unavailability of planting medium (bagasse) or other suitable replacement for natural soil management. There are also several problems with greenhouse technology including the weight of the heavy covering of the greenhouse as well as the high temperature and humidity and the high start up cost. High cost associated with weather related changes: There are high costs associated with control of pests and diseases, labour costs are high as is the cost of machinery to control flooding. Frequent flooding is a problem, as these two crops do not perform well in waterlogged soil Summary of state of application of traditional practices Ten years series rainfall pattern was typical bimodal with a dry period not in excess of total monthly amounts of 60 mm. The wet season starts in May with a peak in July and another in November. The average annual monthly peaks are about the same, which is different from the other island systems resulting in less variability in annual monthly rainfall than observed in several of the other countries in the region. Traditional practices were evident among the farmers with some stating a preference for these practices over greenhouses mainly because of the lower input required. Farmers also expressed satisfaction with the crop performance using mainly traditional practices. There was evidence of the strong influence of the Mc. Donald Almanac in traditional practices. Hot pepper farmers were less evident among the crop farmers. Mostly they were using traditional knowledge practices. The exceptions were in the management of soil fertility and to a lesser extent in the control of pests and diseases. Herbicides were only observed in use at the pre-emergent stage of the crop. Fertilizers were used only in the first three months of planting cassava. However the hot pepper and sweet potato farmers used chemical inputs over longer periods. Farmers confirmed that higher yields were achieved in cassava in systems with a mix of CARDI and MOA guidelines with traditional practices. Yields could not be estimated as no information was provided. There is an extensive list of technologies of which farmers were aware and which are available including hydroponics, fertigation, grow bags and drip and other forms of efficient irrigation systems. However there was no clear evidence that the farmers interviewed were using these practices. Farmers are using less fertilizers, chicken manure and bagasse, and crop rotations for soil management, contours, grass barriers and better drainage using traditional knowledge. Farmers also spoke to awareness of innovations such as vertical growing systems for increased efficiency. Farmers are also using less labour but there was no indication of the change in the practices resulting in this or if it was just a cost cutting measure. Reportedly there is poor documentation of the pests and diseases and the farmers had no confidence in their ability to control the high levels of incidence of fungal, bacterial and mite disease. This MOA provides a listing of the pests and diseases in all three crops which can be accessed on the MOA s website and which are included in training manuals. This suggests either a gap in farmers ability to identify pests and diseases or that there are newly introduced pests and diseases. High cost of feed and the limited availability to fresh grass are major concerns of livestock farmers Main conclusions and recommendations for best options for traditional knowledge transfer The main challenges in small farming in traditional practices include inadequate water for the farm activities, unavailability of suitable planting medium, control of pests and disease, generally low profits and high cost associated with weather changes (rotting of cassava, shorter planting season, delayed planting and harvest due to changes in weather pattern, change in cropping system to crop rotation and acquisition of machinery to control flooding). Farmers were mostly satisfied with traditional practices based on a mix of CARDI/MOA recommendations and there is increasingly less preference for fertilizer use and for improved irrigation. There are some factors slowing uptake of innovations and safe technologies which need to be addressed including 40

59 (a) high start up in protected agriculture systems and (b) poor documentation of new pests and diseases. Livestock farmers also face high costs of production due to weak access to fresh pastures. Recommended best options for traditional knowledge transfer. The mix of traditional knowledge, and technologies available has the potential for good practices with productivity and sustainability but the uptake is being hampered by (a) weak financing opportunities suited to small farming (b) poor protected agriculture choices and (c) weak technical support to document, identify and control high incidence of pests and diseases. The approach to traditional knowledge transfer should focus on removing some of these bottlenecks in the farmer systems Best option for value added in traditional knowledge transfer at this time would be (a) practices to reduce pest and disease in cassava (hot peppers or sweet potato) grown under controlled conditions and in different types of greenhouses structures using FFS and IPM approaches and (b) promote and support the establishment or improvement of protein banks for feed for livestock. The farm system design needs to be documented including a cost benefit analysis which could assist farmers, particularly those desirous of using greenhouses to be better prepared to access available credit lines Antigua and Barbuda Climate: Antigua and Barbuda has no rivers and only a few springs. Annual rainfall is estimated at 1000 mm. Rainfall is concentrated in the southwestern end of the island and becomes progressively less towards the north and northeastern end of the island. Rainfall shows a tendency to be less since 2003 but with much variability in the monthly peaks (Figure 30). Most of the rainfall is short-lived heavy to intense showers and there is associated increase erosion on unprotected soils. Figure 30: Variability in monthly rainfall Antigua and Barbuda Data Source: sdwebx.worldbank.org TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 41

60 Traditional practice for sweet potato Sweet potato: The traditional practice described for sweet potato production is slash and burn to clear the land followed by preparation of banks or raised beds incorporating the organic material cleared from the land as well as fertilizers. Farmers use plough, harrow or rotovater and harvest by fork. Planting material include slips of sweet potato vines or cuttings from the tips of the vines. Some farmers also use herbicides in the land clearing. Farms are largely rainfed except for those few farms where there is provision for stored water for irrigation in constructed dams or ponds. Farmers are exposed to IPM and Farmer Field School (FFS) approaches in extension capacity building exercise. Innovations, new technologies and weather-related practices: Higher yields were achieved with the CARDI sweet potato production manual along with fertigation including application of water-soluble fertilizers such as (mono ammonium phosphate). One large-scale farmer used a rainwater harvesting system equipped with pump, drip irrigation filtration system, and fertigation pump to irrigate the farm during prolonged dry periods. This dam with a storage capacity of 3,000,000 gallons of water (11,356 cubic meters) is maintained at a cost of US$ annually. This farmer also manages soil fertility through crop rotation, ploughing vegetative matter back into the soil and regular soil testing to determine need for additional fertilizer application Challenges in traditional practices Pest and disease control: Farmers reported an increase in the incidence of plant pests, mainly in sweet potato weevil and sweet potato blight especially during the dry months. Control is by monthly application of chemical pesticides (Vyadate with Casdelta) or in combination with bio-pesticides. Application of Neem oil (Azadirichta indica) and the use of sweet potato pheromone traps were very common. 42

61 Neem seeds Neem foliage Figure 31: Neem bio-products from seeds and foliage are common control measures for sweet potato weevil. West Indian Sweet potato weevil (Eucepes postfasciatus) Source: Infonet Biovision (Neem): google.com Figure 32: Sweet potato weevil and appearances of damages caused on leaf and crop TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 43

62 Water shortages and soil management: Water shortages in soil causing lower yields and salt-water intrusion in pumped water are major problems for farmers. In response small farmers store harvested rainwater runoff in small constructed dams or ponds (Figure 33) as well as in natural ponds for use during the dry months. Figure 33: Small pond on farm in St Peter s Antigua and Barbuda Source: IICA Farmers reported shifting to varieties with resistance to drought conditions: These included Hurricane, Mandela, King Crown and Cooly Gal as well as other drought-resistant crops including yam and cassava, eggplants, seasoning pepper, sorrel and scotch bonnet pepper and pumpkin. Staggered planting is also practiced as well as planting during the cooler months. In response to heavy rainfall events and the more common response of increasingly higher use of fertilizers, some farmers reported using less chemical fertilizers while increasing the use of manure Summary of state of application of traditional practices Rainfall is showing trends of decrease since 2006, and is most unpredictable during the wet season of June to December. It is highly unlikely that rainwater harvesting will be sufficient if done only at farm level. Public infrastructure or roadside runoff for harvesting rainwater during sharp peaks are among the opportunities to be explored. Traditional practices in sweet potato are well established and higher yields are achievable with improved practices using the CARDI manual for sweet potato and with irrigation. Water shortages, control of pests in sweet potato, and soil fertility are areas to be improved or enhanced. The evidence of salt-water intrusion in irrigation systems should be carefully monitored in order to put necessary regulatory mechanism in place to avoid longer-term problems in the ecosystem water Main conclusions and recommendations for best options for traditional knowledge transfer Early attention needs to be given to the extent to which pesticides are increasingly used and there is need for country level discreet approach to water harvesting for farming during the dry periods to reduce the current risk from droughts. This should be coupled with a plan to manage varieties of sweet potato with resistance to drought as well as some companion crops with similar resistance, particularly legumes. 44

63 Recommended best options for traditional knowledge transfer Farmers are already using measures such as rainwater harvesting and storage for irrigation during droughts, natural control for pests and diseases and application of manure that can enhance soil fertility and water holding capacity. Best options for early improvements using traditional technology transfer would be those targeted to (i) improve water for irrigation when necessary and for conservation and management of soil water holding capacity and (ii) management of drought resistant cultivars of sweet potato and validation of salt tolerant food crops Barbados Climate: Annual monthly rainfall recorded during the period 2000 to 2009 shows consistently lower rainfall between January and May (Figure 34 below). Rainfall in March is consistently lowest. There are two annual peaks, one in June and another higher peak in November. Where rainwater harvesting is practiced for the farm this trend needs to be carefully monitored to ensure proper planning for informed use of stored water. For Barbados traditionally dry months are fairly predictable. It s in the traditionally wet months or the planting and growing months into harvest that rainfall has become unpredictable or blurred. Figure 34: Downscaled rainfall data showing variability in annual monthly rainfall Data Source: sdwebx.worldbank.org Traditional practices for cassava and hot peppers. Cassava: Traditional farming practices were described for cassava as a mix of CARDI/MOA practices and include planting in rows and the use of manure and grass barriers as well as planting by the moon. Farmers also intercropped cassava with pumpkin. Best production yields were recorded from the mix of CARDI / MOA practices with traditional practices. No details of the practice were provided and no yields. Hot pepper: Practices for hot pepper included adoption of protected agriculture to conserve water and to sustain soil fertility and for pest control by using row covers. Mulch, drip lines, hand planting and nettings to control insects are the combinations of practices in row cover used (Figure 35). TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 45

64 Figure 35: Installing steel frame in row Figure 36: Row cover and netting in PAS for hot pepper Figure 37: Fully grown lettuce in aquaponics Figure 38: Lettuce in styrofoam raft in deepwater culture Source: CARDI 46

65 Innovations, new technologies and weather-related practices: The farmers in Barbados were focused on innovations and environmentally friendly technologies targeted to do the following: Manage water in soil as well as to increase access to water through harvesting and storage including recycled farm wastewater, use of drip lines and application of mulch. Control pests and diseases and weeds using IPM approaches. Modify temperatures and humidity around plants protected agriculture including row covers with nettings and drip Manage soil fertility and use of mulch, incorporation of microbes in soil, measures to recycle water (grow bags and ionizers to sterilize the old nutrient solution); organic approaches using a combination of bio-products (charcoal, bio char) compost tea and organic fertilizers. Growing without soil aquaponics (Figures 37 and 38) Save labour and reduce costs including labour saving devices such as mechanized spraying and the use of yam diggers. Permaculture to control contamination by pollinators from hives external to the farm. The technologies being used in different types of greenhouses included hydroponics, fertigation, solar energy and use of green products for pest control. The combination of these practices resulted in higher yields per hectare for cassava and hot peppers, good crop cover in hot peppers with fewer problems with weeds and higher profits. With changes in weather the farmers have focused more heavily on water shortage issues with practices such as growing plants in buckets and reducing areas under production. Extended droughts are more frequent resulting in lower yields in a number of vine fruits and plantain as well as reduced fruit set in peppers. Activities have been intensified to control pests as well as to incorporate mulch and other organic matter in soil, planting on ridges and the selection of drought resistant crop varieties. In respect of the latter crops added to established mix systems were sweet pepper, tomato, beans, and cucumbers. Some farmers are using double density planting in beans and cucumber, preparing beds with depression to retain more water in soil, added compost including chicken manure and also intercropping for crop cover and soil water use efficiency Traditional practices in small livestock Small ruminant farmers use both extensive and semi-intensive grazing. Animals are carried out during the day and water carried to pasture. Animal housing is practiced for in-house feeding and watering as well as to avoid infections by worms. Housing is also designed to allow movement between ewes and lambs. Sweet potato and grated pumpkin form a part of different feed mixes, with bagasse, river tamarind and molasses. Old bread from bakery with pollard mixed with sweet potato and sour grass are other feed mixes. Rams are fed with a mix of vines mixed with shark oil, natural foods are also added for vitamin supply and sometimes pot salt is added to the feed to increase water intake by the animal. Cross breeding is practised between the Black Belly sheep and the Wiltshire type, pens have been improved, there is closer monitoring at birth and increased use of manufactured foods Challenges in traditional practices Livestock: Poor pastures (Figure 39) for both grazing and bailing of grasses is a major concern with extended droughts. Farmers are facing higher costs to purchase feed and to stockpile hay. More vegetable waste, tamarind and bagasse are used to feed sheep. There is more in-house feeding and watering. An estimated seventy seven percent of farmers claim losses in herd due to poor weather conditions. There is also a limited choice of worm medicine for sheep. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 47

66 Figure 39: Black Belly sheep: Poor pasture is a major concern for sheep farmers BOX 8 Youth perspective on climate change and poor pastures Poor pastures a problem, bailing and grazing of grasses not available. Choice of worm medicine is limited. High concentrate cost. Getting the farmers to work together, stop being selfish with knowledge. Assign a grass farmer or farmers to bail quality grasses under a contract system, in which the grasses will be sold at an affordable price that will help the farmers Make more by-products such as mulberry and cassava available in feed to the farmers. By this the farmer will be able to reduce the high concentrate cost Summary of state of traditional farming: Trends in rainfall especially in the months-june to December are causing delays in planting, and extremes in droughts are a concern. The data is also showing a slight rise in temperature and farmers perceive higher temperatures with reduced fruit set. This situation of warmer temperatures could also favour increase incidence in pests and diseases. Higher yields were recorded from cassava and hot peppers from a mix of traditional knowledge and innovations practices. The menu of traditional practices, innovations and technologies is relatively extensive. Some of the practices can be combined to design organic or landscape approaches in selected geographic areas with benefits for food security, animal feed and environmental sustainability. Small livestock farmers are using improved design in housing for animals to adapt to changing weather, improved feed mix with vegetable waste from the farm mixed with other organic matter. Impact in weather-related changes is resulting in significant losses in small ruminants; droughts are causing poor pastures with higher cost for feed. There is a large menu of practices available in Barbados from which to select good practices in traditional knowledge to improve sustainability and resilience in farming systems in cassava, hot peppers and lettuce. These practices are also well suited to the other countries experiencing new challenges from droughts. However at this time there is not sufficient information to determine the extent to which farmers are using a systems approach Main conclusions and recommendations for best options for traditional knowledge transfer Water scarcity on farms will likely be a major issue in Barbados hence rainwater harvesting and practices such as the innovations now undertaken (hydroponics, planting in buckets, recycling waste water, lining beds with plastics, catchment in beds) by most of the farmers should be given priority consideration in the design of the best practices. Pests and disease control will also become an issue as temperature changes. Livestock farmers will need to explore ways of increasing access to good pastures and reduce cost of feed. 48

67 Recommended best options for traditional technology transfer There is an extensive list of traditional practices, innovations and safe technologies being practiced by small farmers. However the approach seems to be ad hoc and not targeted to established farming systems. The recommendation is that open field and greenhouse systems should be designed (Chapter 3) to facilitate targeted transfer of traditional practices to improve (a) Water saving both in soil and in storage and (b) to encourage or enhance protected agriculture systems including permaculture, organic and landscape approaches and (c) to promote and establish protein banks for goats and sheep and a mechanism for collecting unmarketable farm waste for incorporation in feed mixes Belize Climate: Annual monthly rainfall pattern of the country during the period 2000 to 2009 shows that the dry months are February to April with peaks beginning in May through to November (Figure 40). During this period monthly rainfall is generally high and unlike the island states there is no evidence of trends in less rainfall since 2006 to The pattern of rainfall appears to be less unpredictable over the 10-year period than Caribbean island neighbours with drier months from December to April- May and higher total average rainfall since Figure 40: Total monthly rainfall pattern and amounts showing tendency towards higher annual rainfall between : Data Source: sdwebx.worldbank.org Traditional practices of corn and bean farmers Corn and beans: Small farmers in Belize plant their corn and bean fields manually and in many cases using the scattered planting method. This planting method has disadvantages and some are (a) difficulties in weed control (b) low plant population per area and (c) lower yields. Some farmers are starting to plant their beans and corn fields using several practices (Figures ). These include row planting that allows them to have better weed control management, higher plant densities and higher yields per area. The majority of small farmers practice fallow for a period of at least six months. Some farmers may grow corn as a single crop or intercropped and incorporating mulch TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 49

68 in land preparation. Canavalia, a rapidly growing legume ground cover that helps in the control of weeds and also fixes atmospheric nitrogen, is a common fallow crop. Vegetables: These farmers usually grow tomato and sweet peppers using a range of protected agriculture including tunnel with shading, row planting and mulch with or without fertigation and on-farm seed nursery. Vegetable farmers also grow hot peppers with irrigation Figure 41: Canavalia a common cover crop Figure 42: Mulch in land preparation is planted for six months between last harvest Figure 43: Row planting in corn intercropped Figure 44: Row planting in corn with drip lines with beans Weather-related impacts were from more intense rainfall events and drier months resulting in flooding and droughts. This usually results in incidences of lodging in corn, wind damage and sunburn. Corn farmers usually add more mulch and plant in wind-oriented row to reduce damage. Vegetable farmers growing under tunnels (Figure 45 and 46)experience higher incidence of pests as well as water shortages and responded with increasing levels of pesticide application and installation of irrigation equipment. 50

69 Figure 45: Tunnel structure type greenhouse used in Belize Figure 46: Tunnel with drainage on either side BOX 9 Tunnel structures - type and cost Dimension 14 x 100 x 10 Capacity is approximately 400 plants. Estimated cost: U.S. $1, (includes posts, pipes, cover material, labour and irrigation system. Special feature: This type of structure is relatively more affordable and easier to assemble than other types. Used mainly for the production of cabbage, but sometimes the farmers plant tomato or sweet pepper. All of the farmers use fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides Summary of the state of traditional farming No significant changes in annual monthly rainfall amounts and patterns were observed during the period using the data from WBCCK. However maps of different agro ecological zones in the country show marked differences in rainfall amounts and patterns. Major problems faced were (a) Inadequate water for crop production activities during droughts (b). High wind and rainfall intensities resulting in lodging of corn and poor drainage, low yield and increase in pests and diseases. Also noted in the Country report was the wide range in yields in corn (1000kg 3000 kg per hectare) Main conclusions and recommendations for best options for traditional knowledge transfer Dependency on chemicals to control pests and diseases was noted, as were the problems with drainage and flooding and with wide range in yields in corn. Recommended best options for traditional knowledge transfer Adopt the systems approach to target improvements in soil management for fertility, water holding capacity using mulch and compost and also land practices to improve drainage using raised beds. Monitor and encourage the use of tunnel structures for protected agriculture for vegetables for cover Dominica Climate: The island experiences intense rainfall and higher winds from hurricanes. Higher annual rainfall is concentrated in the upper regions of the country. However annual rainfall on the coast can be as high as 100mm with further benefits to lowland farms from drainage and from river flows to the south and to the north of the island. Dry months seemed more predictable and relatively short (Figure 47) when compared to the other countries in the Caribbean APP. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 51

70 Figure 47: Total monthly rainfall for Dominica showing normal peaks with trends in higher rainfall since 2004 Source: sdwebx.worldbank.org/ Traditional practice in small farming Cassava: Bitter cassava (Manihot utillissima) is grown in small plots on slopes for processing into farine (a cereal-type product) and cassava bread (bami). Land preparation involves clearing the land manually using a machete for tall grasses and shrubs or application of a weedicide for short grasses. Cut grass and shrubs are left to dry for a few days and thereafter piled in heaps and burnt. The land is ploughed using a garden fork and a hoe is used to form mounds on which on-farm produced stem cuttings approximately six inches long are planted. In some areas the crop is planted on strips. Crop establishment and all crop management practices are done at specific moon phases. Fertilizers and insecticides are generally not applied. Ash from the burnt grass in the land preparation phase is sometimes spread on the planting area (Figure 48). Harvesting is done manually from 10 months after planting and is staggered to coincide with the farmer s need for cash at specific periods. 52

71 Fig. 48: Land preparation for planting cassava Figure 48: Cassava sticks planted in traditional using garden fork method Figure: 48: Planting mounds with ash scattered on centered mound Protected Agriculture Systems (PAS): The systems used are primarily metal-framed tunnel structure of varying design covered with plastic (Figure 49), saran netting or plastic overlain with saran (Figure 50). The sides are either left open or enclosed with plastic, insect mesh or bird netting. Drip irrigation is the most common irrigation method used, as material for a drip irrigation system is included in greenhouse construction kits. Most PAS have portable water. Others obtain water for irrigation from storage devices or from nearby rivers and streams. Crops most commonly grown in reducing order of significance are tomatoes, lettuce, cucumber, sweet pepper, cabbage and celery. These are grown in ground in soil formed into beds. Nutrient management is achieved through the application of the following either singly or in combination of liquid chemical fertilizer, granulated fertilizer, organic compost and tea manures. Major problems affecting production in the PAS are high temperature and humidity. Increased incidence and severity of pest have also been reported, the most common being bacterial wilt, powdery mildew, mole cricket, white flies, and mites. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 53

72 Figure 49: Greenhouse with plastic covering Figure 50: Greenhouse with saran netting and plastic overlain with saran Innovations, new technologies and weather-related -practices The focus is on improving growing media to control bacterial wilt and in improving shade in protected agriculture for lettuce. Bacterial wilt is a major problem in tomatoes grown under PAS in ground soil. Innovations that have been introduced to address the problem include: (a) waste from bay leaf processing as an alternative growing medium (b) growing plants in pots over plastic covered ground to eliminate contact with soil and pathogens (Figure 51) and (c) grafting of market desirable cultivars on disease resistant rootstock (Figure 52). Heat stress in green houses: Farmers use dried coconut branches to provide shade (Figure 53) in greenhouses to help avoid heat stress on lettuce. Figure 51: IPM approach to control of bacterial wilt using pots set on ground covered with plastic to protect against pathogens in soil 54

73 Figure 52: Grafting market desirable tomato cultivars on disease resistant rootstock Fig 53. Innovative use of dried coconut branch as cover shade over lettuce to reduce heat stress Wood fire to recycle growing media: Sterilizing recycled growing media in metal drums on wood fire (Figures 54 and 55) to destroy soil-borne pathogens. The temperature of the media being sterilized is monitored to ensure that it reaches the desired level. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 55

74 Figure 54. Soil sterilization with wood fire Figure 55: Recycling process is controlled using temperature gauge Weather-related responses: These included farmer training in the preparation and utilization of mulch, compost and liquid fertilizer (Figure 58) for improved soil management. The focus is on the hillside farms where the terrain is particularly vulnerable to soil erosion and loss of crops and other farm assets during high rainfall events. Adaptive capacities to reduce vulnerabilities to such intense rainfall events have also been enhanced through participatory training received in vulnerability analysis and mapping at the farm level for decision making in DRR including climate smart approaches. For example searching rooftops (Figure 59) for the best option to establish vegetable gardens and to discontinue farming on fragile sites. Farmers are using the benefits of the training by increasingly incorporating mulch and compost in soil management in addition to other traditional practices such as contour planting (Figure 56) and raised beds with constructed side drains (Figure 57). Other weather-related impacts are wind damage to greenhouses and an increase in farm pests and diseases. Figure 56: Contour farming to reduce risks from and landslips during high rainfall events erosion Figure 57: Contour with step drain construction in vegetable bed Source: FAO 56

75 Figure 58: Capacity building in traditional practices and application in practices in Dominica Utilization of compost facility Utilization of fertilizer tea Source: FAO Figure 59: Siting suitable rooftop for vegetable garden in Dominica as CSA option Source: FAO Challenges in traditional practices Weather related risks presented the main challenges due to the difficult terrains on which most small farmers operate. These were mainly wind damage to greenhouses and soil erosion and landslips from intense rainfall events. High rainfall and long droughts also favoured the incidence of different types of pests and diseases. Utilization of organic matter played a major role in land and soil management. Sterilization for soil borne pathogens in soil is also practiced on farm Summary of the state traditional farming Rainfall pattern shows two established rainfall peaks with intense rainfall that reportedly can result in severe damage to farms, through landslips and loss of crops and animals. Hence best practice in good DRR is an opportunity for traditional knowledge transfer in the country as many small farmers operate on hillsides. Long dry periods with rainfall ranging from 40 mm to 130 mm create soil water shortages making rainwater harvesting at farm level necessary. On the other hand relative humidity and temperature conditions are mostly favorable to crop growth at this time. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 57

76 Change in weather is also causing increase in pests and disease and wind damage to greenhouses (World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal (WBCCK) Predictions of the WBCCK are for future climate scenarios of increased rainfall from hurricanes and associated risks and warmer climate with likelihood of increase in pests and diseases. The degree of the expected heat stress and intense drought conditions could affect the types of crops that can be grown with satisfactory yields. Further predictions are that climate change will favour the establishment and spread of new pests and disease vectors, further threatening the production of crops and livestock. The practices observed were directed at (a) strong focus on application of traditional knowledge in farming that protects the soil environment for vegetables, siting of areas with less exposure to risks from changes in climate through the application of on-farm vulnerability mapping as well as roof top planting approaches (b) protected agriculture systems for insect control and to improve shading to reduce heat stress (c) improve production systems for vegetables including the use of vegetable varieties resistant to drought (d) innovations in water harvesting and (e) control of bacterial wilt using bio-medium and pots and the grafted tomato plants. Some other practices include drenching the roots of plants in solution of Miracle Gro instead of spraying and specific to roots and tubers, pretreatment with fungicide. Staggered planting, the use of drought resistant varieties of tomato (variety/ cultivar (Headmaster and TX 100) lettuce (Eden variety) and sweet peppers. Hydroponics, organic approaches and shifting from monocultures to intercropping are also practices used by farmers to counter water shortages in crops Main conclusion and recommendations for best options for traditional knowledge transfer Protected agriculture and traditional open field practice are the two dominant systems preferred by farmers with a strong focus on a range of traditional practices. Open field is vulnerable to the impacts of intense rainfall events that the country receives and to the long dry spells and greenhouses are vulnerable to high wind damage from annual hurricanes and other unexpected events Recommended best options for traditional knowledge transfer Recommendations proposed are for (a) The continuation of practices to improve soil management for adaptation to climate change focusing on mulch, compost and drainage in raised beds; (b) The promotion of greenhouses or shade houses with wind oriented positioning as in Belize (c) Continue the validation of resistant varieties of vegetables and root crops in greenhouses and in open field incorporating IPM practices using FFS approach and (d) Promote and encourage intercropping systems with a focus on the role of leguminous plants for building organic soils. 58

77 7.3.6 Grenada Climate: Rainfall during the ten-year series ranged from 750mm to 1400 mm (Figure 60). The drier months appear to be from March to April with average rainfall of only between 60 mm. to 70 mm. Though low in the dry months annual rainfall is adequate to provide harvested and stored water held for irrigation during these dry months. Figure 60: Total monthly rainfall variability in Grenada Data Source: sdwebx.worldbank.org/ Traditional practices in small farming Cassava: Farmers in Grenada plant cassava at the edge of vegetable plots and give limited priority to the crop as a commodity. Raised beds are prepared at a spacing of 2-3 m. apart. The cassava sticks are cut eight nodes apart and planted in flat trenches on mounds positioned m. apart. Yields from this practice tend to be lower than expected. Reasons given for poor yields include poor soil condition, inappropriate soil type, inadequate quality of fertilizer application and weak pest control measures. Planting material is of poor quality and there are water shortages on the farms. Cassava planting is sometimes intercropped with corn. Hot peppers: Land is cleared manually, ploughed and tilled before planting. Farmers pay attention to good drainage. Healthy seedlings of recommended hot pepper varieties are planted at a density approximately 6000 per hectare when intercropped with coconut and 1200 plants per hectare when alley cropping is practised. Generally the plot size is just over one hectare. Inorganic fertilizers are applied soon after planting and chemical pesticides are used when necessary. Weed control is manually undertaken, and mulching of the crop is practised only by a few producers. Under irrigated cultivation, farmers have a preference for over-head irrigation systems which have the added advantage of reducing the incidence of infestation by flower moth (Symmetrischema capsica), a serious hot pepper pest. Hot peppers. Source: CARDI TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 59

78 Not much attention is given to crop rotation or the proper management of crop residue for soil improvement. As a consequence the build-up of hot pepper pests and diseases in a particular location is not uncommon. When inter-cropped with coconut, hot pepper is replanted every two to three years. Alley cropping is also practiced and in these cases the crop is not re-planted but is maintained and harvested until it is out-shaded by the tree crop. Occasionally, if hot pepper plants are not over-shadowed by the tree crop before the end of the farmer s economic life span, the plants are cut back and allowed to regenerate themselves and with adequate fertilization (especially with nitrogen), will produce abundantly for an extended period. Generally, water for irrigation of hot pepper plots is sourced from nearby streams or rivers. The water is dammed and channelled to the farm through PVC pipes using gravity flow (where possible) or installed diesel-powered pumps. However, in the absence of a nearby stream or river, hot pepper producers resort to the use of potable water for irrigating the crop. Fertigation is not practised in hot pepper production. Innovations, new technologies and weather-related practices: The innovations described were related to some new practices used by hot pepper farmers who have recently undertaken to revive the declines in the industry. These farmers are now using protected agriculture such as growing under shade, practicing rainwater harvesting and drip irrigation with automatic timers and fertigation. They also practice aquaponics (Figure 61) storage of purchased water for the farm (Figure 62) and composting (Figure 63) Challenges in traditional farming Low interest in cassava :There seems to be a general disinterest in growing cassava as an important commodity. Curently the crop is grown as a fence crop on poor soils, with weak pests and diseases control resulting in low yields. Pests and disease and water shortgaes in hot pepper: Hot pepper farmers experience serious problems from stem borer and flower moth resulting in significantly reduced yields. There is a high cost to buy water or to establish irrigation systems to avoid water stress in plants during droughts. Figure 61: Aquaqponics on farm Figure 62: Storage drums for purchased water for the farm Source: FAO 60

79 Figure 63: Compost making on small farm Source: FAO Summary of state of traditional farming The outlook for cassava and hot pepper traditional farmers in Grenada was not encouraging. Cassava farmers are operating on poor and inappropriate soils and the number of hot pepper farmers has declined due to weak markets. Farmers claim that a number of weaknesses in farming have resulted in overall lower yields. There was stated wide spread discontent among hot pepper farmers over production related issues including poor access to credit for start up farm operations and also to secure suitable farm lands. Farmers experience situations of water shortages on their farms resulting in high cost of water when potable water is the only alternative and as a consequence loss in farm profitability. Farmers claim that there is an extensive list of cassava, sweet potato and carrots with resistance to droughts but provided no supporting evidence. In light of the predictions of increasing droughts with climate change the claim of varieties/cultivars with resistance to drought needs to be investigated and managed to the benefits of farmers. Reportedly an attempt to conduct resilience and modeling exercises in selected varieties of cassava, sweet potato, tannia and radish has not been a success in Grenada. This too needs to be investigated to determine the opportunities for managing food crop varieties adaptation to climate change. Finally the MOA should act on the conclusion of the FAO Report (2011) that discreet attention is given to encouraging or facilitating animal houses and processing for small livestock, as there are a number of farmers with high milk yielding goats and furthermore that protein banks are established as a source for livestock feed Main conclusion and recommendation for best options for traditional knowledge transfer Opportunities exit to benefit from several resistant varieties of sweet potato, cassava, hot pepper and carrots which are reportedly in use by small farmers in Grenada with a view to selection for adaptation to climate change, specifically drought conditions. This will require considerations for soil type, soil management and water for productivity and sustainability. Recommended best options for traditional knowledge transfer: Best option towards resilient farming in Grenada and the region is that priority is given to the implementation of a management plan to restore and establish protocols for the facility at Mirabeau and Lara Estate in St. David for the purpose of managing cultivars with resistance to drought for use in small farming systems in Grenada. The management plan will embrace objectives for incorporating critical traditional knowledge practices such as mulch, compost, IPM and rainwater harvesting in the farming systems in research plots and field trials. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 61

80 7.3.7 Guyana Climate: Annual monthly rainfall in Guyana did not show the high level of variability observed in many of the island systems. Rainfall amounts tended to be higher during the first dry period February, March and April than in the second dry period August to October, during the period (Figure 64). Temperature data obtained from hydro-meteorological services in the country indicate rising temperature (Chapter 5). Many of the farmers in the Guyana APP Baseline are rice farmers. As indicated earlier in this document (Chapter 5) high temperatures in rice farming can result in flower sterility and low yields. Figure 64: Total monthly variability in Guyana Data Source: data.worldbank.org Traditional practices in farming systems Cassava: Most small farmers plant cassava sticks in punch holes on ridges and furrows with hoe and fork and no mechanization. In recent times a few of the farmers have added practices such as mechanization, longer sticks (10 cm -16 cm) planted deeper and with wider spacing. The White Stick variety is most popular. There is heavy use of chicken litter and chemical sprays. Cassava Roots Crop rotation is also practiced with cassava. The cuttings are from several different sources and yield range from 10,000 kg 12,000 kg per hectare. Challenges include poor root formation in dry months Hot peppers: Hot peppers are grown under shade or on raised beds, with sprinkler and drip. Crop rotation is practiced and different types of fertilizers are used. The farmers experience problems, high incidence of pests and diseases, poor drainage, water shortages, flower drop and fruit rot. In response to increasingly dry conditions farmers are using pumped water for irrigation, have modified production scheduling, increased the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides and reduced areas under production. 62

81 Plantain: Black Sigatoka in plantain is a problem. Control is usually by detrashing, spraying with fungicide every two weeks and with fertilizer application 12:12:17:2 applied at 2, 3, 5, and 9 months. Other pests include stem borers and nematodes and control methods have been ineffective. Plantain fields are also often waterlogged, with toppling of suckers. Weather related changes: Weather changes were observed in more intense rainfall events and at times extreme periods of dry months with higher temperatures. The May- June rains are said to be most uncertain often resulting in a long dry spell, drier lands and shortage of water for farming Traditional practices in small ruminants Sheep. Practices include animal housing, free grazing, keeping in pens and deworming. The farmers report on improvements in recent times with better housing, better pens and new feeding systems. Other changes include the use of Texanna, artificial insemination services, and introduction of the Dorper sheep (domestic breed) shown below. Dorper sheep (Ovis aries) The breed was developed for the arid extensive regions of South Africa, but is now farmed in Canada, the United Sates and New Zealand. This is one of the most fertile of sheep breeds that is hornless with good body length and a short light covering of hair and wool. This breed has also been introduced in Belize. Domestic sheep breed. www. google. com Challenges Plantain farmers complained of loss on income due to smaller bunches from leaf diseases. Other losses were due to flooding, longer period towards fruit maturity with poor fruit quality during the dry months. The May to June dry spell is more extreme with drier lands and a shortage of non-agricultural water as an alternative for the farm. Farmers responded with delayed planting, pumped water for irrigation, planting different crops, reduced areas under cultivation and application of more fertilizers. Among the different varieties of crops planted during the dry spells were hot pepper (Wiri and Rose Button), cassava (Uncle Mac and Red Stem) and sweet potato (Pink Skin) Summary of state of traditional farming With climate change annual average monthly temperature has been increasing at a faster rate than precipitation and is of concern because of the relationship between vectors and insect pests infestation and other invasive species (Chapter 5). This is in addition to the persistent problems small farmers experience with pests and diseases on the farm. With changes in rainfall pattern, particularly drier spells during the normal dry months, farmers have experienced higher production costs for pumping water for irrigation, and to purchase chemicals to control increasing incidence of pests and diseases and increase in fertilizer application. Farmers also experience fruit rot in hot peppers and smaller bunches in plantains Small ruminants mostly sheep are often sick, usually the lambs, and in general there is inadequate grazing areas due to poor pastures. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 63

82 Main conclusions and recommendations for best options for traditional knowledge transfers Main areas to be addressed include control of pests and diseases in general, water shortages and drainage in hot peppers and bananas. Soil type conditions in respect of suitability for good root formation in cassava needs to be investigated. Recommended best option for traditional knowledge transfer The recommendation is for traditional knowledge transfer to target control in pests and diseases through IPM and FFS, improve drainage in all the crops and to increase the use of mulches and manure in order to reduce the heavy use of chemical fertilizers. Small ruminant farmers could benefit from the establishment of protein banks or tiered intercropping with forage legumes and grasses to reduce problems with grazing areas. In-house feeding and watering (Figure 65) would also increase efficiencies in the use of water and energy required to graze. Figure 65: Good mix of innovation with traditional practice for efficiencies in the use of water and energy conservation is in-house feeding and watering 64

83 7.3.8 Haiti Climate: Rainfall is low and there are frequent as well as extreme dry periods over agricultural lands caused from extensive deforestation. Rainfall pattern for the period shows two clear peaks, the first in April and the second in October (Figure 66). There are about five dry months with rainfall below 100mm and three consecutive months, January to March with monthly rainfall below 50 mm. Figure 66: Total monthly rainfall in Haiti showing extent of dry months in the country Data Source: data.worldbank.org Traditional practice for plantains Land preparation practice is basic, using hoe, tractor, machete and picks. Farmers do work alone but mostly in groups (these practices are also used for cereal, grains and root crops). Plantains are generally cultivated in monoculture (Figure 67). However, in some districts for example Montrouis, plantains are grown in combination with other crops, mainly vegetables (Figure 68). Nematodes, black weevils and Black Sigatoka affect plantain in the field. There is also the presence of the Yellow Sigatoka. Pest control in plantains is generally to discard suckers that display rotten roots or to cut back suckers to 3-4 around the rhizome in order to have stronger and more resistant suckers for the next planting. Plantains are also grown at a distance so the leaves from different plants do not touch each other as another method of control. FHIA-21 is the only named resistant variety. Best yields are vegetables 2200 kilograms per hectare and cabbage 500 kilograms per hectare. Innovations, new technologies and weather-related practices: Farmers described as new practices crop rotation, incorporation of fertilizers and the use of tractor services, irrigation systems based on dug wells and also the use of furrows. These changes resulted in higher yields and more profits for the farmers. Roots and tuber farmers practice composting and adopted the use of inorganic and organic fertilizers. In response to weather, farmers experienced water shortages, and higher spending on pesticides due to increasing incidence of pests. The farmers also reduced areas under production due to water shortages. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 65

84 Figure 67: Plantains in monoculture Figure 68: Plantains intercropped with vegetables for cover Summary of state of farming practices Major issues include water shortage, pests and disease control in plantains, and limited access to fertilizer. Production is low and there is a general shortage of labour. Financing of farm operations is a problem Main conclusion and recommendation for traditional technology transfer Major issues with water shortages and increasing incidence of pests and diseases in Haiti. There needs to be a focus on water conservation, storage and crop varieties with drought resistance. Short-term vegetables, including beans, legumes and small ruminant breeds suited to animal housing should be priority commodities for selection. Recommended practices for traditional knowledge transfer The recommendations for traditional knowledge transfer would be rainwater harvesting systems and measures to use water efficiently (compost, mulch, climate smart agriculture such as roof gardens, planting in buckets and used motor vehicle tyres and inter cropping) and pest control using IPM and FFS Jamaica CSGM is reporting changes in rainfall in Jamaica with more than normal rain in the dry west and less rain than normal in the wetter east (Chapter 5). The south and west are normally referred to as the Breadbasket of Jamaica as much of the food grown here is for domestic use with important contributions to national food security. The area is largely rainfed and the farmers practice dry land farming. The country continues to show the typical bi-modal pattern with a clear dry period during the months of July and August. Temperatures are also warming across the island. 66

85 Figure 69: Total monthly rainfall pattern Jamaica :Data Source: sdwebx.worldbank.org Traditional practices for crops Land preparation is usually by hoe or different combinations of the following: slash and burn grass with Gramaxone, hand weeding, forking, trenching, use of Guinea grass for mulch and fertilizer application, at times mixed in with poultry manure. Many farmers use the Mac Donald s Almanac as a planting guide. Types of farming practices by small farmers are dryland farming and hillside. Small farmers also use organic approaches including permaculture Dry land farming Dryland farming involves the use of mulch to transform the driest farmlands in the country to one of the most highly productive farming areas in Jamaica. The preferred plant material for making mulch is Guinea Grass (Megathyrsus maximus) because it lends itself to a matt formation. Farmers harvest grass for mulch before flowering as this results in rapid breakdown and the capture of a higher percentage of stems to leaves. BOX 10 Dryland farming defined - Jamaica Dryland farming should not be confused with rainfed agriculture. Rainfed agriculture refers to crop production that occurs during a rainy season. Dry farming, on the other hand, refers to crop production during a dry season, utilizing the residual moisture in the soil from the rainy season, usually in a region that receives 51 cm. or more of annual rainfall. Dry farming works to conserve soil moisture during long dry periods primarily through a system of tillage, surface protection, and the use of drought-resistant varieties. Rural Agriculture Development Authority, Jamaica TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 67

86 Some farmers buy mulch from other farmers. An estimated sixty cubic yards of dried grass is required to cover one hectare of land. Fertilizers and other soil nutrients are incorporated into the soil and holes are drilled in preparation for sowing or transplanting. The dried grass piled in heaps at the designated area on the farm is laid out with blades arranged lengthwise in one direction and then the other direction completely covering the soil surface (Figure 70). Figure 70: Typical layout of a mulch farm including some stored water (note drum in the far end of the field) Courtesy: Dane Robinson- Jamaica Youth Farmer The typical layout of a field where the farmer practices mulching is shown the lengthwise direction of the mulch in the unplanted area of the field, as described above. The absence of any evidence of weeds is due to the thickness of the layers of mulch, which is sufficient to suppress all types of weeds. The thickness is also able to trap and retain water as well as to prevent or significantly reduce soil surface evaporation. Farmers continue through with standard crop production activities as normally done. Broadcasting of seeds is not recommended but where this is done less grass is used. In this case farmers check for volunteer weeds even though the thickness of the matt significantly suppresses weed growth. Small farmers growing vegetables and vine fruits (watermelons, carrots, onions, hot peppers) have for decades used this practice while making significant contribution to domestic food production in the country. Among the benefits is that it allows farmers who do not have access to stored water to continue farming through the longer dry period using water conserved in soil (Figure 71) from the last rains. 68

87 This picture shows the richness of the root environment created by the mulch. Note the thickness of the mulch clearly showing the adequacy to suppress weeds and to keep the soil surface cool enough to reduce evaporation. Figure 71: Hot peppers in dryland farming Courtesy: Dane Robinson- Jamaica Youth Farmer Hillside farming practices Jamaica has more than 100,000 small farmers growing crops and keeping animals on hillsides. An important component of extension training is capacity building in traditional knowledge application in the management of hillsides for farming. Figure 72 below is a representation of the basic principles taught to farmers on how to manage soil on slopes for farming. Based on these three standards set by RADA the majority of hillside farmers carry out some form of land management practices to reduce vulnerability to intense rainfall events especially the seasonal hurricanes. The farmers decide on the practice based on their choice of crops and other plants but are expected to apply the basic standards set by RADA. To manage or reduce runoff (cover crops, mulching, and compost incorporated in the soil) For improvements in drainage (cover crops and agro-forestry) and To manage land husbandry (cover crops, contour crops and agro forestry). Land husbandry is central to traditional knowledge practices on hillsides with the single objective of managing along the contours, in order to reduce risks of landslips, soil erosion and rapid runoff. Usually the traditional farmers use plant barriers in different forms: contour barriers (Figure 73), which might be the crop itself, vegetative barriers or special intercropping such as alley cropping (Figure 74). Alley cropping is adopted from agro-forestry practice. It is particularly beneficial in traditional farming when leguminous trees or shrubs are grown with the food crops as they provide an important source as forage for small ruminants. In this way alley cropping can diversify farm output to satisfy the needs of both crop and livestock farming, while providing organic matter for mulch and compost as well as fix nitrogen. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 69

88 Figure 72: Traditional knowledge systems application to land management for crops and livestock on hillsides Source: Rural Agriculture Development Authority - Jamaica Figure 73: Contour farming Figure 74: Alley cropping on hillside farm 70

89 Figure 75: Schematic of hillside farmer in Jamaica preparing layout for planting on contours Source: RADA Innovations, and weather-related practices: The innovative mix of traditional and modern practices were evident in the structure of greenhouses made from bamboo. The structure not only permitted improved ventilation but was also part of the water conveyance system for harvested water. In addition theses greenhouses used mulch and used motor vehicle tyres to improve upon water saving under greenhouse conditions (Figure 76a ). Figure 76a: Mix of traditional and innovative practices in this bamboo structure greenhouse also fitted with gravity fed and solar water conveyance system Source: TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 71

90 Figure 76b: Use of mix of traditional and climate smart innovation in water harvesting Source: Farmers were most dynamic in water saving measures, as well as adaptation to intense rainfall events. Where there were water shortages farmers who were able to, planted closer to the catchment, purchased trucks to carry water or built ponds. Water catchment systems varied (Figure77) from underground storage devices with pumps or different types of ponds. The farmers also changed from drip irrigation to button and reduced irrigation schedules from four to three times per day. Figure 77: Water catchment and storage devices used by small farmers in Jamaica Top: Concrete catchment and reservoir with solar driven submersible pump Center: Hand pump system to lift water from underground storage reservoir Bottom: Rainwater harvest system for livestock 72

91 Traditional practices in small ruminant Small livestock farmers used a number of natural practices to support animal health and to secure sources of feed. Sour orange and honey for colds Vervain and Cleary used to pass after birth and Vervain and Aloe for the same purpose Worm infestations treated with a slice of Aloe Vera placed in the throat or cut up in small pieces and added to the drinking water Diarrhea treated with a mix of quako bush and salt used as a drench Pickled mackerel mixed with flour to make small dough forced into the throat if the animal is losing cud. Bamboo vinegar as a feed additive to combat coccidiosis and bamboo and charcoal for upset stomach Slated floors and trays placed under house for the collection and removal of manure Keep goats in shed during rainy days and in pasture during dry days. Plant legumes, grasses and chaffing forage as good sources of feed. A number of livestock farmers who housed their goats were able to increase efficiency in feeding, the management of drinking water as well as the provision of better health conditions for the animals during the wet seasons (Figure 78). Figure 78: Mix of traditional and modern practices in livestock taken to field for grazing and house for watering and rest Indigenous and innovation practices used by crop farmers Production of own pest repellants and fertilizers and recycling of farm waste Own soil improvement using mix of peanut and chicken manure at planting followed by fertilizers. Raised beds and bio- fertilizers on hillside farm, with lemon grass barriers Vinegar as insecticide and fungicide on organic farm Waste water management for hydroponics. Underlining subsoil with plastic for water harvesting. Permaculture to reduce pollination contamination on organic farms. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 73

92 Summary of state of traditional farming Traditional farming is well established in farming practices The practices described were primarily for hillside and dryland farmers The emphasis was on crop farmers except for some natural and indigenous practices described for small livestock Water harvesting for both crops and livestock was a mix of traditional and innovations. Farmers were less confident on organic approaches Control of pests and diseases an issue Main conclusions and recommendations for best options for traditional knowledge transfer Organic approaches and permaculture can be considered among traditional knowledge transfer Some farmers are losing profits due to high cost associated with water shortages as well as the high cost of pest control DRR practice in traditional knowledge is already institutionalized in RADA with good benefits to hillside farmers. Recommendation for traditional knowledge transfer Promote IPM and incentivize use of natural and bio-chemicals in crops and animals Mulching, crop rotation, contour planting and water harvesting at the farm level Saint Lucia Climate: Rainfall during the wet season is mainly from tropical waves, depressions, storms and hurricanes, which occur frequently over the island owing to its geographical location. The four decades (70s- 2000s) series data (Figure 18) show two wet seasons, the first around May and the second in the months of October to November during which the rainfall peak is higher. However the series data shows a blurred wet season (Figure 79 below). Figure 79: Total monthly rainfall for Saint Lucia Data Source: data.worldbank.org Traditional farming for sweet potato and cassava Sweet potato and cassava are grown in the country both in open fields and in modern and standard greenhouses. Higher yields were recorded from crops grown in completely closed greenhouses. Traditional farming practices are used in both open fields and under protected structures. In open fields land is cleared, ploughed and manure or some form of mulch 74

93 is added. Transplanting of seedlings follows. From thereon mostly, farmers use the Mac Donald Almanac as a guide. Some other farmers use the practices taught at the Sir Arthur Lewis Community College (SALCC). Cassava is grown in pure stands (Figure 80) or intercropped (Figure 81) with annual crops such as Tannia, corn and vegetables or planted on the borders of the farms. Yields vary between 10,000 kg-12, 000 kg per hectare depending on the cropping pattern with pure stands producing higher yields. Figure 80: Cassava in pure stands Figure 81: Cassava intercropped Sweet potato is grown in pure stands or in cropping systems in open fields with selected crops including tree crops, corn, and pigeon peas among others. Figure 82: Pure stand of sweet potato Vegetables are grown in the standard protected agriculture structure with open sides shown in Figure 83 below. Figure 83: Standard Protected agriculture structure with open sides Source: CARDI Farmers in Saint Lucia use two different sizes of this type of greenhouse. Sizes ((9.30m x 18.0 m 167 sq. meters and 9.30 m x 27.0 m ( sq. meters). Crops are planted on beds 1m- 1.5 m wide. However this spacing varies depending on the crops that are grown. Trellis system and drip irrigation are also used. The main vegetable crops grown are cucumber, tomato and sweet pepper and herbs. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 75

94 Traditional practices in small livestock Only limited information was gleaned on small livestock practices. This was mostly on concerns with inadequate forage, cost of feed and the general issues with water shortages on farms. In this respect the practice of one innovative female farmer with a herd of 54 goats is worthy of note (Figure 84-85). Figure 84. Forage grown in backyard in pots for 54 goats instead of on banks requiring less water, soil and space Figure 85: Forage in storage 76

95 Figure 86. Goats in housing conserve on water and energy otherwise used for grazing - higher productivity higher profits through higher efficiency Source: FAO Challenges in traditional farming Main challenges include water shortages and associated high cost to access water and unaffordability of greenhouse start-up cost. Some farmers practice organic farming but this is not well developed and so most of them are deficient in knowledge and application required. Farmers were also concerned with labour shortages, praedial larceny and difficulties in manual operations on the terrain where the farms are located Summary of state of traditional farming Saint Lucia has national policies in agriculture and in climate adaptation that recognize the threat of rainfall and temperature to farming in the country. There are nine strategies that guide policy and actions in the country in climate adaptation in agriculture and support documents to build resilience in farming. Combined, these pay attention to drought and salt tolerant crops as well as heat resistant crops, promote soil conservation measures and water storage irrigation facilities, recognize the impact of climate change and pests, encourage mapping for vulnerability and susceptibility in farming areas and the promotion of agro-forestry for diversification on agricultural lands. Weather in Saint Lucia is changing and the traditional two peaks wet season is blurred. While National climatology data ( ) is showing increase in rainfall in the 2000s, Charts prepared using monthly data accessed from the WBCCK for the period is showing many peaks resulting in blurred pattern especially in the June to December period which is the wet season or the planting season. This creates a blur in rainfall and makes planting times unpredictable. Furthermore climate change modeling carried out in Saint Lucia show trends in decrease that will continue in the future. The rainfall maps for Saint Lucia also show that major areas of the country where farming takes place experience five or more dry months, that evapotranspiration rates exceed precipitation and the highest rainfall is at elevations and where farming is not normally practiced. Opportunity exists to prepare a national program for traditional knowledge within the framework of the nine point areas for action on climate adaptation in agriculture. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 77

96 Farmer challenges are mainly high cost of water in open field where irrigation is used, high start-up cost for greenhouse and insufficient information to do the cost/benefit analysis. New technologies described by farmers include those already listed above in addition to organic practices and adoption of new varieties of cassava and yams Main conclusion and recommendation for best options for traditional knowledge transfer While there is no significant change in annual amounts of rainfall in Saint Lucia, the Chart above shows that weather is changing and the Water and Sewage Company frequently sends out water alerts as dry months of January to March seem to be getting drier. There are many rainwater-harvesting initiatives at the farm level but these are insufficient to satisfy plant water needs. Water for crops is therefore a concern and at the national level priority is given to considerations for drought resistant crops in the Climate Adaptation Policy (2011) and the Revised Agricultural Policy (2009). Cassava and sweet potato are grown in greenhouses and in open field. Both crops are grown in monoculture and in mix systems with vegetables with good yields in cassava. However the farmers are concerned with the high costs of water and the high start-up costs for greenhouses. Farmers expressed concerns that their ability to negotiate credit for startup funds is hampered by the absence of information to support the profitability of greenhouse practices. Recommended best options for traditional knowledge transfer The recommendations for traditional practices include ( i) Mulches, compost and rainwater harvesting practices in open field. (ii) Mulches in standard greenhouse and availability of cost benefit analysis for greenhouse vegetable production and (iii) Mulch and compost and IPM in organic farming approaches using some of the new varieties of cassava St Kitts and Nevis Rainfall amounts and pattern for St Kitts and Nevis ( ) show that monthly rainfall peak for October was highest for 2005 (Figure 87). Also that the normal two annual rainfall peaks have also not been evident since The months of February and March were consistently the driest months of the year during The lower rainfall observed in the other countries of the OECS countries over this same period was not evident in St Kitts and Nevis. However peaks were unpredictable starting with the May rains causing the annual two peaks to be blurred. Figure 87: Total monthly rainfall variability in St. Kitts Data Source: data.worldbank.org 78

97 Traditional farming for sweet potato and hot peppers Traditional farming is a manual operation with and without fertilizer addition or mulch. Farming is rainfed and only the traditional cultivars of sweet potato are grown. Pests and diseases in sweet potato and access to irrigation in general are issues. Farmers also grow hot peppers in greenhouses using trellis (Figure 88). Production in hot pepper grown in greenhouses averaged one kg per tree. However yields could not be calculated as planting density was not provided. Hot peppers are also grown in open field. Figure 88: Open-ended PAS in hot pepper during visit of Greenhouse Committee Innovations, new technologies and weather-related practices: Farmers use a mix of technologies and innovations including (a) new varieties of tomato (Headmaster, Variety # 80 and Black Beauty) and watermelon (Bunta and Tropicule) (b) application of chemical herbicides and (c) greenhouse. Best yields and quality were achieved with a mix of these practices with the traditional. Reportedly farmers also stagger new varieties of corn with other crops but no details were provided on the secondary crops. These farmers apply fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation and plastic mulch using mulch machine. In response to weather related issues farmers have responded with the construction of dams, transporting water to the farm, increasing on the use of plastic mulch, use of irrigation and shade houses. With mulch the farmers observed the added benefits of weed control Challenges in traditional practices Farmers are concerned over the uncertainty in planting and harvest dates, fungal infection and water shortages. There is a major concern over problems with pests particularly the diamond back moth in cabbage and with rodents. In respect of water shortages the farmers listed sweet pepper (King Arthur) and hot pepper (Scotch Bonnet) as showing resistance to drought conditions Summary of the state of traditional farming Traditional farming is practiced in a number of vegetable crops with a mix of conventional such as fertilizers, pesticides and plastic mulch. Farmers face major problems with insect pests and with rodents and water shortages are experienced during the dry months. Hot peppers are grown under screen and shade houses and in open fields and farmers are satisfied with yields Main conclusion and recommendations for best option for traditional knowledge transfer Efforts should be made to document a description of the mix of practices in St Kitts and Nevis that are providing good yields including better reporting on yields to substantiate performance, and replication in relation to the varieties considered to be resistant to drought conditions. Control of pests and disease and access to water during the dry months are the main problems the farmers experience. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 79

98 Recommended best options for traditional knowledge transfer Focus on designs for measures to integrate control of pests and disease in local varieties grown using IPM and FFS approaches including bio-pesticides and inter-cropping and crop rotation, for capacity building in farming systems. Promote shade and screen houses, using mulch, compost and the local varieties of tomato, hot pepper and sweet pepper to improve productivity, test for drought resistance and to encourage youth participation in farming St. Vincent and the Grenadines Rainfall is traditionally in two peaks with a wet season in May and a longer and more intense wet season in October to November. The dry season is normally January to May. However this pattern appears to be changing (Figure 89). Total monthly rainfall pattern show several varying peaks within each year during the months of May and November making planting dates and harvesting times unpredictable for farmers. Figure 89: Total monthly rainfall for St Vincent and the Grenadines Source: sdwebx.worldbank.org Traditional practices in sweet potato Land is cleared with herbicide, the bed rows are prepared manually and soil is then mixed with the weeds using plough and hoe. Slips cut from the tips of running vines are planted by hand. If fertilizer is added this is done at the time the plant foliates. Major challenges are pests (grubs, rats, mongoose), poor markets, no tractor service, sprouting and mole cricket in that order. Staggered planting, new varieties of sweet potato (red and purple vines), liming for improved soil fertility and planting on banks are some of the more recent practices. Impact of agro-ecosystems on sweet potato yields: Data captured on yield performance of nine sweet potato cultivars at selected sites revealed site cultivar relationships in three different locations, Akers, Rabacca and Chateaubelair (Figure 90). Based on the Chart and assuming that all the plots received the same treatments the following claims could be made: Viola appears to be the most adaptive to site conditions at the three locations. Total yield per hectare was highest at Rabacca and was strongly influenced by yields from Dorrel and CARDI K84-7 with both giving combined yields of percent of the total yield in Rabacca Agriculture ranked number eight of the nine cultivars in performance but was out-performed only by Viola in Akers. 80

99 Dorrel and Viola were best performers on combined yields per hectare from all the three sites, with Viola giving its highest yield per hectare in Akers and Dorrel giving its highest yield per hectare in Rabacca. Figure 90: Yield performance of different sweet potato varieties in three different locations in St.Vincent and the Grenadines Site characteristics: The information provided on the three sites was limited to soil types and were as follows: Akers: Akers clay loam and clay Chateaubelair: Yambou: sandy clay loam and Westwood gravelly loam and clay loam Rabacca: St Vincent gravelly loam and clay loam and St Vincent Loam and clay loam Source: GEFSGPUNDP Country program St. Vincent and the Grenadines Challenges in traditional farming Pest control in sweet potato is a problem as well as measures to reduce vulnerabilities to rainfall, which could result in soil erosion and landslips Summary of state of traditional farming Rainfall pattern is blurred, days are hotter and farmers have attributed lower yields, higher incidence of pests and loss of income in sweet potato to these changes. Farmers have shifted from bananas to sweet potato. Based on the findings above there is an opportunity to promote traditional practices with productivity and adaptability in sweet potato systems. Pest control in sweet potato is a problem and there is need to reduce vulnerabilities in the hillside farming to rainfall events that could result in soil erosion and landslips Main conclusions and recommendations for best options for traditional knowledge transfer Mapping of the agro-ecological zones and further validation of the sweet potato cultivars in order to support replication and dissemination within the country and across the region should be given attention. Performance evaluation should also include assessment of resistance to droughts and insect pests of sweet potato and with intercropping with legumes. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 81

100 Control of pests in sweet potato requires urgent attention as well as measures to support the establishment slope management practices including cropping systems on hillsides to reduce sensitivity to vulnerabilities to rainfall events on slopes. This should be supported by location based on-farm vulnerability analysis mapping for sweet potato systems. Recommended best options for traditional knowledge transfer The recommendation is to concentrate on (a) Plan to create species conservation areas (banks) and protocols for protection of clean cultivars in sweet potato giving priority to adaptation to selected agro-ecological zones (soil, water, and soil temperature) with a view to productivity and resilience, and (b) Establish protected structures and open field traditional practices for sweet potato such as raised beds, planting on ridges, mulch and compost and IPM approaches ( intercropping, crop rotation, bio-pesticides) Suriname Suriname has three climatology zones: Equatorial climate, Monsoon climate and Tropical savanna climate. The Caribbean APP should focus on the tropical climatic zone in the South, which is the one that most closely resembles the climate of Guyana and the other APP countries. The rainy season shown below is typical tropical savanna with a distinct long wet season from November to June and a long dry season July to October. The difference in rainfall in wet and dry seasons should be borne in mind when country trials are being conducted. As for Guyana, Suriname shows less rainfall variability than the APP island systems. Figure 91: Rainfall pattern in Suriname Data Source: sdwebx.worldbank.org Traditional practices in small farming Rice: The crop is traditionally grown in wetlands. Land preparation is with mechanization and special attention given to leveling of the soil. Traditionally sowing is manual but sowing is also by aircraft over land that has been flooded and then drained. Fertilizer is added in three stages between days Spraying for pests is also carried out during those days. Pest and disease control in rice is intensive. 82

101 Seeds are sown at kg per hectare. The crop is fertilized three times through the cycle and harvested at 100 days. Rice planting includes detailed soil analyses to ensure best practice in the application of the correct fertilizer mix and scheduling for best yields (rice requires different fertilizers than those used to grow other crops). The plants are usually kept submerged in the field for a period of time to control red rice. Spraying with gramaxone gives the best results. The practices described by farmers are captured in the images below depicting manual sowing, sowing by small aircraft and a healthy rice field. Source: Stichting Nationaal Rijstonderzoeks Instituut- Suriname Cassava: Land preparation and the making of beds and gutters 60 cm apart is done by mechanization. Cuttings of the sticks are made one week before planting and sticks are place diagonally in bed at planting. Farmers confirm that with diagonal placing of the sticks there is less need for replanting. Source of planting material is from the farmer s own nursery or other nurseries and NPK fertilizer is applied at different scheduled times. Hot pepper: Traditionally land preparation is a mix of manual and tractor. The beds are prepared manually and pesticides and inorganic fertilizers are used. Some farmers use planting material from seedling nurseries and apply bio-fertilizers as well as the addition of shells to raise ph in acid soils. Farmers also prune plants to increase vigour. Sweet potato: Sweet potato is planted on ridges with organic fertilizers only. There is no use of chemical pesticides or fertilizers. Farmers use organic approaches only. Plantain: is grown in bed system, with fertilizer and pesticide use to control pest and disease. Farmers use drip irrigation. Diseased plants are removed to prevent contamination in the field. Stems of plants are cut to make a small opening to prevent the fruits from cracking open if sun comes after rain or vice versa. Farmers also prune for Leaf Spot and include a practice of keeping not more than four leaves on the plant. Innovations, new technologies and weather-related practices: Rice farmers have increased the use of fertilizers in cassava, particularly using extra nitrogen and potassium with results in yields of 20,000 (22 tons) per hectare. The high use of nitrogen is cause for concern as there could be leaching in underground water and coastlines. There is also an increase in the use of new types of fertilizers as well as new pesticides, to control incidence of new pests. Many rice farmers are also now fully mechanized from planting to the harvest as with the use of aircraft shown above. Different types of pumps are used for water management and a new rice variety ADRON is planted. Also in response to weather changes farmers are forced to postpone harvests with higher associated cost. There is also the higher cost associated with acquisition of water pumps and irrigation systems for use during the long dry months. The cost to control increase in the incidence of pests and diseases and also for drying of paddy when harvested wet is added financial burden for farmers. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 83

102 Challenges in traditional farming: Major problems in the crops include weeds in cassava, fruit rot in hot peppers requiring regular spraying, water logging and leaf spot in plantains. There are also major problems in control of pests and diseases, particularly fungal diseases Summary in state of traditional farming In general small farming in the country is based on a mix of traditional practices, innovations and technology. Most of the farmers using innovation and technology are the rice farmers. Sweet potato farmers practice organic approaches while plantains and hot pepper farmers use mostly traditional with services such as tractors and also the application of fertilizers. Farmers who use fertilizers apply heavy amounts during the rainy season. Water shortages are experienced during the long dry season and farmers pay high costs for water for the farm. Delays such as planting due to rainfall are also costly to farmers as is the problem with pests and diseases during high rainfall as well as droughts or high temperatures. While farmers use bio- pesticides, shells to reduce soil PH and spacing and other cultural practices to control diseases in plantain it appears that there is a tendency toward the use of fertilizers for higher levels of productivity Main conclusions and recommendations for best options in traditional knowledge transfer The major concern in farming systems is the control of pests including fungal infestation. There is an opportunity to validate three local varieties of rice considered by farmers to be more resistant to pests and diseases than ADRON. These varieties identified as M-125, M-130 and M -128 are also said to perform well in wet paddies. Recommended best options for traditional knowledge transfer The recommendation is to (a) design traditional transfer systems focused on control of pests and diseases (b) validation of traditional mixed with other practices in local rice cultivars for pest resistance and productivity in light of the susceptibility of ADRON to pests and diseases and (c) traditional practices in support of organic systems of sweet potato on hillsides using mulch, compost and IPM The Bahamas Figure 92 below represents rainfall data from the main island of New Providence during the period (Figure 92). The typical bimodal peak for which the Caribbean island systems are known were still evident with the longer dry months during December to April showing monthly rainfall below 100 mm. Figure 92. Rainfall pattern in The Bahamas Data Source: sdwebx.worldbank.org 84

103 Traditional practices in greenhouse and open field. In general the practices are variations of the guidelines provided by the MOA, which include greenhouse technology to grow seedlings for organic farming approaches in open-field as well as in the greenhouse with limited chemicals. Seedlings are transplanted to the open field with an application of organic pesticides and fertilizers only or in greenhouse with hydroponics systems. Only organic methods are used to improve soil fertility and control pests. Farmers in open field use limited amounts of pesticides or mixed tilled soil from which rocks are removed with store bought soil for planting. Innovations, new technology and weather-related practices There was no reporting on innovations. On the other hand many of the farmers were using hydroponics and different types of shade cloths in protected agriculture systems. Seed source remains the supermarket, government seed store, the Produce Exchange and Home Centre. Weather changes were observed as colder months, longer, more intense and unpredictable rainfall events. Farmers also report that droughts seem to be hotter. The results were additional cost for water for plants; delay in harvest and loss of markets and temperature fluctuations in vegetables grown under cover. In response farmers focused on greenhouse crops that do well in the cold months for example broccoli and shifted from tomato to cucumber. Farmers also staggered planting and constructed barriers between farm and ocean to mitigate damage to leaves from salt in the air Challenges to traditional practices The major challenges were the high cost of operating the greenhouses, poor soil conditions, wild dogs, praedial larceny and low prices in the domestic market as well as weak access to funding, Main conclusions and recommendations for best options for traditional knowledge transfer The state of traditional practices in the country was not well described. However there appears to be a preference for greenhouse technology even though operational costs are high. Recommended best option for traditional technology transfer The best option would be to support the practices in organic approaches to farming both in greenhouses and in open field. This will require a clear descriptive of the farming system that will be followed in order to enhance the contribution of targeted approaches in the incorporation of mulch, compost, rainwater harvesting and the use of bamboo and coir as shown in the situation in Jamaica (Figure 77). As in the case of Jamaica bamboo structure for greenhouses is also used in Grenada with good yields even though the structure did not last beyond three years. However the longevity of bamboo structures can be extended for up to 10 years with proper treatment. 7.4 MAIN CONCLUSIONS ON TRADITIONAL SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS Introduction Based on the evidence provided in this document so far there are three basic conclusions to be drawn on the state of traditional farming in the Caribbean region. Each conclusion is described for its role in resilient farming systems Small farming in the Caribbean is underpinned by the principles that govern traditional knowledge Caribbean small farming is underpinned by the principles that govern traditional knowledge: Traditional knowledge is well established in the region despite the strong evidence of innovations used by farmers and though less so the use of new technologies to which farmers are exposed. This claim is best demonstrated in the several practices used by farmers and the extent to which basic traditional on-farm practices have persisted in the seven commodities. Some of these practices are described in brief below but the list is far from exhausted: a. Land clearing is still mostly slash and burn and the use of hand implements for preparation of beds (hoe, machete, pickaxe) is still widely practiced. However the practice of slash and burn appears to be slightly on the decline. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 85

104 Instead some farmers leave the piles of green manure in the field to dry for later use as mulch. Farmers are also increasing the use of compost and manure including the use of on-farm produced liquid fertilizers and manure teas. The importance placed on building organic soils is increasing with farmers awareness of the benefits to soil fertility and structure of organic soils for plant growth, increased water holding capacity in soils and improved structure for reduced vulnerabilities in DRR practices to mitigate impact of high rainfall events. b. As all the farms are rainfed some entirely, the farmers are involved in various forms of rainwater harvesting and saving methods using traditional practices such as harvesting from different types of catchment surfaces (tree trunks, rooftops, bare slopes, road surface). Farmers are also capturing water from rivers, and modifying natural ponds to capture water, planting in swamps and close to the watersheds. Farmers also modify the structure of bed systems to increase saving water in shelters as in bunds. c. Protected agriculture systems incorporate the traditional use of bamboo for constructions of greenhouses, different types of shading including the branches of coconut trees alongside saran covers to reduce heat stress and row planting with mulch in bed preparation. On farm soil sterilization in pots over open fire is still done using equipment to ensure proper monitoring of soil temperature. d. Manipulations of cropping associations for yield and better use of soil water as well as to satisfy domestic market demand and maintain household cash flow. e. Small ruminant farmers are using more of the food waste from the farm in feed instead of store bought feeds, many farmers still practice cut and carry or take the animals to common grazing grounds and the use of natural medicines in animal health is still well entrenched in some of the countries. f. In all of the countries large populations of crop farmers purchase annually and are guided by the planting schedule of the popular century old principles of the Mac Donald Almanac which is based on the phases of the moon Conclusions emerging from farmers perceptions and actions with climate change Water scarcity is driving innovations in production practices: Shortages of water during the dry months, drier months and longer dry months are driving farmers to become more innovative in setting planting times. Farmers now wait for the rains, stagger crops, change crops and practice crop rotation using drought resistant varieties. The practice of planting in buckets, in swamps and closer to the watersheds is on the increase. While planting in swamps and watersheds might provide short-term benefits for farmers, uncontrolled agricultural practices in swamps and in watersheds can have negative benefits for these ecosystems both in the services provided and on the organisms that thrive in those natural conditions. Hence some form of regulations governing these actions might have to be considered. Other practices include saving water in swimming pools from natural streams or ponds on the onset of dry period. These are further indicators that there might be a need for monitoring the longer term impact of small farmers responses currently described as climate smart practices. This is to gather data and information for cautious support for these practices and to anticipate strategic livelihood activity shifts to facilitate access to water for resilience at the farm level, as the predictions and likely impacts of droughts will generate responses not only in farming systems but on all the sustainable development processes dependent on freshwater. Water scarcity and warming temperatures are driving technologies and innovations in Barbados with productivity: Small farmers in Barbados have a strong focus on environmentally friendly innovations and technologies. The combination of practices was intended to (a) manage water in soil as well as to increase access to water through harvesting and storage (b) control pests and diseases and weeds (c) modify temperatures and humidity around plants 86

105 (d) manage soil fertility and (e) save labour and reduce costs. Practices included use of drip lines and mulch to conserve water; IPM approaches including crop rotation for soil water use efficiency; incorporation of microbes in soil, measures to recycle water (grow bags and ionizers to sterilize the old nutrient solution); organic approaches using a combination of bio-products (charcoal, bio char, compost tea and organic fertilizers), permaculture to control pollination from external hives and protected agriculture systems including row covers with netting and irrigation and greenhouses with hydroponics, fertigation and solar energy. The combination of practices for cassava and hot peppers in row covers reportedly resulted in higher yields per hectare than reported for all the other countries with fewer weed problems and higher profits. Small ruminant farmers are very active with innovations: Small ruminant farmers in Jamaica and Barbados were actively engaged in a mix of indigenous practices and innovation. A list of the traditional and innovative practices used in Jamaica is provided in Section Additional practices were provided by Barbados where the main impact of weather was on pastures forcing farmers to find new ways of keeping their animals well fed. Some of the practices can be easily adopted in countries where they do not currently exist. They include using sweet potato and grated pumpkin in different feed mixes with bagasse, river tamarind and molasses. Old bread from bakery with pollard mixed with sweet potato and sour grass as well as other feed mixes. Rams are fed with a mix of vines and shark oil, natural foods are also added for vitamin supply and sometimes pot salt is added to the feed to increase water intake. Animal housing for efficient feeding, watering and warmth is practiced in Barbados and Jamaica. Growing of fodder plants in pots in the yard alongside animal housing in Saint Lucia is also a practice suited for adoption especially for women farmers. Soil fertility for sustained productivity and profitability is a major concern for small farmers: Farmers are particularly concerned with loss of soil fertility and crop productivity with high rainfall events and are responding with increasing levels of fertilizer application even as they use more mulch and compost. Farmers are also changing the usual NPK mixes for granular fertilizer that supply single nutrients for plant growth. These new demands are associated with higher production costs and lower profits. In addition some of these pesticides in use are no longer effective. The increasing use of fertilizers and pesticides will in effect not be the best options for sustained plant productivity with climate changes. Eventually some of these chemicals are carried in soil erosion or rainwater runoff into water tables and coastlines with negative impacts on ecosystem services (eutrophication of water bodies). Over use of chemical fertilizers or in preference to manure can deplete soils of organic matter making them lose soil water holding capacity and the capacity to provide an environment for important soil organisms to thrive (Chapter 2). Furthermore it is unlikely that small farmers will be able to absorb the increasingly high cost of these conventional practices. These rising costs also threaten household food security and general access in farming households and communities. Pest and disease control is a major concern in all of the crops: Small farmers consistently identified the incidence of pest and diseases as a major problem in crops. Sweet potato, hot peppers, cassava were frequently mentioned. Except for Antigua and Barbados there was not strong evidence of a focus on cultural practices or IPM approaches. While many farmers use these practices there was not an objective approach and farmers seemed more confident in the application of chemicals including increasing use and the introduction of new chemicals. This was except for the use of Neem oil and sweet potato pheromone in sweet potato in Jamaica, Saint Lucia and in Antigua and Barbuda. CARDI and the MOAs also conduct farmer training in IPM approaches and many farmers are trained in FFS approach. However next to water shortages the control of pests and diseases was the other priority among the crop farmers. Barbados, Jamaica and Guyana are also showing a slight rise in temperature and the relationship with temperature and insect pests vectors as well as the incidence of other pathogens is well established (Chapter 5). Against this background there is need for a discreet regional approach to sensitize farmers and monitor the likely impacts of rising temperatures TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 87

106 and changing agro-ecological conditions with climate changes and to promote cultural and natural measures to adapt to insect pest and other types of plant pathogens as climate changes. Cropping patterns are popular cultural practices among small farmers: The extent of this was noticeable. Crop rotation, fallow, rotational fallow, mixed cropping and intercropping and staggering of crops were some of the practices described by farmers. Fallow and mixed cropping was common in corn in Belize and intercropping was common in cassava (Dominica and Trinidad and Tobago) and sweet potato mostly for crop cover (Saint Lucia). Hillside farmers mentioned alley cropping only in Jamaica for agro-forestry practices with a view to reducing the need for land clearing in watersheds for food production. Low resource and landless small farmers are beneficiaries of this practice as it is more acceptable in good forest management and there is less pressure from national authorities when farmers comply in this way. Agro-forestry system approach has many benefits and should be encouraged as many forest trees are fast growing legumes (leuceanea, calliandra, gliricidia, pigeon peas), which can provide food, fodder, shade for vegetables, fix nitrogen in soils and provide green manure to build organic soils. Traditionally small farmers as well as many stakeholders in the farming sector have mostly regarded the practices in traditional knowledge application as most appropriate for farmers who cannot afford the costs associated with conventional practices. However this is changing with better knowledge of the compatibility between many of the practices in traditional farming and the measures for adaptation to climate changes in farming systems. By extension this translates into resilient farming systems. These practices include the adaptive capacity to secure an environment for the full functioning of the biological components of agro-ecological systems. For example the benefits of mulch, compost and legume planting associations in food production activities eventually far out weigh the benefits of chemical fertilizers and more importantly they raise the potential for resilience with climate changes. The practices described above are integral to traditional knowledge transfer that target improvements in the natural resources in soil as well as access to atmospheric resources necessary for plant growth. Selective plant variety combinations in the field are also effective in control of pests and diseases as well as for the production of forms of biological compounds that control pests and diseases. Of course there is the positive impact of cropping systems on water use efficiencies, especially those that accommodate planting associations with legumes for forage, feed or for food. In general the wideranging benefits from mix and inter cropping systems cannot be over stated in the practices that promote resilient farming Institutional networks need to be broadened and strengthened The critical importance of closer relationships with institutions involved in predictions and data gathering on climate changes emerged in the document (Chapter 5). Downscaling of rainfall data and information on drought forecasting on a regular basis will increasingly become required tools for farmers to allow them to use windows of opportunity for short term crops such as vegetables and also to know when to be prepared with ready drought resistant planting materials for an expected period of long drought. Farmers also need to be aware of significant trends in warming geographic or agricultural zones populated with small farming systems and to be sensitive to the difference between the odd warm day and where temperatures might be changing. This will allow them to be alert in passing on information to their extension officers on unusual observations in plant behavior or insect populations. These arrangements should not be complicated nor should they place too high a demand on the National Meteorological Services or CIMH. Saint Lucia, Jamaica and Belize are known to have good data that identifies the farming districts and currently on a regular basis provide local rainfall and drought predictions. The most important agreement is for a commitment at country level to facilitate this process and to release the information in the public domain with regularity, as in the case of Belize shown below. 88

107 BOX 11 Online access to rainfall forecast in major farming areas - Belize Rainfall amounts that are expected across districts stations during May-June-July 2016 are as follows. Accumulated rainfall totals for the MJJ 2016 season are likely to range from 200mm to 400mm over northern areas (Corozal & Orange Walk). Over west central (Cayo Central Farm Belmopan and Baldy Beacon) projecting mm of rainfall. Accumulated rainfall totals for the MJJ 2016 season are likely to range from 600mm to 700mm along central coast (Belize District). The South accumulated total are likely to be mm i.e. (Pomona, Middlesex, Melinda Savannah and Punta Gorda). Easy access to advisories as demonstrated here provides good forecasting knowledge on and sensitivity to the onset of agriculture droughts in farming systems. Source: Belize National Meteorological Service (published May 2016) TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 89

108 CHAPTER 8 Options for improvements in good practices 8.1.INTRODUCTION The objective is sustainable improvements in productivity and resilient farming applicable to cassava, sweet potato, corn, rice, hot peppers, and vegetables as well as to the health and productivity in small ruminants, specifically goat and sheep. Five priority areas have been selected based on the main conclusions presented in (Chapter 7). Water management: Availability and access to soil water in rainfed systems; Soil management for resilient farming Pests and diseases control Management of plant varieties and cultivars with drought resisitance Systems approach to integration of traditional knowledge into the broader sustainable development framework 8.2 WATER MANAGEMENT Harvesting and storage of rainwater surface runoff for small farming systems: Water harvesting for use on the farm for crops and livestock has been used traditionally through the centuries, dating back 4000 years or more (Evanari; et al 1971). The practices involved the clearing of hillsides from vegetation to increase runoff. Caribbean small farmers practice rainwater harvesting from rooftops and from ground surface runoff. The practice is most suited to small farmers including micro farmers, as it can be low cost and tailored to the needs of the majority of the small farming community. As will be seen later the amounts which can be collected even from roof top is sufficient to prevent farmers from having to stop planting during the dry months (Chapter 5) or at a minimum, plant smaller areas in line with water harvested. Livestock farmers can store water for growing forages in small containers close to the dwelling or for watering animals (Chapter 7). The practice of rainwater harvesting has demonstrated good potential to change the situation where small farmers experience water scarcity, sufficient to stop planting during the normally dry months of the year. The technology is however based on science and formulae. Farmers therefore need to have a basic appreciation of the requirements for purposeful rainwater harvesting. The diagram below (Figure 93) demonstrates the basic principles of rainwater harvesting: 90

109 Figure 93. Basic principles of rainwater harvesting Source: Adapted from FAO Manual for Design and Construction of Water Harvesting Schemes for Plant Production Box 12 Rainwater harvesting defined Rainwater harvesting defined : Rainwater harvesting for farming is the collection, conveyance, storage, delivery and utilization of runoff water for plant production for food and fodder as well as for watering small livestock. In the open field the collected water is either applied directly to the cropping area and stored in the soil profile for immediate uptake by the crop, or stored in water reservoirs (ponds, mini-dams) or storage tanks Determinants of harvested water The amount of water harvested is determined by climate (annual rainfall, design rainfall- the frequency of an annual rainfall pattern) the type of catchment (rooftop or soil) and the area of the catchment surface. The adequacy of amounts of water stored to mitigate the adverse effects of dry months is influenced by plant water needs and evapotranspiration rates. The complexity of rainwater harvesting is recognized in the definition in Box 12. While this document provides a level of understanding sufficient to help some farmers to adopt rainwater harvesting or improve upon their current practices, it is recommended that farmers seek the assistance of the National Extension Systems or CARDI to help with the calculations in concepts such as design rainfall and annual cumulative water harvested. In this respect the parties might consult the FAO Publication titled: Rainwater Harvesting Methods for Agriculture in the Caribbean Sub-region (2014). The publication presents information in the form of a compendium on rainwater harvesting for Agriculture in the Caribbean Sub- region. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 91

110 Basic components of a rainwater harvesting system: The four basic components of a rainwater harvesting systems are as follows: a. Catchment surface of known area (bare soil with light vegetation, concrete or rooftop) b. Conveyance for the water collected which might be a gutter or tube and c. Structure or device with enough storage capacity for the calculated annual cumulative amount of water harvested during the wet months (April -May and November- December) and with fittings for distribution of the water (irrigation apparatus) d. Knowledge of the rainfall pattern, average rainfall and design rainfall for on-site location of the farm. Figure 94 below is a schematic of a design for a simple rain watering system for harvesting and for calculating storage. Many small farmers have adopted this diagram based on their resources or on their need for water during droughts. Figure 94: Basic components of the harvesting system Source: INFONET-BIOVISION (2010) The information at (d) above is required to make the necessary calculations to estimate the annual cumulative storage for the specific farm. As indicated above the calculations and the determination of the annual cumulative storage at the particular farm will more than likely require the support of the respective agriculture extension system or an institution such as CARDI. It is best that the storage capacity meets the requirement for harvesting of all the water as calculated. This is to ensure optimum harvesting of runoff for the particular farm or area. The formulae used estimates cumulative water harvested at each rainfall event based on the surface area of the catchment, the efficiency of the catchment surface (RCE) and the design rainfall and is necessary for the determination of the size of the storage device the farmer will need to construct or purchase. In this manner the storage device may be dam, pond, concrete structure or any similar device. Collection efficiencies of surfaces vary from bare soil to soil covered with different types of uneven surfaces to smooth surfaces such as zinc, plastic and concrete. The amounts are based on mathematical calculations but put simply the amounts collected at each rainfall event is determined by the collection efficiency of the catchment surface and design rainfall. Design rainfall is not annual average rainfall (See Box 13). The farmer might also need some assistance from the extension service to calculate design rainfall or with the assistance of his child consult the FAO Reference given above. 92

111 The calculations are necessary in order provide guidance on the provision of a storage capacity which is too large with un necessary higher cost or too small there by causing loss of much needed water to runoff. The storage capacity should not be larger than the potential amount of water that can be stored during the wet season and it should not be too small so as not to be able to collect the potential amount of water that can be stored. How much water can be stored from these rainwater-harvesting systems? A reasonable question is how much water can be stored to safely take the farmer through the dry months. Is this amount of water sufficient to water /irrigate a crop? The calculations done to estimate annual cumulative storage for Dominica and for Barbados using catchment surfaces of 90 per cent efficiency and an area of 100 square meters are shown in Figures 95 and 96 below. Box 13 Design rainfall defined Design rainfall for rainwater harvesting for agriculture is defined as the total amount of annual rainfall received by the farm at which or above which the catchment area will provide sufficient rainwater runoff for harvesting and storage to supplement crop water requirements. This rainfall amount is based on series rainfall data of years and is available for all the countries through the National Meteorological Services. Note the catchment is not the watershed but the localized area impacting the farm Source: FAO Figure 95: Annual cumulative storage in Dominica based on RCE 90%, design rainfall 199mm and surface area 100m2 Source: Rainwater Harvesting Methods for Agriculture in the Caribbean Sub-region-FAO TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 93

112 Figure 96: Annual cumulative storage in Barbados Source: Rainwater Harvesting Methods for Agriculture in the Caribbean Sub-region-FAO In respect of adequacy of water stored to provide irrigation during the dry months (normally January to March Figure 95) the crop water needs of selected plants over the total growing period (one plant) are given in Table 2 below. Using the annual cumulative storage (186 cubic metres or 49,113 gallons) for Dominica and the crop water demand for the selected crop from Table 2, the amount saved would be adequate to supply water for irrigation for a small farmer for one or a mix of the crops below during the normal dry months. 94

113 Table 2 Selected crop water need and potential for rainwater harvesting and storage for irrigation during dry months -Dominica Crop Approximate value of seasonal crop water needs. MM needs over total growing period (single plant) Planting density (per hectare) Conversions 186 cubic meters (Gallons) 49,136 Cassava /ha-.009 m3/ 3gallons Potato /ha.0231 (6.10) Plantain/banana /ha.006 (1.58) Bean /ha.099 (26.1) Corn /ha (33.28) Pepper /ha 0.13 (34.34) Tomato per ha (34.34) Sheep Goats (milking) Goats (dry) gallons per day 20 litters per head per day 4 liters per head per day Not applicable Not applicable Crop water need adopted from Box 14 Adequacy of storage for crop water neds during traditional dry months (a) 0ne cubic meter water = gallons (b) One cubic meter water = 1,000,000 mm (c) Crop water needs depend on stage of growth and the crop. For example cassava is most sensitive to water during the first three months of plant growth hence when watering from cumulative storage the farmer must be mindful of the relationship between stage of growth and crop water needs. Box 15 Simple calculations for potential rainwater harvested For those farmers who might not have any access to support services to calculate amounts of water that could be harvested a rough guide published by GEFUNDPSGP Saint Lucia is provided in Table 3. The interpretation of Table 3 is that for every square metre or square foot of rooftop catchment or any other smooth surface catchment the amount in gallons or litres in the same row in the Table is the amount harvested. This is a rough guide of approximate yields for surfaces harvesting at REC between 50 percent and 90 percent. Such surfaces are zinc, plastic or concrete. Table 3. Simple rough estimate of water harvested per square metre or square foot of surface Rainfall Water harvested from rootfop Rainfall Water harvested from rooftop Mm Inches Litres per square meter of rooftop Gallons per square feet of rooftop Mm Inches Litres per square meter of rooftop Gallons per square feet of rooftop 25.0 (1.0) 30 (0.6) (8.0) 250 (5.0) 50.0 (2.0) 65 (1.3) (9.0) 280 (5.6) 75.0 (3.0) 95 (1.9) (10.0) 310 (6.2) (4.0) 125 (2.5) (11.0) 340 (6.8) (5.0) 155 (3.1) (12.0) 375 (7.2) (6.0) 185 (3.7) (13.0) 405 (8.1) (7.0) 220 (4.4) (14.0) 435 (8.7) Source: GEF SGP UNDP (Saint Lucia) TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 95

114 It is important to note that rainwater harvesting in rainfed systems is for the purpose of storing water for use during the dry months of the year. It is not for every day use. Farmers must therefore incorporate other water saving methods in the farming system to keep the crops growing during the wet season without having to resort to using rainwater harvested for use during the dry months. These practices would include use of mulches, compost, intercropping and many of the other practices described in the country documents. Saving water in soil is described later in this section Improving rainwater harvesting experiences in traditional farming Figure 97 below shows some of the challenges that Caribbean small farmers experience in order to keep crops growing and to water their livestock. Due to the terrain and the rainfed characteristics of the farms many farmers will continue to experience some degree of challenges, which could even worsen with the threat of climate changes. Figure 97: Resource poor farmers use trees to harvest rainwater Source: Caribbean Development Bank ( CDB) 2008 In the Figures 98 and 99 below individual farmers who can afford to do so set up small systems on the farm or design greenhouse (Figure 100) with plastic roofs and conveyance system and storage. Figure 98: Rooftop rainwater runoff on a local farm in Montserrat Figure 99: Rooftop harvesting with pump Source CDB (2008) Source: IICA-IFAD 96

115 Figure 100: Typical greenhouse that can be seen around the region with plastic roofing and concrete storage for rainwater harvesting Source: CDB (2008) Participatory community based and other approaches for better access to harvested runoff Small farmers could enjoy a measure of easier access by adopting some of the community based type participatory approaches to rainwater harvesting observed in some of the countries. Some examples are shown below: Ferro-cement tanks: The ferro-cement tank shown below (Figure 101) is common in Dominica and is familiar to farmers in many islands where the skill to build these tanks was taught to small farmers under IICA s Rural Development Program. This tank has a capacity of 17,000 gallons and is used mostly by greenhouse farmers. The cost of building one tank is considered reasonable and the farmers can build the tank themselves without additional technical support. Farmers working on contiguous plots of land should be encouraged perhaps through incentives to build more of these tanks for shared rainwater harvesting systems by an agreed number of farmers. The design and instructions to build one of these tanks are given below (Figure 102). Participatory approaches for the use of ferro-cement tanks should be carefully discussed and agreed to by the beneficiaries concerned, as there are situations where farmers who individually own these tanks have introduced fish farming into the stored water. Ferro-cement tanks can be easily constructed on farmers holdings with little technical support. In preparing the mould, the ribs must be cut out in a curved shape to give the desired curve of the tank, and then the 1/4 finishing plywood is nailed on the frame casing. Each piece must be 2 high and of variable lengths depending on the circumference of the required tank. The mould must be placed one on the other to give a height of 6, which is the height of the sides of the tank. For this 17,000-gallon tank, 20 such sidepieces are required. The top of the mould must have a 2 pitch. A center pole is also required to support rafters against the side of the mould, and is prepared with a base to maintain an upright position when rafters are being attached. Sections of finishing plywood must also be cut in a triangular manner for placement on rafters to form the top of the mould. Additional benefit is that the mould can be used for several tanks. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 97

116 Figure 101: Ferro-cement tank with capacity of 17,000 gallons can be built and shared by an agreed number of farmers working on contiguous farms Source: IICA The tanks could be designed to collect water from two or more rooftop like catchment surfaces from materials such as zinc or plastic. Also due to the fact that the mould can be used several times this is a very good practice for a participatory approach to secure water for crops and for livestock Table 4 Materials for construction of 17, 000 gallons ferro-cement tank. (64,352 liters; cubic meters) 53 bags cement 1 length 3 PVC pipes x 19 SCH 20 8 cubic yards sand (not sea sand) 1-2 elbow SCH 40 3 cubic yards aggregate 1-11/2 elbow SCH 40 1 roll BRC 6/6X 7 x pounds nails 82 ¼ steal rods 1 roll wire netting ( chicken mesh) ½ hex 4 x kilos binding wire 1 roll plastic mesh 4 ml x 10 x lengths 11/2 PVC pipes x 19 SCH 40 Materials for the mould 161/4 finishing plywood BRC pine 6 pieces lumber dried 151/2 finishing plywood BRC pine 16 ½ ply board 20 pieces lumber 2x3x18 dried 21-1x10x10 lumber dried 98

117 Figure 102: Materials required to construct the ferro-cement tank for storage of harvested runoff rainwater External view of section of the mould for side of tank Internal view of section of the section of the mould for side of tank Triangular section of mould for top of tank Centre pole for support of rafters and triangular sections of the mould Source: IICA Rainwater runoff from natural slopes: Water runoff from a natural slope can be shared by an agreed number of farmers who are willing to establish the rainwater harvesting system. The parts of the system will be the slope itself, which should have some vegetation on it and which will serve as the catchment, some kind of conveyance to the storage which can be a lined depression preferably a pond or mini dam( Figure 104) and the distribution system to the different farms. Farmers should bear in mind that hollow treated bamboo is a good conveyance tool. The soil surface is the most common catchment for small farmers. Natural slopes covered only with vegetation are best with runoff coefficient (RCE) ranging from between 0.25 to 0.50 suggesting reduced probability for rapid water loss and soil erosion with adverse impact of soil fertility. However managing natural slopes, as catchment surface in rainwater harvesting is a bit more challenging than roof top catchment. Natural slopes are uneven unless they are paved and can make the efficiency of the surface to collect runoff vary per unit area across the same 1 catchment area. 1 Note as indicated earlier the catchment area is that localized area within the farm and directly affecting the farm and not the entire watershed catchment. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 99

118 Figure 103: Typical natural slope for catchment for rainwater surface runoff Figure 104: Schematic representation of a layout for rainwater harvesting from natural slope located above Source: Rural Development Authority Jamaica Source: CDB-Rainwater Harvesting How to measure surface runoff from bare soil: Siegert 1978 provides useful information on how to use runoff plots to measure surface runoff under controlled conditions. The plots should be established directly in the area of the farm or an area very similar to the farm. The size of the plot should be as large as the estimated area of the planned catchment but if this is not possible a minimum size of 3-4 m in width and m in length is recommended. Smaller dimensions might give misleading results. Avoid sites with cracks and gullies. The gradient along the plot should be regular and free of local depressions. During construction of the plot, try not to disturb the natural vegetation or to cause any compaction of the soil, and if possible lay out more than one plot to take care of variation. The other instructions below should be carefully followed. a. Mark out the edge of the plot as shown in Figure 105 below and then drive wooden planks into the soil around the plot with at least 15 cm of height above ground to stop water flowing from outside into the plot and vice versa (Figure 104). b. Install a rain gauge near to the plot and at the lower end of the plot prepare a gutter to collect the runoff. The gutter should have a gradient of 1% towards the collection tank. c. Backfill and compact the soil around the gutter and make sure the joint between the gutter and the lower side of the plot forms an apron to allow smooth flow of water from the plot into the gutter. d. The collection tank may be constructed from concrete blocks, buried barrel or it can be plastic tank but with cover to protect against evaporation and direct rainfall. e. The storage capacity of the tank depends on the size of the plot but as for rooftop harvesting it should be large enough to collect water also from extreme rain storms. Following every rainfall event or at a specific time after every rainfall event the volume of water collected in the rain gauge and in the runoff tank must be measured and recorded. The gauge and tank must then be completely emptied, any silt deposited in the tank and the gutter must also be removed and the devices reset. 100

119 Figure 105: Standard layout of a runoff plot to calculate runoff efficiency Source: Siegert 1978 Facts to remember about slopes include (a) Steep slopes collect more runoff than gentle slopes; (b) The quality of runoff decreases with increasing slope length and (c) The volume of runoff per unit area increases with the decreasing size of the catchment, i.e. the larger the size of the catchment the larger the time of concentration and the smaller the runoff efficiency (Siegert 1978). The volume of runoff depends on the type of surface, the degree and length of slope, and rainfall intensity and duration Dams for participatory approach : Five small farmers in Saint Lucia share responsibility for this check- dam (Figure 106). This allows the farmer who is at the very end of the farming area to have access to water for his farm. They have an arrangement for distribution lines, maintenance and for watering times. Now the farmer at the furthest point from the river also has water. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 101

120 Figure 106: Check-dam on river in Saint Lucia shared by 5 farmers Source: IICA Rainwater harvesting training manual Figure 107. Cades Dam Irrigation system St Kitts and Nevis participatory approach to water harvesting Cades dam irrigation system serves eleven vegetable farmers on the island of Nevis. The farmers grow vegetables. Note the shut off valves and spillways Source: IICA Saint Lucia 102

121 Water catchment systems as on farm ponds: The pond below with a capacity of just under 630,000 gallons was built as a demonstration in Antigua and Barbuda with IICA support and is most suited to participatory approach for water harvesting and management for small farmers working in adjacent fields. Sketch of water catchment Figure 108. Pond and requirements for construction of a water catchment in Antigua and Barbuda suited for participatory approach Site requirements Materials for construction of water catchment Dam Tee Cap Elbow cap Heavy pipe PTPVC Solvent Cement Poles Gate valve Trench Male adapter Geo-membrane liner Flange Flange Bend Reducer Coupling Fencing Trench Fencing wire Binding wire Other materials Grassing for embankment Source: IICA TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 103

122 Participatory approaches to water harvesting, storage and use requires arrangements for water sharing. As there is normally a number of users, the activities of any of these users can restrict the flow of water to the storage water. Thus, the establishment of schedules for irrigation and adherence to these schedules among users is critical for ensuring that the water needs of all users are satisfactorily addressed. System maintenance in participatory arrangements is also important. As these systems are relatively simple what is required is overall maintenance, mainly keeping the catchment areas free of debris and other obstacles to the flow of water. In natural slopes the vegetation should be kept low and the collection point free of sediment. Maintaining the network of distribution outlets to the respective farms should be done frequently so as to avoid loss of water from leaks and preferably micro drips should be used. Where a farmer chooses to use bamboo to convey water through his farm, split bamboo should not be used, as this will increase evaporation. PVC pipes are quite durable and can be expected to last for over 10 years. With adequate maintenance of the system, the overhead sprinklers can have a useful life of five years or more. It is important that farmers remain mindful that stored water is for use during long dry months January to March-April and not for use at low rainfall periods during the wet months. Farmers should therefore make use of other traditional practices that increase water use efficiencies such as planting cover crops and intercropping. Proper application of mulch and compost can increase soil water holding capacities so as to avoid the need to use water stored for the long dry months. Community based particpatory approach to access water on contiguous small farms is used globally among small farmers. The approach used can be by agreement among farmers based on their own decision-making or with public support in collaboration with development partners Storage in soil for intermittent dry days (5-10 days) Storage in bunds (often referred as micro catchments): In situations where there are intermittent droughts during the normal wet period, practices to retain more water in the soil can make the difference between a poor and a good harvest. RCMs for the Caribbean region and rainfall data for Jamaica (Chapter 5) are showing five consecutive dry days during the wet period. Often by day seven of an unexpected dry period farmers who are entirely rainfed are already concerned about water for vegetables. In this situation bunds are useful as rainwater can be trapped and stored in the shelter of the bunds for these short periods for later use. Contour bunds (sectioned ridges) can retain water in soil for longer periods after rainfall events sufficient to avoid farmers using stored water and also to keep crops growing well.contour bunds are created along the regular long slope for contour planting, except in this case the slope is divided into a series of shorter sections (Figure 109) separated from each other meters apart by (spillways) erosion control structure. Contour bunds are more suited to even flat land and to slopes of five percent and under. By this method more of the runoff water is collected and retained in soil for a longer period after rainfall events to serve crops planted on the bund. Semicircular shaped earth bunds (Figure 110) are shaped with tips on the contour in a series of bunds with staggered formation. This type of bund is suited to flat lands, steeper slopes and to uneven surfaces and can retain more water than contour bunds due to the small well (shelter) at the tips. There was no evidence of semi-circular bunds found during this study. However these soil water holding shelters are often created where tree crops are planted because of the capacity given to the soil around the crops to retain more water after drainage. 104

123 Figure 109 Contour bunds (sectioned ridges along the contour lines) Figure 110 Lay out of semicircular shape bunds Source: ANSCHUETZ et al. (2003) Both types of bunds should be encouraged among farmers, in particularly hillside farmers, for the following reasons: Rainwater surface runoff can be stored in bunds in amounts adequate to provide soil water for up to five days if all other traditional soil management practices are adhered to including constructing the bund with additional top soil material containing organic material cleaned from the field. Soil erosion and soil nutrient loss can be reduced and yields have been increased elsewhere from 80 percent to 100 percent compared to where the practice is not used. Favours the growth of trees in the cultivation thereby accommodating trees (leguminous trees) and agro forestry practices. Especially beneficial to small hillside farmers who have no alternative to direct rainfall for soil water supply and often must stop planting or even change crops with disruptions from unexpected short dry days. Semi-circular bunds can be placed at steeper elevations and on uneven surfaces. They also accommodate trees and are therefore useful in alley cropping and in protein banks on the flat land or on hillsides for livestock or in integrated farming systems Public infrastructure for rainwater harvesting for farming In view of the predictions on the future challenges, which will emerge with climate change some of the Governments have included considerations for public infrastructure for rainwater harvesting for farming. The rationale for this is that even at this stage of changes in climate, water stored is highly dependent on the farmer s capacity to establish a system with TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 105

124 the storage capacity as shown in Table 2. Hence many small farmers and perhaps most small farmers will not have access to enough water to take the crop farmer through the two-three months of dry. Public infrastructure structure in farming communities is one way to alleviate the water shortages many farmers now experience and as predicted will continue to experience. The dam below constructed on a sweet potato farm in Antigua is described in Section This is an example of the potential of rainwater harvesting in a public infrastructure community-based approach to provide water for small farmers during the dry months. Water would not only be available but accessible at a much lower cost to farmers, production would be more stable and suited to market arrangements and livelihoods more sustainable. This approach would however have implications for coordination at the policy level as there are many other ecosystem services linked to rainwater surface runoff. Not withstanding a public policy approach would be in line with those countries which have in fact included strategic approaches to water for farming with climate change as well as those where such recommendations have been provided by the WBCCK (Chapter 5). Rainwater harvesting on sweet potato family farm in Antigua (dam under repairs) Managing water use for efficiency Managing water for efficiency is an important part of water management in small rainfed farming systems. Some of these practices are listed below and are in use by Caribbean farmers but need to be more widely adopted. Primarily the practices fall into three categories. a. The efficient application of water to the soil and recycle of water for reuse, b. Conservation and efficient use of soil water for production of food and fodder and c. Management of water for animal health. Efficient application to soil or other plant root environment: Some practices that have worked well for small farmers, including innovations are covered in Chapter 7. Briefly they include efficient irrigation systems mostly micro-irrigation with timers. With around 60 percent of water used for irrigation wasted, irrigation practices can be blamed for a lot of water loss. Appropriate methods such as drip irrigation can be more expensive to install, but research from IFAD and ICARDA 106

125 shows they can also be 33 to 40 percent more efficient, carrying water or fertilizers directly to plants roots. Other practices include (a) planting in buckets (b) watering in the late evening (c) micro irrigation systems with timers and bubblers and (d) recycling waste -water from the farm. Conservation and efficient use of soil water: Soil water use efficiency can be significantly improved through practices such as use of crop cover and low tillage that singly or together can reduce evaporation rates; use of intercropping based on tiered root architecture that permit use of water deep into the soil profile and in the aerial part of the plant; break up rainwater droplets and slow infiltration rates as well as provide shading to reduce evapotranspiration rates. Other practices include the growing of drought resistant plant varieties during the dry months for best productivity. The farmer should always use the opportunity of cropping systems to reach for multiple benefits. Examples here would include intercropping systems that improve soil water use efficiency and in addition improve soil fertility, provide forages and suppress weeds. Good examples while using sweet potato as cover crop would include considerations for growing in combination with leguminous trees (gliricidia, leuceanea), for forage and or pigeon peas for food and soil fertility. Pigeon pea is known for its deep roots and for nitrogen fixation from atmospheric nitrogen and is a good companion crop in these combinations. Farmers should avoid using cover crops that livestock like to eat if the farm is not fenced. Where the cover crop is not the main crop, other good cover crops could be jack bean (Canavalia as done in Belize) or sunn hemp Crotalaria. Use best planting dates for water use efficiency: Delayed planting can lead to drastic yield reductions in some plants such as Cassava (Figure 111). An important consideration in cassava is the relationship between efficiency for best water use and planting dates. In Nigeria the long rainy season starts in February-March and ends in July with a peak in June followed by another short rainy period starting in September and ending in October. In Trinidad and Tobago best-planting dates for sweet potato is in the last quarter of the year. Figure 111: Effect of planting dates on crop water use efficiency Source: FAO Save and Grow TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 107

126 Manage drought resistant plant varieties for food and forage during the dry months: Eggplant and okra are good drought resistant crops; pigeon pea is good for food and forages while leucaena is a good forage crop. Figure 112: Drought resistant plant varieties for food and forages for water use efficiency Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) Leucaena leucocephala Pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan) 8.3 SOIL MANAGEMENT Crop yields are a function of soil conditions (FAO Save and Grow Cassava 2014). According to the APP Baseline Survey 2014 many farmers are using chemical fertilizers and herbicides for higher yields and better control of pests and diseases in crops. The amount of chemical mixes applied is on the increase as farmers try to counter the impact of climate change on pests and diseases and on leaching of fertilizers in soil. The relationship between the release of chemical fertilizers as well as herbicides that eventually reach the soil is well established. Chemicals can contribute to the reduction of microbial life in the soil resulting in the need for larger amounts of the applications, which over time can reduce the ability of soil to regenerate its own organic matter (Stuart Chapin 111; Matson; Money; 2002). Organic matter is one of the most important components of soil. Farmers can carry out good traditional knowledge practices that can create organic matter in soil on the farm (manipulation of cropping systems and integrated farming systems) or off-farm in compost piles over bare ground (Chapter 7- Grenada) or in plastic containers (Chapter 7-Dominica). The process of creating organic matter in soil results in the ultimate return of soluble organic nutrients to the soil for use by plant for growth and creates a soil structure that holds more water in the profile. The process involves the work of micro -organisms (Chapter 2). The origin of the organic material is usually green plant waste material sometimes with additional materials such as eggshells, coffee groundings, banana peel, seaweed, grass clippings, urine, feathers, hair, bones, and carcass. The rest of the mix is micro -organisms or decomposers such as bacteria, fungi and nematodes that process insoluble organic substances. Decomposers also add their own cells to organic matter 108

127 when dead. Specifically decomposers initiate and complete the process of decomposition and mineralization that change organic forms to inorganic forms (minerals, soluble or insoluble). These minerals flow through the soil solution and finally are used by plants and organisms, or stabilized to become humus, through the process of humification. This process described as taking place in the soil environment is the same process that occurs in a compost pile. In view of the predictions of rainfall events and soil changes with climate change (Chapter 5) practices that involve the building of organic matter in soil or elsewhere for later application to soil are part of the process of adaptation to climate change and towards resilient farming systems. The proposals for good practices include (a) application of organic matter as mulch and compost (as manure teas, liquid fertilizers or fresh) and (b) manipulation of planting systems that use soil nutrients and water efficiently (monoculture, intercropping, mixed cropping, crop rotations and integrated farming systems) and that eventually add organic dry matter to soil Mulch and compost These two practices are sustainable alternatives to chemical fertilizers as together they contribute to the adaptive capacity of the soil environment to support plant growth even with climate change. This happens by way of the enhanced soil water holding capacity and sustained soil organic nutrient release from decomposed organic matter. The use and functions of mulch (dried vegetative material - normally the residual plant material after harvesting in different forms including saw dust) and compost (manure) are complementary as mulch ultimately decomposes to form manure Mulch The use of mulch was introduced earlier in Chapter 7 and also under water management in this Section. Here the Section will elaborate on the advantages and disadvantages of mulch in soil management for sustained plant health and sustained adaptive capacity in farming systems to changes in the state of the soil environment. It will also reference examples of demonstrated benefits of mulch and how to make mulch. The benefits as well as the disadvantages of mulch described here are strongly influenced by the contents of the training programme on mulch and compost conducted by RADA Jamaica and are as follows: Improves water management in soil: By covering the soil surface with mulch during the entire crop duration, water can be trapped in mulch as well as held in soil for use during droughts. The benefits of mulch should not be confused with rainwater harvesting. In mulched soils crops continue growing during periods of drought when the farmer has no access to irrigation. The soil moisture is virtually trapped within the mulched soil environment. Three important outcomes of adding mulch are: i. In the early stages after seeds are sown, the moisture resulting from condensation promotes germination and allows for a proper stand of the crop to be grown. ii. The root area is kept much cooler allowing for better crop establishment and nutrient uptake and iii. Most importantly for dryland farming the water is available over a prolonged period to the established crop sufficient to provide a good harvest, even without the benefits of irrigation. This is of significance to the stability of the farmers income as well as for domestic food security, as described for Jamaica (Chapter 7). Weed control: Mulch suppresses weed growth hence there is less competition between the crop for nutrients and for water. Some weeds also act as hosts for pests and diseases. Elimination or avoidance of these weeds can positively impact plant yields and cost of production. Minimizes loss of soil in the event of high wind: A covering of mulch can minimize loss of soil where structure is disturbed during land preparation. However always the intended impact of mulch is on improving soil conditions. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 109

128 Mulched soil surfaces break the impact of rainfall: Where rills are not formed mulch can reduce soil erosion. Applied to a cropped surface mulch can also aid in deflecting some of the direct rays of sunlight resulting in lower temperatures in the root zone. In this situation less moisture is required to keep the plant cool and better able to utilize available nutrients, and Mulch ultimately contributes to organic matter: Ultimately mulch breaks down and is incorporated as organic matter in soil as it decomposes over time. Plant varieties vary in the amounts of nutrient content added to the plant (Table 5). Common sources of mulch other than those shown in Table 5 would include pine bark and needles, leguminous trees, sawdust, and selected grasses. Table 5. Effect of mulch on % nutrient content of plant dry matter Mulch residues Nitrogen Phosphate Potassium Calcium Cowpea leaves Rice straw Maize Cowpea stems Source: Intone Biovision/Environmental and Plant Health Some examples of the benefits of mulch described below reveal it is highly beneficial in sustainable farming. Figure 113: Mulch cover helps soil reduce evaporation, retain soil moisture, reduce soil erosion, suppress weed growth and provide soil nutrients as the material decomposes. Source: IICA 110

129 Figure 114: Relative benefits of mulch in conventional and conservation farming Figure115: Bananas have comparativelyhigh water demand (Table 2), hence farmers frequently mulch the field (Save and Grow-FAO) Source: infonet- bio vision/plant/health Figure 116: Paper mulch for organic farming Photo credit: Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming. As an alternative to plastic, some farmers and researches are using paper mulch (Figure 116). So far this material slightly lowers soil temperatures and tends to tear along soil-anchored edges as seen in the picture above. According to the reports (Schonbeck, 1998) yields are slightly lower and less effective in weed control than with black plastic. Farmers are cautioned they may need to add more soil to the edges to keep the paper mulch anchored. The extent to which paper mulch is used in Caribbean small farming is not clear. Disadvantages of mulch: The practice is labour intensive in laying out the dried material. The dry matter can attract insects and animals such as slugs and introduce pests and diseases while in piles by the side of the field and carbon rich materials such as stalks can cause nitrogen from the soil to be used by microorganisms for decomposing the material. In this situation nitrogen may be temporarily not available for plant growth (risk of N-immobilization). In order to avoid this, old or rough plant materials should be applied to the soil at least two months before planting or sowing the main crop. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 111

130 Risk of Nitrogen-immobilization: When organic material is applied to the soil, the decomposing microbes multiply quickly. For growth, they need nutrients, especially nitrogen, like plants do. If the applied plant material does not contain sufficient nitrogen, the micro- organisms will take it from the soil. This process is called nitrogen immobilization, as the nitrogen is fixed temporarily in the microbes and released only after some time. During this time, the microbes compete with the plants for nitrogen and the crop may suffer from malnutrition. Nitrogen immobilization can occur when the following materials are applied: straw or grain husks, material containing wood (twigs, saw dust, pine bark) and half rotten compost Compost This is decomposed plant or animal organic material that is used in solid and liquid form for soil health (fertility and water holding capacity) as well as sustaining the generative capacity of soil to release organic nutrients for plant growth. Compost in the solid form should not be confused with mulch. Compost is completely broken down organic matter that looks like soil and with a level of moisture while mulch as seen above is dry organic material. Compost in the liquid form is manure in a liquid form often called liquid organic fertilizers or better terminology compost tea. Note the difference between the form of mulch (Figures 117 and 118) and compost Figure 119). Figure 117. Mulch- Typical structure of loose dried vegetable material Figure118: Mulch- dried grass easily recognizable Source: IICA Figure 119: Compost-dark soil completely decomposed Source: FAO Compliments: Dane Robinson, Jamaica It is important farmers and especially resource poor farmers, recognize the difference between mulch and compost. Mulch helps to hold water and protect the soil from exposure to evaporation and suppresses weeds. Eventually it will break down and form compost. Compost is decomposed organic matter ready to interact with the soil micro organisms to release minerals, carbon and nitrogen in soluble form for plant growth. Mulch is added as cover while compost (manure) is incorporated into the soil when the beds are being prepared. 112

131 Figure 120. Fresh lettuce waste for composting Source: FAO Farmers Compost Handbook Benefits of compost: Organic matter in this form increases soil fertility and improves the capacity of soil to absorb and retain water. Biological activity of organisms such as fungi and bacteria is sustained thereby enabling the soil environment to transform insoluble organic matter into soluble nutrients for plant use as well as to support the activity of earth worms as decomposers. Compost can also create soil conditions that reduce the presence of rats and some insects. Steps to making compost (Adopted from FAO Farmers Compost Handbook): Some general steps are provided below for making manure. The plant material used here is lettuce. The lettuce waste for the composting is mixed with rice husk and Kikuyu grass cutting (Pennisetum clandestinum) to build a compost pile in a 50:40:10 by volume ratio. Sand gravel and clay 30:20:50 ratio is spread on the ground to isolate leachates. Lettuce has a high water content and low carbon and nitrogen making it necessary to mix in dry materials that provide carbon and nitrogen. To prepare the pile start with a layer of the rice husk, a mix of crop waste and weeding, covered with the grass cutting and repeat the process until the pile reaches about 1.50 m. The last pile should be a layer of straw or dried grass (Figure 121). Figure 121. Schematic of compost pile before turning Source: FAO TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 113

132 The compost pile is then left for about four days and by then the final days towards humus formation has started. The pile should be monitored for temperature as it is important that for the next five weeks the pile is maintained in conditions where the temperature is about 44 C The pile should be manually turned over every four days. The temperature will drop to ambient temperature(sourounding temperature)at about week four after which the pile should be turned once per week for the next three to four weeks. By this time the process should be completed leaving a pile with a dark structure-less material as shown at Figure 119 above. As shown above depending on the material used some, original particles might be still recognizable Liquid fertilizers and manure teas: This is water-soluble extract from fresh or partially decomposed compost. Liquid fertilizers and manure teas can be prepared on the farm or in the backyard using very simple materials from the farm or garden. The common comfrey found all over the Caribbean, grasses or high quality solid and liquid manure as described for lettuce can be used. How to make manure tea or fertilizers Get a crocus bag or used flour bag. Place about a shovel full of aged animal or poultry manure in bag. Add about a cup full to a bucket. Tie up the top of the bag so it s like a big tea bag. Place the bag into a bucket with a lid. Fill the bucket with water, put the top on and wait two weeks. Dilute before using it. Follow the same process with green leaves and then pour off tea for use as liquid fertilizer or manure tea and the leaves on your compost heap. Figure 122: Fresh chicken manure Teas and fertilizers from grass or legume cuttings Legume and grass cuttings are also rich in nitrogen and break down overtime in the field. Farmers can hasten the process by simply filling a 5-gallon bucket with green cuttings adding weeds by choice. The bucket is filled with water to the top and left for four days. The tea should be diluted for use at a ratio of one cup of liquid fresh green material to 10 cups of water. The liquid should be applied to the base of plants at 2 cups around the perimeter of small plants, 4 cups around medium plants and 6 cups around large plants. Figure 123: Cowpea (Vigna umguiculata) popular legume for food and fodder Manure teas or fertilizers are rich in nitrogen as well as phosphorus and potassium, lots of bacteria as well as some antibiotics. The quality of the tea depends on the quality of the material. The more mature the tea or fertilizer is the better the quality. Legumes like cowpea, alfalfa, gliricidia are rich in nitrogen Compost tea Compost tea is made from fully processed compost. This is different from the fresh or partially composted manure, which provides a tea of lesser quality and should be differentiated from other products such as compost leachate, manure tea and compost 114

133 extract. The standard materials required include a plastic tank located in a cool and clean area. The tank should be in an area of low light and protected from rain and at temperature usually about degrees centigrade in the Caribbean. A mesh, bag or porous container is required to hold the compost. The tank should be aerated. The tea will have a dark brown colour if the source of the compost is humus or vermicomposting and the tea should have a pleasant odour if the process was completed. Compost tea is rich in organic substances such as NPK among others that contribute to the functions of micro organisms and plants once applied to a farming system. The tea may be applied to the leaves of plants or directly to the soil Vermicomposting This is the process of composting using various red or white worms and micro organisms to break down vegetable material to compost and vermicast, also called worm castings. These castings contain higher levels of nutrients than do organic materials before vermicomposting. Only very few of the APP farmers mentioned vermicomposting as a practice. The processes require high concentration of organic matter to feed the worms and some specific environmental conditions (temperatures between degrees centigrade; 80 percent moisture, ph of and low light.) Figure 124: Red wigglers (Eisenia fetida) eat organic wastes, such as vegetable peelings, and then excrete vermicasts. Vermicomposting is a natural aerobic process with no smell. Photo courtesy: Melissa Walters The earthworms ingest waste then excrete organically rich, soil and mud granules that make an excellent soil conditioner. The entire process takes about days, depending on density of waste and earthworm maturity (regular composting requires days). The best stocking density for vermicomposting is about 150 earthworms per litre of waste. As the organic matter passes through the gut of the earthworm, it is mineralized into ammonium (later nitrified), phosphorus, sulphur and other plant nutrients. ( gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/ htm: Vermicasting (or Vermicomposting): Processing Organic Wastes Through Earthworms). The worms usually require about eight days to move from vermicomposting to fresh waste. 8.4 MANAGEMENT OF PESTS AND DISEASE FOR RESILIENT FARMING Small farmers, particularly those growing sweet potato, hot peppers, rice and plantain complained of increasing incidence of pests and diseases on the farm. Some of these pests are new to them and are also undocumented. This document will not provide an exhaustive list of pests and diseases in the region relative to the APP crops neither will it provide one for goats and sheep. Instead the document will provide information on general Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approaches for control in farming systems. In this process some of the well-known pests and diseases relevant to the commodities will unavoidably receive attention as specific examples or associations of the practices described. IPM is guided by three categories of control measures: cultural, biological and physical. The practices are all suited to both small and subsistence farmers and to varying extent the combination of measures are applicable to the APP crops. The options provided below satisfy (IPM) approaches to farm pest and diseases including viruses, bacterial and fungal. Due to the dominance of crop farmers there is a bias towards plant pests. This bias is also influenced by the limited information provided on pests and diseases in small ruminants in the reporting by farmers and in the literature Cultural measures Cultural measures are where traditional farmers should start in selection of practices to manage pests and diseases as they contribute to other benefits on the farm and contribute to the system approach. Mostly cultural measures make the farm TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 115

134 environment unfavourable for the targeted pest to survive and reproduce and in addition they can give other benefits with minimal inputs. Some general cultural practices include: Crop rotation: This practice is effective when the follow up crop in the rotation is from a different family and is not a host crop to the pest to be controlled. Chapter 7 provides the scientific names of the APP crops. Scientific names are also indicators of crop species and family. Most common crop rotations include a non-leguminous plant followed by a legume plant crop or forage. In integrated farming grasses are often beneficial as a third rotational plant. Rotations are most effective against pests that have a limited host-plant range and that cannot survive for more than one or two seasons without suitable host crops. The intention is to disrupt or remove the favorable condition of the host environment for the target pest. For example to disrupt or remove an environment favorable to a cassava pest, the farmer often rotate cassava (Euphorbiaceae) with corn (Grasses) or pigeon peas (Legumes), while Sweet potato (Convolvulaceae) farmers would rotate with a legume and hot pepper (Solanaceae) farmers with a member of the cabbage family (Cruciferea). Companion planting: This is a method of growing particular plants together on the basis that they will benefit each other in some way. Technically companion plants in IPM assist in the growth of others by attracting beneficial insects and repelling pests or for providing nutrients, shade, or support. They can be part of a biological pest control program and well suited to traditional farming. Some examples of crops which can create an environment unfavourable to insects and that are attracted to the other plants in the system are shown below. Onion (Allium cepa) is a good candidate for companion planting. Best combinations are onions grown with cabbage, broccoli, carrots, cassava, lettuce and peppers. Onion acts by attracting Thrips and as a repellant to slugs, aphids, carrot flies, cabbage looper, cabbage maggots and cabbageworms. Figure 125: Inter-cropping of onions (companion plant) implemented to protect broccoli (target crop) from pest attack. Here, onions are used as a repellent to push pest insects away from broccoli. Marigolds often grown as ornamental have not been encountered as a natural pesticide in small farming systems, but are popular companion plants among home gardeners to avoid snail, slugs, nematodes and whitefly in tomato, hot peppers, cucurbits and potato. The plant has protection properties including insecticidal, nematicidal, fungicidal and anti-bacterial. Most recent studies indicate species of marigold can be good alternative to chemical nematicides (Koon-Hui Wang et al 2007). Figure 126: Marigold (Tagetes erecta) with broccoli) Here Mexican marigold (companion plant)intercropped with broccoli (target crop) interferes with host plant location. Here, several mechanisms may be involved in protecting broccoli including masking host plant odors or visually camouflaging broccoli making it less apparent. 116

135 French marigold (Tagetes patula) produces pesticide chemicals from the roots so strong they last for years after in the soil. French marigold is a good companion for tomatoes as the pungent smell deters white fly and also acts as a nematicide. Figure 127: French marigold for cotrol of whitefly Figure 128: French marigold as nematicide http//cthar.hawaii.edu: Photo C.R.R. Hooks companion planting guide Figure 129: Southern marigold. Tagetes minuta Another species (Tagetes minuta) also known as Stinking Roger has also been successfully used in bio-fumigation against rootknot nematodes. Stinking Roger is reported to have natural plant protection properties against red spider mites in vegetables, against aphids, nematodes, worms, insects, fungi and against intestinal parasites in livestock (Ofori et al, 2013). Recommendations for companion plantings for the following target crops include: Hot peppers http//cthar.hawaii.edu: Photo C.R.R. Hooks Hot peppers grown with spinach, lettuce and radish around the peppers suppress weeds Basil grown with hot peppers and chives repel some of the insects that attack pepper plants and improve the flavouring of the pepper. Hot pepper and corn grown with sunflower are protected from ants and aphids. Sunflower also works as a trap plant for Thrips keeping them off bell peppers. Vegetables Cabbage grown with dill as this plant is a great companion with cabbage as well as all other cruciferous vegetables because it attracts wasps that prey on many cabbage pests. Cabbage grown with garlic as a companion crop creates an environment for increase mortality of diamond back moth. Cabbage, kale and cauliflower grown with mint to deter flea beetles which might chew holes in leaves Corn grown with almost any member of the legume family and the squash family including beans and peas. Spiny squash plants help discourage predators from approaching the corn and beans. Carrots grown with spring onions deters carrot root fly Tomatoes Grown with chives and basil for aphids TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 117

136 Other well-known companion plants in Caribbean small farming include (a) Moringa olifera with anti-bacterial and antiviral properties (b) Garlic with insecticidal, insect repellant, nematicidal, fungicidal and anti-bacterial properties and (c) goat weed (Ageratum conyzoides) with insecticidal, insect repellant, nematicidal and anti-bacterial protection properties. Cultural practices in IPM can be significantly improved with skills such as shown below: 1. Learning about the crop and timing of plant growth stage. For example, setting up planting times to allow time for young plants to establish to a tolerant stage before attack occurs or for the crop to mature before a pest becomes abundant and to avoid the egg-laying period of a particular pest. 2. Destruction of plants known to be very attractive (volunteer plants) thereby serving as the focal point for future infestations. 3. Farmers can also learn to manage alternate hosts such as removal of weeds where insects can reproduce and then attack the main crop. 4. Attention to cultural practices such as field sanitation, selection of clean cuttings, prevention of root exposure on plants grown on hillsides and keeping soil moist to prevent cracking. (Alvarez et al. (1996); Alcazar et al. (1997); Lawrence and Meyers (1999); Lawrence (1999) Flour preparation: Flour preparation can be used against Aphids and spider mites; flour and soap can also be used against Thrips, whiteflies and downy mildew. The preparations are simple and can be used by farmers with limited disposable income. Box 16 Flour preparation in IPM Flour preparation: Stir together 1 cup of buttermilk, 8 cups of fine white flour and 50 litres of water. Spray unto the affected crop taking care to treat the underside of the leaves. Four applications have been known to kill 95% of red spider mite infestation. Flour and soap: Add 2-4 tablespoons of wheat or potato or any other baking flour in 4 cups of warm water. Stir well and add I teaspoon of soap as a sticker. Stir the filtrate again prior to application. Potato starch application: Store bought Irish potato starch or if not available finely shred a few Irish potatoes and mix in a bowl with water. Leave to stand for some hours then stir the mixture and sieve out the potato flesh. Remaining in the bottom of the bowl will be a white layer of potato starch. If not to be used right away the water can be discarded and the starch dried and used at a later date. Potato starch spray: Mix 2-4 tablespoons of potato starch in 1 litre of water and add 2-3 drops of liquid dish soap. Shake the mixture and spray to cover the leaves well. Adopted from Info Bio vision Biological control measures Biological control measures in farming are methods of controlling plant pests and diseases using other organisms that are natural enemies of plant pests and diseases. These natural enemies of plant pests and diseases act in many ways mostly to directly kill or eventually kill off populations of plant pests or pathogens. Natural enemies fall into three categories: predators, parasites and pathogens. Examples of important natural enemies include the predatory beetles (ladybugs), flies, lacewings, pirate bugs, birds and parasitic wasps that feed on various plant pests including eggs. Biological control measures are an alternative to using synthetic chemicals to control pests and diseases. These measures are environmentally friendly and compatible with traditional knowledge transfer principles. The application of this knowledge is an important component of IPM approaches with implications for cleaner methods in activities such as population monitoring, mass trapping, mating disruption and eradication efforts that do not require synthetics. 118

137 Some examples of biological control practices of relevance to APP crops include: 1. The familiar ladybug (a predatory beetle) and her larvae is an important predator of aphids. Ladybugs also eat other plant sucking insect pests such as mealy bugs, scale insects and spiders. Other predatory beetles are common in hot peppers and behave as natural enemies towards aphids while birds and lizards act as predators on crickets also in hot peppers. In most cases predators directly attack the plant pest or the pathogen or propaguels. 2. Parasitoid wasps are common in the Caribbean fruit fly where they lay and live part of their life cycle in the fruit fly. Parasitic wasps also lay eggs in caterpillars of whiteflies. They are good natural enemies, as normally they cause no harm to the crop. 3. Intercropping cassava with maize and cowpea was associated with a drop of 50 percent in the adult whitefly population and a 20 percent reduction in the incidence of cassava mosaic. This is a typical case of a general suppression of whiteflies and a significant suppression of the virus. 4. Agronomists and farmers mimic natural enemies mechanisms by using pheromone traps to control sweet potato weevil in Antigua and Barbuda and Jamaica with reduction in the proportion of roots damaged by sweet potato weevils in the Caribbean (Alvarez et al. 1996, Alca zar et al. 1997). It is estimated that use of pheromone- baited traps as part of an IPM program for sweet potato weevils could eliminate one to three insecticide applications. 5. Minute pirate bug is an important predator of pests in tomato and corn. Attracted by flower Thrips the minute pirate bug will eat almost any tiny insect or mite. 6. Biological control measures are also possible in soil borne pathogens by way of introduced microorganisms but the literature is not well developed. Microorganisms that can grow in the rhizosphere are ideal for use as bio-control agents since the rhizosphere provides the frontline defense for roots against attack by pathogens. Promising soil microorganism as biological control agents are Psuedomonas (Chao et al. 1985) and Trichoderma spp. (Weller 1988). Trichoderma spp can sometimes protect seeds as effectively as chemical fungicides. They can effectively reduce crown and root disease. Immersion of stakes of cassava in a suspension of Trichoderma virvide, also parasitizes other soil borne diseases (Save and Grow FAO). Psuedomonas fluorescens (with antifungal properties against soil borne diseases caused by Fusarium spps.) used to treat potatoes was shown to effectively colonize the rhizosphere (Chao et al. 1985). Rhizosphere colonization of introduced biological control agents has also been recorded in nematode control for tomato (58%) corn (71%), cabbage (68%) and peppers (36%). However more research is required to confirm replacement of chemical nematicides. TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 119

138 Figure 130: Common natural enemies and common target pests Common natural enemies Predator bird Lady beetle Minute pirate bug Parasitic wasp Most common target pests Crickets Mealy bugs Flower Thrips, tiny insects Caribbean fruit fly and mite As for all IPM practices there are some protocols to be observed in biological control measures including: (a) Predator and parasite management must be conducted in a manner that increases or improves biological suppression so that pest population does not rise (b) Maintaining biological control in farming systems is an on-going process involving introduction and conservation of natural enemies and careful monitoring and (c) Conservation of natural enemies requires progressively less use of chemicals and periodic releases of beneficial predators. Such a requirement could prove challenging to small farmers operating outside of a discreet IPM program approach Bio fumigation: The process of bio-fumigation involves the incorporation of the fresh biomass and manure into soil. The combination of biological processes that follow eventually release a chemical substance (isothiocyanates) into the soil that suppresses soil borne pests and disease. Plants from the cabbage family (Cruciferae), including radish, lettuce, and cauliflower release large amounts of chemicals that are toxic to soil borne diseases and are considered the best material for bio-fumigation. Farmers must ensure that the soil is prepared before the biomass or manure is added. The pile should then be covered with plastic to prevent escape of the gasses released by bio-degradation. Bio-fumigation can also be used against root knots, nematodes and bacterial wilt Plant extracts from plants with crop protection properties Common plants in this group are Neem (Azadirichta indica) and Garlic (Allium sativum) Garlic is widely appreciated as a natural pesticide extract especially in organic farming as well as in other types of small farming. Garlic has anti-feedant, bacterial, fungicidal, insecticidal and nematicidal repellant properties. It is effective against a wide range of disease causing pathogens. However garlic is non-sensitive and the extract can kill beneficial insects as 120

139 well. This is important to bear in mind as garlic is commonly used in companion plantings for pest control. It will act against the egg, larvae, and adult of insects and of pathogens and at different stages. White flies, termites, beetles, moles, fungi, bacteria and nematodes are some of the plant pests that garlic extract will act against. Drenching with garlic extract against nematodes should be avoided as it may also kill many beneficial insects and bacteria Neem extract is widely used in Antigua and Barbuda and in Jamaica as a natural pest control in sweet potato. However Neem can also be used in a range of crops, against a number pests found in farmers field including armyworm, aphids, white flies, Thrips, fruit flies, scale insects, mealy bugs, cabbage looper, cabbage worm, and diamond back moth. Aazadirachtin is the most active pesticide in Neem and is found in all parts of the tree, but it is much more concentrated in the fruit, especially in the seeds. Neem acts as a broad-spectrum repellent, insect growth regulator and can cause deformities in the insects offspring. It is also an insect poison and discourages feeding by making plants unpalatable to insects or suppresses the insect s appetite. Neem can also inhibit ability to attack and to moult and lay eggs. Reportedly the pesticide has systemic effect. Hence the extract can be taken up by the plants through the roots or by foliar application. The extract will control pests that feed on leaves like leaf miners which are not normally affected by spraying the leaves. Neem extract will also act against plant diseases such as mildews and rusts. Formulations, time and frequency and methods of application of the extract are important to results. Adults of predator insects seem not to be affected by dosages of neem products recommended for effective pest control. However, their longevity may be negatively affected with high dosages. In general, neem products based on neem oil or with high oil content have more or stronger side effects on non-target organisms than oilfree preparations. Thus, their application should be avoided or restricted on crops where natural enemies play an important role in pest control. Some neem products, especially the ones with high oil content, are phytotoxic to some plants. This means that plants may be burned when neem extract is used at a high dosage. Therefore, the extracts should be tested on few plants before going into full scale spraying. Neem pesticides can be prepared from the leaves or from the seeds. The leaves or seeds are crushed and steeped in water. For some purposes the resulting extracts can be used without further refinement. Farmers should note that there are strong safety precautions regarding safety and protection when handling Neem. Source Biovision Home Physical measures of control These control methods destroy the pest, affect the functioning of the pest or create unfavourable conditions for the pest to survive. Measures can be preventative or protective for example, trappings, coverings or barrier. Solarisation: This is a method of controlling soil borne diseases (fungi, bacteria and nematodes) by placing plastic sheets on moist soil during the periods of high daytime temperatures. The plastic sheets allow heating up of the upper levels of the soil. Clear plastic allows more heating than black or colour. Also the thinner the plastic the greater will be the heating. The area is left covered for about 4-6 weeks during which heating levels reached can kill many disease causing organisms pathogens (fungi, nematodes and seeds and seedlings of weeds). There is no toxic residue and is suited to small farming systems. Source: Monografias.com Figure 131: Solarisation TOWARD TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR RESILIENT SMALL FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE CARIBBEAN 121

140 In addition to killing disease causing organism soil solarisation improves soil structure and increases the availability of nitrogen. Before covering, the soil is well prepared by tilling to a depth of cm, well irrigated, and mulched. The plastic should lie as close to the soil as possible. The covering may be done by hand and stripped as shown (covering only the beds) or the entire field may be covered thereby increasing the chances of killing mostly all the pathogens and weeds. The ends of the plastic should be tightly buried on the edges. When plastic is removed planting should be done taking care not to plant below about 5 cm. Trapping and bagging: Sticky traps can be used against pests both for control or for monitoring a control program. The goal could be to determine the right time to make application or Figure 132: Trapping for insect pest control for assessments. Sticky traps can be successfully used with Thrips, whiteflies, Aphids, leaf miners and fruit flies. In general good IPM practices would include considerations such as capacity building for farmers to learn to examine their plants and to have better knowledge and sensitivity of pests and diseases; opportunities for farmers to participate in programmed baseline evaluation and implementation of an IPM program, which would include survey of the pest and disease, transfer of the traditional best practices, assessment phases, demonstration plots with farmer participatory workshops (FFS). Source: CARDI 8.5 MANAGEMENT OF PLANT GENETIC MATERIAL WITH RESISTANCE TO DROUGHT Introduction Opportunities exist to benefit from several crop varieties and cultivars in the countries identified by farmers as having resistance to drought. These include sweet potato in St Vincent and the Grenadines, Grenada and in Antigua and Barbuda (undocumented variation in sweet potato) as well as local varieties of rice in Suriname, reportedly with less susceptibility to diseases than the imported varieties. The benefits of early work on managing plant varieties for food and forage in light of climate change have been emphasized in the literature (Gitz, V. & Meybeck, A ). This urgency is also recognized in the Climate Change Adaptation Strategy of Saint Lucia. Both documents support the view that crops along with livestock and forest trees that can survive and produce in future climates will be essential in future food and forage production systems (FAO, 2015a, Galluzzi et al., 2011). In light of the above there is need to revisit the goals and objectives of breeding programs at the relevant institutions in the region such as CARDI, the MOAs, UWI St Augustine and the Agricultural Colleges in Jamaica and Saint Lucia. This is to reset the priorities for research and development that will set breeding programs for resilient farming in light of the predicted impacts and threats of climate change on agro-ecological systems and particularly on the frequency and level of severity of droughts in food and forage production systems Parameter for resistance to drought The management of genetic material with resistance to climate changes will require breeding programs that will in turn require time to achieve results and also on-going resources for timely results in order to consolidate gains in adaptive capacities for resilient farming. As a start goals and support mechanisms should be clearly documented and included in a knowledge building communication strategy to allow the MOAs in the region to prepare farmers to participate in field assessment and evaluation programs. The fact is that climate is changing and will continue to change even without further 122