Exploring Nitrogen Dynamics in Cabbage

Transcription

1 Cornell Cooperative Extension Vegetable Program Exploring Nitrogen Dynamics in Cabbage Christy Hoepting 1 Cornell Cooperative Extension Vegetable Program 2017 Empire State Producers Expo: Cabbage Session Syracuse, NY: January 17, 2017

2 Acknowledgements Funding provided by: NY Cabbage Research & Development Program Grower Cooperators: Steve Starowtiz, S.J. Starowitz Farms, North Byron, NY (trial) Dean & Joe Brightly, Brightly & Sons, Hamlin, NY (trial) Eric Hansen, Hansen Farms, Stanley, NY Mike Riner and Emma Long, CY Farms, Elba, NY John Voelpel, Voelpel Farms, Newfane, NY Colby Homestead Farms, Spencerport, NY Torrey Farms, Elba, NY Star Grower, Elba, NY

3 Acknowledgements Technical Advisor: Steve Reiners, NYSAES CVP Program Assistants: Elizabeth Buck ( ) Cordelia Hall (2014) Missy Call (2015) Amy Celentano (2016) Mariam Taleb (2016) Fertilizer provided by: Growmark FS, Knowlesville CY Farms Nitrogen stabilizer provided by: John Boston, Dow AgroSciences Mariam, Amy & Christy

4 Nitrogen Dynamics in Cabbage CRDP made cabbage fertility with an emphasis on nitrogen as one of their highest research priorities in 2014 Concerned that too much nitrogen left in fields following harvest of summer cabbage may be causing lodging of following winter wheat crop Lodging of winter wheat

5 Cornell Recommendations Nitrogen: Cornell recommends 100 to 120 lb/a 40 lb broadcast and incorporated prior to planting 40 lb in the band at planting 20 to 40 lb side dressed 4 weeks after planting A lot of variability in rate & timing of N application

6 Nitrogen Use in Summer Cabbage in New York Rate (lb/a) and Timing of Nitrogen Application Ratio Total Side Sidedress #2 Planting Side dress Pre & At Dress #1 Planting #1 #2 (4 wks) (6 wks) Total lb/a: Range; 72.5 to 210 lb/a; Average: 149 lb/a Ratios of planting to side dress range from 100:0 to 15:85 All at planting Two thirds at planting 50:50 split More at side dress

7 Objectives To study nitrogen dynamics in summer cabbage with respect to: total rate applied timing of application (proportion applied pre plant compared to side dressed) Use of nitrogen stabilizers To refine use of nitrogen in cabbage: To improve efficiency Optimize rates To reduce environmental contamination and/or problems with lodging in following winter wheat crop

8 Nitrogen Use in Cabbage cabbage 30 days (side dressing) 18 days 54days (early cupping) Head formation 90 days Maximum nitrogen use (Last 3 rd of growing season) Smith et al. 2016

9 2014 On Farm Small Plot Trial 5 rates of total applied nitrogen: 31 lb/a 66 lb/a 132 lb/a 197 lb/a 262 lb/a 3 application timings ratio at plant: side dress 100%: 0% 50%: 50% 25%: 75% Included no applied nitrogen (= 2.2 lb from MAP)

10 2015 Case Studies 4 Fields (5 acre sections divided into 4 replicates) 3 summer cabbage (c.v. Transam) 1 storage cabbage, red (c.v. Kilmaro) Soil nutrients: Available NO 3 N Pre fertilizer Pre side dress Early cupping Heading Harvest) Tissue Analysis: %N Early Cupping Harvest (head & leaves) Yield: Head & residue Fresh weight % dry weight Estimate Nitrogen Uptake 2014 Grower Survey 9 fields summer cabbage Soil sample at harvest Available NO 3 N

11 2016 On farm Small Plot Trial 3 rates of total applied nitrogen: 100 lb/a 150 lb/a 200 lb/a 2 application timings ratio at plant: side dress 100%: 0% 50%: 50% Nitrogen Stabilizer (a.i. nitrapyrin) None At planting (surface spray followed by incorporation with fry fertilizer) Side dress (applied with , knifed in as a liquid)

12 2016 On farm Small Plot Trial Nitrapyrin Instinct II (Dow 37 fl oz/a Nitrification inhibitor Bactericide of nitrosomonas bacteria (convert ammonium (NH 4+ ) into nitrite (NO 2 )

13 Nitrogen Cycle NH 3 Hydrogen Gas LOST! NO 2 Nitrite N 2 Nitrogen Gas LOST! NO 3 Nitrate LOST! Amide N (unavailable) NH 4 + Ammonium Available! PLANT FOOD NO 3 Nitrate Available! PLANT FOOD

14 Small Plot Trial, 5 reps cv. Constellation (storage cabbage), planted Jun 10 Plot size: 7.5 ft x 19 ft; 3 rows harvested inside heads of inside row

15 Side dress Nitrogen Nitrogen source: liquid Applied by hand on Jul 10, 5 weeks post transplanting

16 Results The most important factor affecting yield was Rate of applied nitrogen!

17 Mean Estimated Yield (Ton/A) Effect of Total Applied Nitrogen on 27.5 Yield (Ton/A) 2014 Trial Application timings pooled across applied nitrogen rate cv. Constellation c 31.8 abc y = x R² = lb 66 lb 132 lb 197 lb 262 lb Hoepting & Reiners, 2014 bc 2014: Storage cabbage; normal year For each additional 50 lb/a of applied Nitrogen, Yield increases 2.3 ton/a 150 lb/a N = 34 ton/a ab Total Nitrogen Applied (lb/a) a P=0.0004

18 Clubroot Assessment Each plant rated for clubroot and weighed individually

19 Mean Club Root Severity (scale: 0 3) Trial Effect of Total Applied Nitrogen on Club Root (Severity Rating) Application rates pooled across applied nitrogen timings 3.0 = severe 2.0 = moderate c 1.0 = minor = none y = x R² = Rate of Applied Nitrogen (lb/a) cv. Constellation As rate of applied nitrogen increased, severity of club root increased b ab 31 lb 66 lb 132 lb 197 lb 262 lb ab a P= Hoepting & Reiners, 2014

20 Clubroot Severity: Scale 0 3 None = 0 Minor = 1 Moderate = 2 Severe = 3 No club root All healthy roots Club root starting, mostly healthy roots A lot of club root Some functioning roots Virtually no functioning roots

21 Mean Estimated Yield (Ton/A) Effect of Total Applied Nitrogen on 27.5 Yield (Ton/A) 2014 Trial Application timings pooled across applied nitrogen rate cv. Constellation c y = x R² = lb 66 lb 132 lb 197 lb 262 lb Hoepting & Reiners, 2014 bc abc Would yield be even higher in absence of Clubroot? Would nitrogen use be more efficient in absence of clubroot? ab Total Nitrogen Applied (lb/a) a P=0.0004

22 Effect of Total Applied Nitrogen on Yield (Ton/A) 2016 Trial Application Timings Pooled Across Total Rate of Nitrogen Applied cv. Bronco 32.3 ton ton Estimated Yield (ton/a) Hoepting lb 150 lb 200 lb 2016: Summer cabbage; very hot & dry year For each additional 50 lb/a of applied Nitrogen, Yield increases 0.6 ton/a 150 lb/a N = 33.5 ton/a irrigated Total Amount of Applied Nitrogen (lb/a)

23 2014 Results: Effect of Total Applied Nitrogen According to these results, we did not yet hit the ceiling with respect to the response of applied nitrogen on yield > 262 lb/a in 2014 with club root > 200 lb/a in a hot dry year In a Canadian study, maximum yield reached at 566 lb/a N Significant interaction occurred between applied N rate and application timing for: Head size (lb) = ton/a This means that head size responds differently to total N rate applied depending on the application timing

24 2014 Trial: Effect of Nitrogen Timing on Head Weight (lb) Cabbage head weight (lb) % of total Nitrogen applied at planting b lb P: 31 S: 0 No significant difference between 31 lb & 197 lb ab lb P: 66 S: 0 b lb P: 132 S: lb P: 197 S: 0 Rate of Total Applied Nitrogen (lb/a) b Max yield at 262 lb/a a lb P: 262 S: 0 cv. Constellation Ratio of Total Rate Applied At planting: side dress 100:00:00 P= Hoepting & Reiners, 2014

25 Cabbage head weight (lb) Trial: Effect of Nitrogen Timing on Head Weight (lb) 50% of total Nitrogen applied at planting; 50% side dress b lb P: 15.5 S: 15.5 ab lb P: 33 S: 33 Max yield at lb/a a 132 lb P: 66 S: lb P: 99 S: Rate of Total Applied Nitrogen (lb/a) a a lb P: 131 S: 131 cv. Constellation Ratio of Total Rate Applied At planting: side dress 50:50:00 P= Hoepting & Reiners, 2014

26 Cabbage head weight (lb) Trial: Effect of Nitrogen Timing b 4.0 b 4.9 on Head Weight (lb) 25% of total Nitrogen applied at planting; 75% side dress 31 lb P: 8.2 S: lb P: 16 S: 49 Maximum response to applied 132 lb a lb P: 33 S: Rate of Total Applied Nitrogen (lb/a) a 197 lb P: 49 S: 148 a lb P: 66 S: 196 cv. Constellation Ratio of Total Rate Applied At planting: side dress 25:75 P= Hoepting & Reiners, 2014

27 2014 Trial: Effect of Nitrogen Timing on Head Weight (lb) 10 Cabbage head weight (lb) lb 66 lb 132 lb 197 lb 262 lb cv. Constellation Ratio of Total Rate Applied At planting: side dress 25:75 50:50:00 100:00: Rate of Total Applied Nitrogen (lb/a) Hoepting & Reiners, 2014

28 2014 Trial: Effect of Nitrogen Timing on Head Weight (lb) 100% of total Nitrogen applied at planting 31 lb 66 lb 132 lb 197 lb 262 lb cv. Constellation

29 2014 Trial: Effect of Nitrogen Timing on Head Weight (lb) 50% of total Nitrogen applied at planting; 50% side dress 31 lb 66 lb 132 lb 197 lb 262 lb cv. Constellation

30 2014 Trial: Effect of Nitrogen Timing on Head Weight (lb) 25% of total Nitrogen applied at planting; 75% side dress 31 lb 66 lb 132 lb 197 lb 262 lb cv. Constellation

31 2016 Trial: Effect of Nitrogen Timing on Yield (Ton/A) 38 Timing 1 100: 0 50: Estimated Yield (ton/a) : Split N app increased yield by 4.6% : Total Rate of Applied Nitrogen (lb/a)

32 Trial: Effect of Nitrogen Timing on Yield (Ton/A) Timing cv. Bronco Estimated Yield (ton/a) :50 100: Split N app increased yield by 4.6% Applying nitrogen in split applications resulted in more efficient use of nitrogen than 100% at planting Opportunity to reduce total nitrogen rates Total Rate of Applied Nitrogen (lb/a) Hoepting 2016

33 Nitrogen Use in Cabbage 0.11 Time of side dressing 35 out of 92 days = 0.38 Only 0.11 of total N has been taken up Smith et al. 2016

34 2016 Trial: Effect of Nitrogen Stabilizer onyield 38 Timing cv. Bronco 38 Timing & Nitrogen Stabilizer Estimated Yield (ton/a) :50 100: Split N app increased yield by 4.6% Stabilizer reduced yield by 8.5% 50:50 none 50:50 Stabilizer 100:0 none 100:0 stabilizer (Side dress) (At planting) Total Rate of Applied Nitrogen (lb/a) Hoepting 2016

35 2016 Trial Yield (ton/a): Aug 30 to Sep 9 (~92 DAP) abc a d Estimated Total Yield (ton/a): 92 DAP (Aug 30 & Sep 9) 34.1 d a d ab a d a d a d cd #1 a 36.3 d 25 Yield (ton/a) lb N 50 lb N 75 lb N 75 lb N 100 lb N 100 lb N 50 lb N 50 lb N 100 lb N 100 lb N 75 lb N 75 lb N 150 lb N 150 lb N 100 lb N 100 lb N 200 lb N Not significantly different than highest yielding treatment cv. Bronco Rate of Total Nitrogen Applied 50:50 none 50:50 Stabilizer 100:0 none 100:0 stabilizer 200 lb N Hoepting 2016

36 2016 Trial Yield (ton/a): Aug 30 to Sep 9 (~92 DAP) Estimated Total Yield (ton/a): 92 DAP (Aug 30 & Sep 9) abc a d 34.1 d a d ab a d a d a d cd a 36.3 d Yield (ton/a) 25 These results suggest tremendous opportunity to reduce nitrogen inputs in summer cabbage production, especially in a dry year 50 lb N 50 lb N 75 lb N 75 lb N 50 lb N 50 lb N 100 lb N 100 lb N 75 lb N 75 lb N 150 lb N 150 lb N 100 lb N 100 lb N 200 lb N 200 lb N Rate of Total Nitrogen Applied 100 lb N 100 lb N cv. Bronco 50:50 none 50:50 Stabilizer 100:0 none 100:0 stabilizer Hoepting 2016

37 2016 Trial Effect of Nitrogen Stabilizer on Yield (ton/a) abc % % 31.7 a d Estimated Total Yield (ton/a): 92 DAP (Aug 30 & Sep 9) d a d 5% ab a d a d a d % cd 5.3% a % d 25 Yield (ton/a) cv. Bronco 50 lb N 50 lb N 75 lb N 75 lb N 100 lb N 100 lb N 50 lb N 50 lb N 100 lb N 100 lb N 75 lb N 75 lb N 150 lb N 150 lb N 100 lb N 100 lb N 200 lb N Paired comparison is significantly different Rate of Total Nitrogen Applied 50:50 none 50:50 Stabilizer 100:0 none 100:0 stabilizer 200 lb N Hoepting 2016

38 Total Available N (NO 3 N + NH 4 N): Pre Side Dress & Early Cupping Total Available Nitrogen in Soil (NO3 N + NH4 N) (lb/a) cv. Bronco Rate x Timing x N Stabilizer Pre Side Dress 35 DAT (Jul 12) NO 3 N = 82% Early Cupping 61/67 DAT (Aug 3 & 9) NO 3 N = 43% Rate of Total Applied Nitrogen (lb/a) 115 Strong correlation: Head weight Pre side dress NO 3 N (Pearson: R = ; p = ) No correlation: Pre side dress NO 3 N Amount N applied Cupping NO 3 N Yield 50:50 PSD 50:50 none none 50:50 PSD 50:50 N stabilizer Stabilizer (side dress) PSD 100:0 100:0 none none PSD 100:0 100:0 N stabilizer (at planting) Cupping50:50 none Cupping 50:50 Stabilizer Hoepting 2016

39 Total Available N (NO 3 N + NH 4 N): Pre Side Dress (35 DAT: Jul 12) Total Available N (NO3 N + NH4 N) in Soil (lb/a) Total Available Nitrogen (NO 3 N + NH 4 N) at Pre Side Dress (Jul 12: 35 DAP) Same rate of applied N cd 70.4 d d lb N 50 lb N 100 lb N 100 lb N 75 lb N 75 lb N 150 lb N 150 lb N 100 lb N 100 lb N 200 lb N Rate of Total Applied Nitrogen a 126 ab 115 abc 108 abc 108 ab 115 ab lb N 50:50 none 50:50 Stabilizer 100:0 none 100:0 stabilizer

40 Total Available N (NO 3 N + NH 4 N): Pre Side Dress (35 DAT: Jul 12) Total Available N (NO3 N + NH4 N) in Soil (lb/a) cv. Bronco Total Available Nitrogen (NO 3 N + NH 4 N) at Pre Side Dress (Jul 12: 35 DAP) Nitrogen stabilizer at planting reduced available N at preside dress by average 10% cd lb N d lb N lb N 17.4% d lb N lb N lb N Rate of Total Applied Nitrogen 50:50 none 50:50 Stabilizer 100:0 none 100:0 stabilizer a 150 lb N 8.7% ab 150 lb N abc lb N abc lb N ab lb N 4.3% ab lb N Hoepting 2016

41 Total Available N (NO 3 N + NH 4 N): Early Cupping (61 DAP: Aug 3 & 9) Total Available Nitrogen in Soil (NO3 N + NH4 ) (lb/a) Total Available Nitrogen in Soil (NO 3 N + NH 4 N) at Early Cupping (Aug 3 & 9: 61 DAP) +38% In 3 out of 6side by side comparisons, N stabilizer had reduced available N by an average of 50% cd cd 12.5 cd % 16.5 bc % a % cv. Bronco Rate of Total Nitrogen Applied At Side dress At planting 50:50 none 50:50 Stabilizer 100:0 none 100:0 stabilizer Hoepting 2016

42 Total Available N (NO 3 N + NH 4 N): Early Cupping (61 DAP: Aug 3 & 9) Total Available Nitrogen in Soil (NO3 N + NH4 ) (lb/a) Total Available Nitrogen in Soil (NO 3 N + NH 4 N) at Early Cupping (Aug 3 & 9: 61 DAP) N stabilizer applied at plating (100:0) reduced NO 3 N more than when it was applied at side dress (50:0) +38% cd cd 12.5 cd % 16.5 bc % a % cv. Bronco Rate of Total Nitrogen Applied At Side dress At planting 50:50 none 50:50 Stabilizer 100:0 none 100:0 stabilizer Hoepting 2016

43 Total Available N (NO 3 N + NH 4 N): Early Cupping (61 DAP: Aug 3 & 9) Total Available Nitrogen in Soil (NO3 N + NH4 ) (lb/a) Total Available Nitrogen in Soil (NO 3 N + NH 4 N) at Early Cupping (Aug 3 & 9: 61 DAP) As rate of applied N increased, suppression of NO 3 N availability increased +38% cd cd 12.5 cd % 16.5 bc % a % cv. Bronco Rate of Total Nitrogen Applied At Side dress At planting 50:50 none 50:50 Stabilizer 100:0 none 100:0 stabilizer Hoepting 2016

44 Total Available N (NO 3 N + NH 4 N): Harvest (92/100 DAP: Aug 30 & Sep 9) Available Total Nitrogen in Soil (NO 3 N + NH 4 N): 92/100 DAP (Aug 30 & Sep 9) Available Total Nitrogen in Soil (NO3 N + NH4 N) (lb/a) % % x % NO 3 N: Trial average: 8 lb/a (0 32 lb/a) 56% % % cv. Bronco Rate of Total Applied Nitrogen (lb/a) 50:50 none 50:50 Stabilizer 100:0 none 100:0 stabilizer Hoepting 2016

45 Available NO 3 N Left in Soil at Harvest Lb/A Average Minimum Maximum 2014 Nitrogen Trial ( lb/a N) Storage cabbage Grower Survey Summer Cabbage Field Case Study 3 Summer; 1 storage cabbage Nitrogen Stabilizer Trial ( lb/a N) Summer cabbage Salinas Valley, CA study (30 broccoli, cabbage & cauliflower fields) Canada study (0 446 lb/a N) c.v. Bartolo (NO 3 N + NH 4 N) 8 10 (0 267 lb/a N) 26.7 ( lb/a)

46 Available NO 3 N Left in Soil at Harvest < 10 lb/a NO 3 N is low: Low risk for leaching and environmental contamination Causing winter wheat to lodge Cabbage has a high capacity to scavenge nutrients Highest correlation in 2016 study was between: Head weight Nitrogen Uptake

47 Nitrogen Uptake in Cabbage: Head & Leaf Residue (2016) Amount of Nitrogen used by crop (head + leaves) (lb/a) cv. Bronco d 168 d 175 Nitrogen Use: Amount of Nitrogen (lb/a) Used by Cabbage d cd cd 185 a Rate Of Total Applied Nitrogen (lb/a) 50:50 none 50:50 Stabilizer 100:0 none 100:0 stabilizer Linear ( 50:50 Stabilizer) ab bc ab 221 a 218 a 226 ab 211 Hoepting 2016

48 Nitrogen Uptake in Cabbage Lb/A Nitrogen Field Case Study 2 Summer; 1 storage cabbage 2016 Nitrogen Stabilizer Trial ( lb/a N) Summer cabbage Head (Harvested) 101 (=48%) 96.5 (=48%) (56 143) Stump & Leaves (Left in Field) Total N Use (78 143) 200 ( )

49 Cabbage Leaves Behind ~100 lb of Nitrogen in Crop Residue Amount of nitrogen left behind in cabbage field in leaf and stump residue is ~ 100 lb/a 80 to 120 lb/a of nitrogen for winter wheat. Once crop takes up 150 lb/a it is prone to lodging. Results suggest that the nitrogen left behind in cabbage leaf & stump residue will mineralize and certainly may be a contributing factor to lodging of winter wheat Or, may leach into ground water Plan on reducing rate of applied nitrogen when winter wheat (or other crop) follows summer cabbage On farm experimentation (e.g. strip trials) How to capture 100 lb/a N following storage cabbage?

50 Nitrogen Uptake in Cabbage: Head & Leaf Residue Amount of Nitrogen used by crop (head + leaves) (lb/a) cv. Bronco 0 d 168 d 175 Nitrogen Use: Amount of Nitrogen (lb/a) Used by Cabbage d lb/a cd Uptake exceeds applied by lb/a cd 185 a Rate Of Total Applied Nitrogen (lb/a) 50:50 none 50:50 Stabilizer 100:0 none 100:0 stabilizer ab 150 lb/a bc Uptake exceeds applied by lb/a ab 221 a 218 a lb/a ab 211 Uptake exceeds applied by lb/a Hoepting 2016

51 Where Else Does Cabbage Get Nitrogen From? Organic matter lb/a per 1% OM 20 lb/a for healthy soils; 10 lb/a for poor quality 2016 Study had 2.9% OM = 58 lb/a At most 150 and 200 lb/a of total applied nitrogen treatments, this would close the gap Breakdown of residue from previous crop E.g. corn stubble Previous nitrogen fixing legume crop Can rate of nitrogen be predicted? Soil test to measure OM Nitrogen credits from manure and legumes PSNT test to determine nitrogen?

52 Nitrogen Use in Cabbage 0.11 Time of side dressing 35 out of 92 days = 0.38 Only 0.11 of total N has been taken up Smith et al. 2016

53 Calculations based on 2016 trial results Can Nitrogen Application Be Predicted? Total Cabbage Uptake Minus nitrogen in soil (58 lb/a) Minus nitrogen already taken up by crop (23 lb/a) Example: 100 lb/a N applied at planting: Minus PSNT test (64.6 lb/a) Example: 100 lb/a N applied at planting: Minus PSNT test (108 lb/a) Example: 50 lb/a N applied at planting: Minus PSNT test (70.4 lb/a) Example: 75 lb/a N applied at planting: Minus PSNT test (80.5 lb/a) ~214 lb/a 156 lb/a 133 lb/a Add 68 lb/a (169 total) Add 25 lb/a (126 total) Add 63 lb/a (114 total) Add 55 lb/a (129 total) Using %OM and pre side dress test to predict amount of nitrogen to apply at side dress with varying rates of N applied at planting resulted in 114 to 169 lb/a of total nitrogen used.

54 PSNT Soil Test for Fall Cabbage: Northeast U.S. Heckman et al weeks POST transplanting: If PSNT: < 9 ppm (= 18 lb/a) Apply lb/a N =100% standard rates If PSNT: ppm (= lb/a) Apply lb/a N (standard rates reduced by 25 50%) If PSNT: 24 ppm (= 48 lb/a) No response to applied N

55 Summary Most important factor driving cabbage yield is amount of applied nitrogen When 100% nitrogen applied at planting, highest rates gave highest yields and climbing 2014 trial: 262 lb/a 2016 trial: 200 lb/a Rate of increase in yield per 50 lb/a N: Normal year (2014): 2.3 ton/a Dry year (2016): 0.6 ton/a

56 Summary Split applications of nitrogen between planting resulted in more efficient nitrogen use Maximum yields achieved at: : lb/a N : lb/a N : lb/a N Nitrogen stabilizer (nitripyran) significantly decreased yield by 8.5% in a hot dry year Reduced availability of soil nitrogen Demonstrating that it worked! Especially when applied at planting as a surface spray and then incorporated; compared to no stabilizer: 4 17% reduced NO 3 N + NH 4 N at side dress 39 77% reduced NO 3 N + NH 4 N at early cupping How would it perform in a normal or wet year?

57 Summary Cabbage is a very effective scavenger of nitrogen from soil Typically uptake exceeds amount applied <10 lb/a of available nitrogen remains in the ground at harvest ~ 100 lb/a of nitrogen is left in the field in crop residue after harvest Experiment with reduced rates of nitrogen in crops following harvest of summer cabbage (such as winter wheat) Expect a healthy cabbage crop to use ~215 lb/a of nitrogen

58 Recommendations 150 lb/a total applied nitrogen Cornell guidelines are too low Split applications: Maximum 50% at planting lb/a pre plant & at planting lb/a at side dressing Adjust rate according to PSNT, %OM and field history Consider a nitrogen stabilizer at planting in a wet spring?

59 Questions?