ABSTRACT. Keywords: tree fallow, farmer groups, adoption, innovation, household

Transcription

1 TYPOLOGY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF FARMERS TESTING AGROFORESTRY-BASED SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY IN EASTERN ZAMBIA Ajayi, O.C. 1* ; Masi, C. 2, Katanga, R. 3 and Kabwe, G. 3 1 SADC-ICRAF Agroforestry Programme, c/o Chitedze Agricultural Research Station, P.O. Box 30798, Lilongwe 03, MALAWI, Tel: , Fax: Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources, P.O. Box , Lusaka, ZAMBIA, 3 Zambia-ICRAF Agroforestry Project, P.O. Box , Chipata, ZAMBIA. * Corresponding author: ( ajayi@gmx.net) ABSTRACT Low fertility of the soils is one of the greatest biophysical constraints to increasing agricultural productivity and food security in sub-saharan Africa. Improved tree fallow, agroforestry-based soil fertility replenishment technology was developed by ICRAF and partners in eastern Zambia to respond to this challenge. This study was carried out to respond to questions regarding the initial testing of the technology by farmers, identify the characteristics that distinguish farmers who were the initial planters of tree fallow from those who were not, and to draw lessons for the scaling up of improved fallow to other parts of Zambia. Results show that the key characteristics that are associated with the decision to plant improved tree fallow are: availability of information that trees can replenish soil fertility, membership in farmers clubs and groups, level of innovativeness of individual farmers, and sale of household labour (ganyu) during peak farm operation at a time when households are expected to work in their own fields. Gender (sex) of the household head, household size and size of cultivated crop area are not significantly associated with farmers decision to test the technology. Total land holding size is less critical during the initial testing phase because the land required for this is very small, averaging 0.1 ha only. However, land holding size could become more important for the continuation and expansion of the technology on a larger scale. It is important to distinguish between factors which make farmers to first test improved tree fallow from those that influence their decision to continue to practice the technology on a longer term basis or to commit resources for the expansion of the technology. Efforts to enhance uptake of the technology should take cognizance of factors that affect farmers decision regarding planting improved fallow and how their influence evolves over time. Keywords: tree fallow, farmer groups, adoption, innovation, household INTRODUCTION In much of the African continent, increases in human population growth has led to a reduction in the per-capita land availability and a breakdown of the erstwhile long natural fallow system that used to be the traditional means of replenishing soil fertility. This has resulted in shortening of fallow periods and or continuous cultivation of the same field.. Estimates show that soils in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are depleted at annual rates of 22 kg/ha for nitrogen (N), 2.5 kg/ha for phosphorus and 15 kg/ha for potassium (Smaling et al., 1997). Many small scale farmers have drastically reduced the use of mineral fertilizer because of high costs particularly following the removal of farm inputs subsidies and the collapse of agricultural credit programs and parastate marketing system in the early 1990s. In Zambia, the ratio between the prices of N and the major crop (maize) increased four-folds after the removal of price subsidies on N fertilizer leading to a 70% decline in fertilizer use (Howard and Mungoma, 1996). An important negative social externality of soil depletion in SSA and low crop productivity, food insecurity and a general increased poverty among households (Sanchez et al., 1997). Improving soil fertility management in African farming systems has therefore become a major development policy issue (Scoones and Toulmin, 1999; NEPAD, 2003). In response to the challenges enumerated above, an agroforestry-based sustainable soil fertility replenishment technology called improved tree fallow was initiated in 1989 in eastern province of Zambia. Based on nutrient recycling principles, the technology involves using fastgrowing plant species that are nitrogen-fixing, easily degradable biomass, compatible with succeeding cereal crops within the farming system and adapted to the climatic and soil conditions of the miombo woodland of Southern Africa (Kwesiga and Coe, 1994; Kwesiga et al., 1999). Through the use of fast-growing, N 2 -fixing leguminous trees, improved tree fallow technology provide nitrogen for the subsequent crop, increase soil organic matter and improve soil physical conditions (Kwesiga et al., 1999; Mafongoya et al., 2003, Phiri et al., 2003). The technology allows farmers to produce soil N through land and labour rather than cash that most farmers lack. Studies have established the importance of the technology from agricultural, environmental and social perspectives (Ajayi et al., 2006; Current et al., 1995) as its potential as a source of income generation for smallholder farmers (Kuntashula et al., 2004). Due to its potential, efforts are being made by agroforestry research & development partner institutions to enhance the uptake of the technology among resource-poor smallholder farmers by encouraging farmers to evaluate its performance in their fields (Franzel et al., 2001; Kwesiga et al., 2003) and to explore various approaches for disseminating the technology in farm communities (Kabwe et al., 2004). Studies in eastern Zambia show that under current extension methods, 75% of the farmers who initially tested the technology eventually adopt and continue to practice it in their fields (Keil et al., 2005). Thus, getting farmers to test the technology is a crucial first step to eventual adoption by farmers and the ability of the technology to make impact in farming communities. However, there was information gap regarding the typology and characteristics of farmers who were initially testing the technology in eastern Zambia. Such gap includes the following: What are the characteristics of farmers who are the first to test (plant) improved tree fallow in their fields? In what way(s) do they differ from other farmers who do not test the technology? The objective of this study is to (i) answer these questions by identifying the distinguishing farmer characteristics with respect to establishing improved tree fallow fields in eastern Zambia and (ii) highlight lessons that were learnt from this study with a view to develop appropriate approaches for promoting farmer testing and eventual adoption of agroforestry-based soil fertility management technologies in other locations in Zambia. MATERIALS AND METHODS Description of study area Eastern Zambia lies between latitude 10 to 15 S and longitude 30 to 33 E bordering Malawi to the east, and Mozambique to the south. It has three distinct seasons: warm wet season or agricultural season from November to April; cool and dry season from May to August and hot and dry season in September and October. Average annual rainfall is 1000 mm with most of the rains occurring Zambian Journal of Agricultural Science, Volume 8(2): 1-5 (2006) 1

2 between December and March. The length of the growing season varies from 139 to 155 days. The vegetation is typical of the eastern and central plateau miombo woodland dominated by tree species like Brychystegia, Julbernadia, and Isoberlina. Population density varies between 25 to 40 persons km -2. Agricultural economy is dominated by maize, groundnut, cotton and vegetables all of which are cultivated in small fields that are less than 2 ha. Some households also engage in agro-pastoral farming. The major ethnic groups in the area are Chewas, Ngonis, Tumbukas and Nsengas. Data and analyses The data come from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data used for the analysis of this study is based on a sub-set of information that was collected in 1999 during a comprehensive survey to establish the baseline for the USAID supported Zambia Integrated Agroforestry Project (ZIAP) implemented by the World Vision. The aim of the baseline survey was four-folds: to describe the current situation in target project area regarding agricultural production and food security; to collect data for measuring key project development indicators; to assess current level of adoption of project activities and; to collect qualitative data to help project staff determine effective approaches to improve the implementation of project activities. The baseline survey used multi-stage sampling frame technique to select villages and households from whom data were collected. First, five agricultural districts - Chadiza, Chipata North, Chipata South, Katete and Mambwe-, were chosen as the pilot target sites for the Project. Second, a sampling frame consisting of all the 129 camps in the five target districts was compiled and from this, 20 camps were selected in a systematic random sample of clusters with equal probability. Third, from the list of all the households found in the selected camps, 320 households were selected using a systematic random sample. Through a set of structured questionnaires, information was collected during the survey from household heads on soil fertility knowledge and practices (including fertilizer, agroforestry, soil conservation, manure), farming systems practices, use of labour and other agricultural inputs, agricultural production and marketing activities, extension, credit and cooperative group activities. Further details of the data and the procedure for their collection have been described elsewhere (Peterson 1999). For the present study, a sub-set of the data on adoption of improved fallow were analyzed using Statistical Analytical System (SAS, 2003) package to determine the characteristics associated with farmers who planted improved tree fallow, and highlight how they differ from non-planters. The level of probability that a farmer with certain characteristic will commit resources to the establishment of improved tree fallow technologies was computed. Using General Linear Model (GLM), farmers who planted improved tree fallow and those who did not were compared to determine the distinguishing characteristics between the two types of farmers and the magnitude of the real differences the two farmer typologies. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Characteristics associated with the establishment of improved tree fallow fields. The results show that the key characteristics that influence the decision to establish improved tree fallow fields are: farmer awareness of the ability of trees to replenish soil fertility, opportunity to see the performance of the technology in fellow farmers field, availability of information on management of the technology, membership in farmers clubs and cooperative groups, availability of labour supply and the degree of innovativeness of individual farmers (Table 1). Gender (sex) of the household head, population size of households and size of cultivated crop area are not significantly associated with farmers decision to initially plant improved trees. The data in Table 1 are interpreted as the probabilities that an individual farmer will venture into testing improved tree fallow under a given situation. Table 1: Probability of planting and not planting improved tree fallow in eastern Zambia Variable Description Planters Non planters Pr>0 HOUSEHOLD TYPE Type of household (Male headed) MODERN Use of modern agricultural inputs by a farmer KNOWLEDGE Information about the ability of trees to replenish soil fertility SEEN Opportunity to see the performance of the trees in the field GROUP Membership of farmer club or association INCOME Principal source of household income is from crop sales LABOUR Farmer sells labour by working for other persons in return for food during the hungry months of the year CREDIT Accessibility and use of farm credit OXEN Use of animal draught oxen for field operation Awareness and information Information regarding the ability of improved tree fallow to meet felt needs is one of the most important factors that influenced farmers to establish improved tree fallow field. All the farmers who established improved tree fallow plots were aware and had received prior information about the ability of certain trees to replenish soil fertility. Comparatively, among non planters, only 63% had ever heard about trees that can act as fertilizers. Being a relatively new technology, the human capacity and institutional support for improved tree fallow in national extension programs and NGOs are low relative to other soil fertility options such as mineral fertilizers. The odds are 0.37 that farmers who have never heard about improved tree fallow will not plant N-fixing tree species. Attention should be paid to the type of information disseminated, the channel of communication and, the intensity with which information is given to farmers. Information is no doubt an important factor, but given that some farmers have heard about improved tree fallow and yet did not plant indicates Zambian Journal of Agricultural Science, Volume 8(2): 1-5 (2006) 2

3 that information is a necessary but not sufficient condition to make farmers plant improved tree fallow. Opportunity to witness the performance of the technology Opportunities to have first hand information regarding the performance of improved tree from fellow farmers and or to witness the same in fellow farmers field contribute significantly to the establishment of an improved tree fallow plot. Farmers who had the opportunity to see the increases in maize yield of the technology in the field had twice as much probability (0.43 against 0.19) to try out the technology compared with farmers who had never seen how the technology performs in the field. Farmer exchange visits and field days are potential opportunities to influence farmers to plant the technology. Membership of farmers groups or clubs Membership in farmer groups and cooperative associations enhance the establishment of improved tree fallow plots. The probability that a farmer who belongs to a farmers club will test improved tree fallow technology is three times higher. The odds are 0.71 that a farmer who established an improved tree fallow is a member of at least one farmer group while among farmers who did not test the technology, the chance is significantly lower (0.21) they belong to a group. An explanation for the positive association between farmer group and testing of the technology is that groups provide access to information on new agricultural practices. Farmers groups might have facilitated the flow of information and training on improved fallow to individual members of their group. Table 2: Characteristics of farmers testing and not testing improved tree fallow in eastern Zambia Variable Description Planters Non planters Pr >T AGE Age of the head of household HHSIZE Size of household COTTON AREA Area (in ha) cultivated to cotton by the farmer WEALTH Wealth status indicated by possession of iron roof, radio and bicycle (1= has one item, 3= possess all three) COTTON YIELD Cotton yield (Kg/Ha) MAIZE AREA Area cultivated to maize crop (Kg/Ha) MAIZE YIELD Yield of maize obtained (Kg/ha) FALLOW FIELD Area of fallow land possessed by a farmer FERTILIZER Quantity of fertilizer used by the farmer during the season (in Kg of formulated fertilizer) TOTAL CROP AREA Total area cultivated to crops (ha) Sale of household labour during peak farm operation Sale of labour is significantly associated with farmers decision to establish improved tree fallow plot. Farmers who planted improved tree fallow generally do not hire themselves or members of their households out to other farmers for food. Among planters of the technology, only a small proportion (21%) engaged in hiring out their labour to others. Comparatively, a significantly larger proportion (48%) of farmers who did not plant improved tree fallow plot routinely sell or hire out their own or household labour ( ganyu ) to work for other people in exchange for food (maize) during the hunger period usually between December to March. Food insecurity and poverty are the underlining reasons for the sale of labour by some farmers to fellow farmers during the hungry season at a time when households are expected to work in their own fields. Due to time specificity of agricultural operations and improved tree fallow establishment, farmers who engage in food-forwork are not able to establish viable improved tree fallow plots after they are done with operations in their employers fields, even if they desire to. A study is required to provide detailed information on extent and exact nature of the relationship between sale of household labour, food security and farmers decision to test improved tree fallow technology. Other factors There were no real differences between planters and non planters of improved tree fallow with respect to the gender (sex) of the household head, source of income, and wealth status such as accessibility of farm credit and possession of oxen. One of the reasons may be that the land area that farmers cultivated to improved tree fallow during the initial planting is very small (less than 0.1 ha) and relatively little resources are required to manage it at this phase. The inequality in terms of wealth endowment between men and women on the one hand and different wealth classes on the other may not be very critical for farmers initial testing of the technology. However, it is expected that power structure and resource distribution which have both economic and social consequences could affect the continued use and the area of land that a farmer would allocate to the technology at alter stages of adoption of the technology. Another reason for the weak association between gender of household head and planting of improved fallow was that most households in eastern Zambia from which the survey sample was drawn are de jure male-headed and as a result, the proportion of maleheaded household is quite high for both planters and non planters 1. Characteristics of planters and non planters of improved tree fallow technology Planters of improved tree fallow were compared with nonplanters regarding specific characteristics (Table 2). The comparison shows that farmers who planted improved tree fallow obtain significantly higher maize yield from their farms. This is consistent with theoretical expectation that improved tree fallow increases soil fertility and hence higher yield. A recent study (Ajayi, 2006) found that the impact of improved tree fallow that farmers in eastern Zambia mentioned most frequently is that crop production has increased due to the improved fertility of their soils. The study also revealed that farmers who tested improved tree fallow plots are more food secure (have sufficient food for all members of their households) for more months per year compared with farmers who do not. Given that improved tree fallow farmers also use nominally higher quantity of inorganic fertilizer, the differences in the maize yield between the planters and non-planters may not be 1 For example, a female farmer who was interviewed during the survey will be classified as male-headed household if she is married in a household headed by her husband. Zambian Journal of Agricultural Science, Volume 8(2): 1-5 (2006) 3

4 attributed exclusively to the planting of improved tree fallow. There is a strong association between cotton production and the planting of improved tree fallow. Two possible reasons could be proffered for this association. The first is that some organizations which promoted cotton as cash crop may also have been promoting improved tree fallow fallows in some villages. The second is that farmers who cultivated cotton may be using the cash realized from the crop to finance farm operations in improved tree fallow plots. It is recommended that the exact impact of cotton cultivation on improved tree fallow and the potential of cotton as a potential entry point for enhancing farmer uptake of improved tree fallow in eastern Zambia be explicitly studied in future research. Although maize is the principal crop in Eastern Zambia and will likely remain so in the immediate future, other crops are becoming increasingly important in the farming system of the study area. Given that biophysical assessment of improved tree fallow have to date been carried out almost exclusively on maize crop, there is need to widen the assessment of the performance of the technology to include new but increasingly important high value crops such as cotton, paprika and vegetables (Ajayi, 2006). A case study of the potential of improved tree fallows to provide fertilization for the production of high value vegetables in dambos in eastern Zambia has been demonstrated (Kuntashula et al., 2004). As expected, farmers who established improved tree fallow plots possessed larger area of idle fallow land but the difference is only marginally significant (Pr>0.1032), due to reasons given above. There were no significant differences between planters and non planters of improved tree fallow in terms of age, household size, cotton yield, area of cultivated crop area, fertilizer usage and the possession of household wealth indicators such as radio and iron roof. Theoretically, it would be expected that household size would affect household labour supply and influence planting of improved tree fallow. The analysis did not support this expectation, indicating that it is the effective household size (i.e. number of individuals that are available to participate in farm operations) that matters and not the nominal size of the household in affecting labour supply. CONCLUSION Farmers who initially planted improved tree fallow differ from other farmers in terms of the level of information they had regarding the technology, membership in farmers groups, labour supply, and level of innovativeness of farmers. But they do not significantly differ with respect to gender, household size and the size of maize field cultivated. It is important to delineate factors which are associated with the initial decision of farmers to test the technology from those which are important for farmers to continue practicing the technology ( adoption ) on an expanded long term basis and, programmes to enhance the uptake of the technology should be designed accordingly. The potential of using farmers groups as entry points to enhance the adoption of the technology in farming communities should be explored. It is important to note that given to the longer period and multi-components through which testing, modification and eventual adoption of agroforestry technologies take place, a testing phase of improved fallow should be distinguished from adoption phase (Franzel et al., 2002) and, experimenters from adopters (Adesina et al., 2000). The factors which are initially important for influencing farmers decision to test agroforestry when it makes its entry into a geographical area may not be wield the same influence on farmers decision to continue with the technology ( adoption ) on an expanded and long term basis. During the testing phase, factors relating to availability of information and ability to witness the performance of the technology are important to farmers and strongly influences whether a farmer will establish an improved tree fallow plot or not. At this stage, it is very important to create awareness among the farmers community to encourage the testing of the technology. Over time however, issues of institutional constraints (Ajayi and Kwesiga, 2003; Ajayi and Katanga, 2005), land size and tenure (Place et al., 2001), national policies (Place and Dewees, 1999) and compatibility with other operations in the farming systems become important. Efforts to enhance the uptake of agroforestry technologies must take cognizance of different factors associated with farmers decision and how the relative influence of such factors changes over time ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank The Rockefeller Foundation and Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) for the financial support through ICRAF and the USAID supported World Vision Integrated Agroforestry Project for their collaboration and responding to request for information used for this study. REFERENCES Adesina, A.A., Mbila, D., Nkamleu, G.B. and Endamana, D Econometric analysis of the determinants of adoption of alley farming by farmers in the forest zone of southwest Cameroon. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 80: Ajayi, O. C. and Katanga, R., Improved tree fallow and local institutions LEISA 21: Ajayi, O.C. and Kwesiga, F., Implications of local policies and institutions on the adoption of improved tree fallow in eastern Zambia. 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