2.2.1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

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1 Table des matières CHAPTER INTRODUCTION METHODOLOGY ANALYSIS OF DATA LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY OUTLINE OF THE REPORT CHAPTER GENERAL OVERVIEW OF CASSAVA PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION IN THE TARGET COUNTRIES WHY CASSAVA NEEDS PROCESSING GENERAL CONSTRAINTS IN THE TRADITIONAL PROCESSING OF CASSAVA ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS VARIETAL FACTORS AGRONOMIC FACTORS SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS CASSAVA PROCESSING FOR THE FUTURE CHAPTER CURRENT PROCESSING SYSTEMS, AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES, EQUIPMENT AND MAJOR ACTORS CURRENT TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS FOR CASSAVA PROCESSING AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR CASSAVA PROCESSING ROOT PREPARATION (PEELING, SLICING) SIZE REDUCTION (GRATING) DRYING FERMENTATION SOME PROCESSED CASSAVA PRODUCTS IN THE TARGET COUNTRIES TRADITIONAL PRODUCTS Gari Agbelima Cassava Chips/Kokonte... 18

2 Lafun Fufu INDUSTRIAL CASSAVA PRODUCTS PROCESSING EQUIPMENT CHAPTER CURRENT POLICIES ON POST-HARVEST SYSTEMS, THE ROLE OF OTHER PROJECTS IN PROMOTING PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES, POSSIBLE SYNERGISTIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THESE PROJECTS AND THIS PROJECT CURRENT POLICIES ON POST-HARVEST SYSTEMS GENERAL (FOR ALL THE TARGET COUNTRIES) Togo Benin Ghana Nigeria The Nigerian Cassava Initiatives THE ROLE OF OTHER PROJECTS IN PROMOTING PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES TOGO BENIN Development Project in the Cassava Sector in Benin (PDFM) Programme on Development of Roots and Tubers (PDRT) GHANA The Root and Tuber Improvement and Marketing Programme (RTIMP) The Cassava: Adding Value in Africa (C:AVA) Project NIGERIA The Cassava Enterprise Development Project Cassava Value Chain Development by Supporting Processing and Value Addition by Small and Medium Enterprises in West Africa The Cassava: Adding Value for Africa (C:AVA) Project Roots and Tubers Expansion Programme Regional Cassava Processing and Marketing Initiative POSSIBLE SYNERGISTIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THESE PROJECTS AND THIS PROJECT AREAS FOR POLICY DIALOGUE... 77

3 CHAPTER CONSTRAINTS IN THE PROMOTION OF PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES WAYS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVING AND PROMOTING THE TECHNOLOGIES POLICY ISSUES CAPACITY BUILDING ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS ECONOMIC CONSTRAINTS SOCIO-CULTURAL CONSTRAINTS INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTS PROCESSING/ENGINEERING CONSTRAINTS PEELING SIZE REDUCTION (GRATING) DRYING AND DEWATERING FERMENTATION QUALITY CYANOGENS BIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS CHAPTER THE PRESENT SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS (FOOD SECURE FAMILIES, INCOME STATUS, ACCESS TO CREDIT, MARKETS, ETC.) OF THE TARGET PROCESSING GROUPS IN THE TARGET COUNTRIES INTRODUCTION SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE IDENTIFICATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS CASSAVA PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES PROCESSED PRODUCTS AND PROCESSING CAPACITIES TRAINING IN CASSAVA PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES ACCESS TO CREDIT FOOD SECURITY GROSS MARGINS ACCESS TO MARKETS CHAPTER

4 OPPORTUNITIES (TECHNOLOGICAL, MARKETS, STANDARDS AND QUALITY CONTROL), WHICH EXIST IN THE PROMOTION OF PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROMOTION OF PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES TOGO BENIN GHANA AND NIGERIA EFFECTIVE PARTNERSHIP MECHANISM AMONG THESE KEY ACTORS IN THE PROMOTION OF PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES CHAPTER POTENTIAL SOCIO-ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES OF IMPROVED PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES ON THE LIVES OF TARGET GROUPS INTRODUCTION METHODOLOGY RESULTS FACTORS WHICH ARE LIKELY TO ENHANCE THE SUCCESS OF AN HQCF INDUSTRY CHAPTER STRATEGIC OPTIONS FOR ACHIEVING ACCELERATED ADOPTION OF PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES INTRODUCTION THE USE OF NEEDS ASSESSMENT DEMAND-DRIVEN APPROACH AS PROPOSED IN THE GLOBAL CASSAVA DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY REFERENCES

5 FOREWORD Put technological packages in the hands of cassava producers and processors as a means of increasing food availability and incomes and reduce post-harvest losses. In addition, the output of women cassava processing groups is reduced by 40% during the dry season as a result of drudgery vis-à-vis high labour cost in harvesting cassava roots. On the contrary, excessive glut and harvest losses occur at the peak of harvesting time. Additionally, the traditional pealing and grating methods of cassava into main products such as gari, flour and dough are grossly inefficient with low turnover, and sometimes injurious to health. A blend of 10% cassava flour with wheat flour is feasible. However, poor processing technology results in quality deterioration, storage losses and health hazards. Improvements and up-scaling of technologies for processing cassava into flour, gari and dough will ensure efficiency and reduction in post-harvest losses. The strengths, expertise and resources for post-harvest technology development and transfer in West Africa are being mobilized to demonstrate appropriate post-harvest technologies for adoption. Improved techniques for cassava processing into flour, gari and dough are being promoted. This manual seeks to strengthen capacities of the target groups to enable them adopt the techniques in cassava processing. The manual is an outcome of consultative effort involving key partners (agro-processing groups, particularly women, artisans, research scientists and NGO/Extension personnel). The manual development team reviewed existing manuals on processing technologies and updated them with new information. It is anticipated that this will contribute to the reduction in cassava post-harvest losses and improve market quality to enhance the attainment of poverty reduction of cassava producers and agro-processors in West Africa. Dr. Paco SEREME Executive Director CORAF/WECARD Fr. Godfrey NZAMUJO Director Songhai Centre 5

6 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION In addressing the current food crises and the hiking of food prices, CORAF/WECARD and USAID signed an agreement in June 2009 to implement six projects in the framework of the Emergency Global Food Security Initiative. As one of the projects, it seeks to promote improved rice, sorghum/millet and cassava processing technologies to ensure food security, enhanced marketability and increased farmers and processers incomes in Togo, Benin Ghana and Nigeria, over a period of 2 years. For cassava, the output of women cassava processing groups is reduced by about 40% during the dry season as a result of drudgery visa-avis high labour cost in harvesting cassava roots. On the contrary, excessive glut and harvest losses occur at the peak of harvesting time. Additionally, the traditional peeling and grating methods of cassava into main products such as gari, flour and dough are grossly inefficient with low turnover, and sometimes injurious to health. A blend of 10% cassava flour with wheat flour is feasible. However, poor processing technology results in quality deterioration, storage losses and health hazards. Improvements and up-scaling of technologies for processing cassava into flour, gari and dough will ensure efficiency and reduction in post-harvest losses. The project seeks to mobilize the strengths, expertise and resources for post-harvest technology development in West Africa and transfer to demonstrate appropriate postharvest technologies for adoption. Improved techniques for cassava processing into flour, gari and dough, as well as sorghum and millet grain conditioning will be demonstrated, alongside packaging and labeling technologies. Capacities of the target groups are to be strengthened to enable them adopt the techniques whilst their access in the acquisition of simple processing equipment facilitated through relevant linkages with NGOs, micro-credit institutions and the private sector. The objective of the project is to promote improved rice, sorghum/millet and cassava processing technologies to ensure food security, enhanced marketability and increased farmers and processers incomes. 6

7 As part of the project implementation, this baseline study was carried out in the target countries (i.e. Togo, Benin Ghana and Nigeria). A baseline survey is relevant in measuring impacts and gauging progress of implementation activities. This baseline study was done to: gather information related to the objectives and indicators of the project document, measure progress and also verify targets and indicators, deepen the understanding of the problems and opportunities of communities living in the study area, and to gain a better understanding of the working area which can lead to refining the planned interventions. Obtaining quantitative data prior to program inception will also serve as benchmark information for evaluating and assessing impact of the project on participating communities and households as per stipulated indicators. Also, information generated and other baseline data will be useful for planning future programme activities. The terms of reference of this baseline study are to: consult key partners (input enterprises, quality control and certification agencies, CBOs, processing groups, NGOs, CG centres, NARS, Extension) in target countries (Ghana, Nigeria, Benin and Togo) to collect and analyze information on the current processing systems, including available technologies, equipment and major actors. examine the current policies on post-harvest systems, the role of other projects in promoting processing technologies and suggest possible synergistic relationship between these projects and this project. identify constraints in the promotion of processing technologies, suggest ways and opportunities for improving and promoting the technologies. 7

8 ascertain the present socio-economic status (food secure families, income status, access to credit, markets, etc.) of the target processing groups in the target countries. identify opportunities (technological, markets, standards and quality control), which exist in the promotion of processing technologies and propose effective partnership mechanism among these key actors in the promotion of processing technologies in the target countries establish potential socio-economic advantages of improved processing technologies on the lives of target groups. propose strategic options (technological, approaches, partnerships and socioeconomic considerations) for achieving accelerated adoption of processing technologies, and prepare a detailed report addressing the terms given above. 1.1 METHODOLOGY Unless otherwise stated for some studies, the study was mainly carried out in Vogan, Tsevie and Aneho (in Togo), Ikpinle, Misserete and Zouzouvou (in Benin), Suhum and Adidome (in Ghana) and in 3 Local Government Areas (LGAs): Ikwuano, Bende and Umuahia North in Abia State (in Nigeria). The study for each target country used a combination of approaches. Firstly, a comprehensive review of existing literature on the organization and management of cassava post harvest in each target country was undertaken. Secondly, quantitative information on the post production, marketing, etc., of cassava was collected from the libraries of major institutions that are active in the cassava subsector as well as through project reports, visits and contacts. To supplement these two approaches, a standardized questionnaire was provided to 30 cassava processors or processor groups in each community/village in each target country in order to elicit information that the literature and personal interviews could not supply. Data collection also took place at each village level through focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Key impact indicators of the questionnaire were: 8

9 Cassava processing levels/capacities of processors; Quantity and value of cassava products; Gross margins per unit of cassava processed; Employment generation in cassava processing/persons involved in cassava processing Food Security determination using Dietary Diversity Score (DDS), Frequency of Food Intake (FFI), and Months of Adequate Household Food Provisioning (MAHFP) methods Cassava market outlets explored/created; Training on cassava processing technologies; and Cassava processing opportunities and constraints. 1.2 ANALYSIS OF DATA Quantitative data was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS), version 10.0 and Excel package. 1.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The study is limited only to one production period, thereby ignoring year-to-year variation caused by cost of inputs. A study of this nature might have required a time series data at least for period of five years to be able make more accurate policy recommendations. Moreso, the returns from the processing were calculated based on the prevailing seasonal market prices. There are usually fluctuations in the prices of gari and other cassava products during dry and rainy season. Some of the information provided by the respondents were memory recalls. The respondents lack the ability to keep records of costs and returns, although effort was made to obtain correct information by asking careful probing questioning the processors. The researcher was also involved in some processing operations and measurement in order to prove the accuracy of information gathered from the respondents. There may be some errors due to aggregation, loss of memory, underestimation or overestimation by processors. Also, this study is limited only to communities of the study due mainly to time constraints. A study of this nature would require an extensive coverage of the entire study area where 9

10 cassava is processed in a commercial quantity for a comparative study. However, these limitations notwithstanding, the reliability of the findings is not in any way impaired by the above factors and the result could be taken to represent the situation in the target countries. 1.4 OUTLINE OF THE REPORT The report is made up of 9 Chapters. Chapter 1 looked at the Introduction to the study, methodology and limitations of the study, while Chapter 2 examined the general overview of cassava processing and utilization in the target countries. Chapter 3 covered the current processing systems, available technologies, equipment and major actors of cassava processing. Chapter 4 presented the current policies on post-harvest systems, the role of other projects in promoting processing technologies possible synergistic relationship between these projects and this project. Chapter 5 dealt with constraints in the promotion of processing technologies, ways and opportunities for improving and promoting the technologies, and Chapter 6 covered the present socio-economic status (food secure families, income status, access to credit, markets, etc.) of the target processing groups in the target countries. In Chapter 7, opportunities (technological, markets, standards and quality control), which exist in the promotion of processing technologies were discussed after which Chapter 8 established potential socio-economic advantages of improved processing technologies on the lives of target groups. Finally, Chapter 9 proposed strategic options (technological, approaches, partnerships and socio-economic considerations) for achieving accelerated adoption of processing technologies. 10

11 CHAPTER 2 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF CASSAVA PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION IN THE TARGET COUNTRIES Cassava is one of the most important staple food crops grown in the target countries. It plays a major role in efforts to alleviate the African food crisis because of its efficient production of food energy, year-round availability, tolerance to extreme stress conditions, and suitability to present farming and food systems in Africa (Hahn and Keyser 1985, Hahn et al. 1987). Traditionally, cassava roots are processed by various methods into numerous products and utilized in various ways according to local customs and preferences. In some countries, the leaves are consumed as vegetables, and many traditional foods are processed from cassava roots and leaves. Improvement of cassava processing and utilization techniques would greatly increase labor efficiency, incomes, and living standards of cassava farmers and the urban poor, as well as enhance the shelf life of products, facilitate their transportation, increase marketing opportunities, and help improve human and livestock nutrition. 2-1 WHY CASSAVA NEEDS PROCESSING Fresh cassava roots cannot be stored for long because they rot within 3-4 days of harvest. They are bulky with about 70% moisture content, and therefore transportation of the tubers to urban markets is difficult and expensive. The roots and leaves contain varying amounts of cyanide which is toxic to humans and animals, while the raw cassava roots and uncooked leaves are not palatable. Therefore, cassava must be processed into various forms in order to increase the shelf life of the products, facilitate transportation and marketing, reduce cyanide content and improve palatability. The nutritional status of cassava can also be improved through fortification with other protein-rich crops. Processing reduces food losses and stabilizes seasonal fluctuations in the supply of the crop. 11

12 2-2 GENERAL CONSTRAINTS IN THE TRADITIONAL PROCESSING OF CASSAVA ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS During the rainy season, sunshine and ambient temperatures are relatively low for processing cassava, particularly in lowland humid areas where cassava is mainly grown and utilized. In other localities, particularly in savanna zones, water which is essential for processing cassava, is not easily available. During the early rainy season, the dry matter content of roots is usually lower than in the dry season, which can result in a lower yield of products. In the dry season when the soil is hard, harvesting and peeling tubers for processing are difficult and result in more losses VARIETAL FACTORS Cassava root shape varies among cultivars. Roots with irregular shapes are difficult to harvest and peel by hand, resulting in great losses of usable root materials. Root size also varies with cultivars although it depends more on environmental factors such as soil. Smaller roots require more labor for peeling. Varietal differences in dry matter content, and in starch content and quality influence the output and quality of the processed products. Cyanide content varies with varieties, but is also affected by the crop growth environment AGRONOMIC FACTORS Time of planting and harvesting, and age of plant, from planting to harvesting, all affect starch content, yield and quality of products. Other agronomic practices such as intercropping, fertilizer application and spacing can also affect yield and crop quality SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS Harvesting and transporting of roots from farm to homestead and subsequent processing are mainly done by women. Most of the steps in processing are carried out manually using simple and inexpensive tools and equipment that are available to small farmers. Cassava processing is labor intensive and productivity is usually very low. Transport of products to markets is made difficult by the poor condition of rural roads. The drudgery associated with traditional processing is enormous and the products from traditional processing methods are often contaminated with undesirable extraneous matter. Some of the products are therefore not hygienic and so are of poor market value. Better processing methods can improve the life-styles and health of rural people through higher processing efficiency, labor saving and reduced drudgery, all of which improve the quality of products. 12

13 Subsistence farmers harvest cassava when needed. Thus they leave the cassava in the ground for long periods, believing that the cassava is safer and would undergo less damage than when harvested. Although this system has certain merits, a delay in harvest can result in root losses due to root rots, damage by animals, and a decrease in the starch content in roots. Furthermore, keeping cassava in the ground prevents the use of that land for other purposes. 2-3 CASSAVA PROCESSING FOR THE FUTURE Rapid urbanization in the target countries increased mobility in both rural and urban areas and the changing roles and status of women have resulted in an unprecedented demand for convenience foods. Added to these factors is the high cost of fuel for cooking in urban areas at a time when fuel wood is not only inconvenient to use but is becoming increasingly scarce. Therefore, cassava processing and utilization technologies for the future should improve traditional methods and develop low cost equipment with low energy demands. Improved processing and utilization technologies should address issues related to farmers' (producers') and consumers' needs (particularly urban needs in future), and also to economic factors and nutritional values. Knowledge of the current traditional processing and utilization methods and of present urban patterns of consumption and changing urban needs will guide future strategies for cassava processing and utilization. Improvement of nutritional values of processed products also requires special attention from policymakers and researchers. Cassava is frequently denigrated because its roots are low in protein. However, protein may be supplemented from other sources, particularly legumes; for example, fortification of cassava flour or gari with protein-rich soyflour can be achieved. Such fortified products will be nutritionally advantageous, and thus economical and acceptable to consumers. 13

14 CHAPTER 3 CURRENT PROCESSING SYSTEMS, AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES, EQUIPMENT AND MAJOR ACTORS 3-1 CURRENT TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS FOR CASSAVA PROCESSING The processing of cassava into more storable forms offers an opportunity to overcome the perishability of the fresh produce. A wide variety of products are produced in the target countries. The best overview in the complex nature of cassava processing in West Africa has come from the Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa (COSCA) described by Nweke (1988). Details of the 3 most important products in 233 villages in six countries (Cote Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda and Tanzania) were collected (NRI, 1992). Across the countries, 147 different products names were used to describe the 623 products for which details were collected. In this study, the most common cassava products in the target countries are shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1: Traditional products obtained from cassava processing Product Togo Benin Ghana Nigeria 1 Gari X X X X Kokonte X X X Fufu X Lafun - X X X Tapioca X X X - Agbelima X X X - 1 Product shown as X means that it is available in the country indicated 3-2 AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR CASSAVA PROCESSING When cassava roots are harvested, they are transported from the field to the roadside or household. This is one of the major limitations of cassava processing. Roots are typically transported in a bowl carried on the head. In some places, bicycles are used. This is due to the fact that most of cassava farms are small (about 0.5 to 3.0 hectares), and not spatially arranged to make way for roads. In addition, the farms are far out of town with unmotorable roads. Also improvements in intermediate forms of transport would have a large 14

15 impact in many communities in the target countries. In nearly all the communities studied, the traditional technologies for processing the various products involved root preparation (peeling and slicing), size reduction (grating), drying, fermentation of roots. These traditional methods give low product yields which are also of low quality ROOT PREPARATION (PEELING, SLICING) Cassava roots are usually peeled prior to processing. Mechanical peelers are not generally available or used in any West African country as exists in Brazil. For many products, peeling is considered one of the most labour intensive process SIZE REDUCTION (GRATING) Size reduction of fresh roots is usually by grating. In many locations in the target countries, this is a mechanical process often carried out at a communal facility. Where machines are not available, grating is done by hand which is a very-labour intensive process DRYING Sun-dried products are the most common types of processed product in the target countries. One problem of sun-drying is that drying times are long. In a study by Wareing et al. (2001) on a dried product, kokonte, it took 7-12 days to dry during the dry season and 8-14 days during the rainy season. Mould growth is common in such periods and may be a concern in respect of mycotoxin formation. Various methods are available for improving drying to produce a better quality product. These include modifications to the size and shape of cassava pieces, use of inclined trays or concrete drying floors (e.g. Best, 1978; Balagopalan, 2000). In Ghana, a system of dried cassava chip production has been developed whereby cassava is chipped into small pieces using a machine developed by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria (Jeon and Halos, 1991). The combination of the chipper, drying on raised trays for 1 day and on polythene sheeting for 1 day produces a high-quality product at minimal cost (Westby and Gallat, 1999) FERMENTATION Fermentation is an important processing technique for cassava especially in the target countries. Three major types of fermentation are recognized: the grated root fermentation, fermentation of roots under water and mould fermentation of roots in heaps. The grated root fermentation is important in the processing of many West African products making the roasted granules (gari), steamed granules (attieke from Cote d Ivoire) and some of the fermented pastes (agbelima and placali from Ghana and Cote d Ivoire, respectively). 15

16 Typically grated roots are allowed to ferment for 3 5 days which encourages lactic acid fermentation and a consequent reduction in ph. The addition of starter cultures during preparation may be carried out in countries like Ghana, Togo or Benin, where some premould fermented roots are added during grating. This is said to increase smoothness of the final product. 3-3 SOME PROCESSED CASSAVA PRODUCTS IN THE TARGET COUNTRIES TRADITIONAL PRODUCTS Gari Gari is the most popular processed cassava product in the target countries. It is also the most consumed and traded of all food products made from cassava roots. In preparing gari, fresh roots are peeled and grated. The grated pulp is put in sacks (Jute or polypropylene) and the sacks are placed under heavy stones or pressed with a hydraulic lack between wooden platforms for 3-4 days to express excess liquid from the pulp while it is fermenting. Fermentation imparts an acidic taste to the final product. The dewatered and fermented lumps of pulp are crumbled by hand and most of the fibrous matter is removed. The remaining mass is sieved with traditional sieves (made of woven splinters of cane) or iron or polyethylene mesh. After being sieved, the fine pulp is then roasted in an iron pan or earthen pot over a fire. If the sieved pulp is too wet, it takes longer to roast resulting in a finished lumpy product with dull colour. Palm oil may be added to prevent the pulp from burning during roasting and to give a light yellow colour to the gari. When palm oil is not added, a white gari is produced. Palm oil contains substantial quantities of vitamin A, therefore, yellow gari is percent more nutritious and expensive than white gari. The garification or conversion rate of fresh roots into gari is 15-20%. This value varies with cassava varieties, time of harvesting, age of plant and other environmental factors. The flow chat for gari preparation is shown below: 16

17 Fig. 3.1: Flow chart for cassava processing into gari (adapted from Quaye et al. 2009) Agbelima Agbelima is a wet fermented product made from cassava and of major dietary importance in Ghana, Benin and Togo. Its preparation involves fermenting it with a traditional inoculum called kudeme which aids in breaking down the texture of the product through the activity of a number of tissue degrading enzymes. Agbelima is used as an intermediate product for preparation of akple, banku, and solely for yakeyake. The quality of agbelima can be judged 17

18 by the colour, smoothness, cohesiveness, aroma and sourness. Good quality agbelima should be smooth and creamy. However agbelima can be dried into flour to prolong its shelf life. The dried form although more stable with better shelf life over a longer period can be found in a few supermarkets in the country. However dried agbelima can be a potential product for export. Cassava Cassava peels Peeling Washing water Grating (with additition of innoculum) Fermentation (5-7 days) Package/Storage Fig. 3.2: Flow chart for cassava processing into agbelima (adapted from Osei et al. 2004) Cassava Chips/Kokonte Cassava roots are peeled, sliced into small pieces and sun-dried on racks or roofs for 4-5 days or sometimes up to 3 weeks, depending on the weather and the size of pieces. To types of products (unfermented and fermented also known as kokonte in Ghana and Togo) can result. Later, sun-dried pieces are milled into flour. This processing system is very simple but the processed products contain considerable amounts of cyanide. This method is widely used in many areas in Africa, particularly where water supply for fermentation is seriously limited. 18

19 Processing of cassava into chips provides a stable product, reduces bulkiness of fresh roots, which can be milled into flour when needed. Unfermented cassava chips have both industrial and domestic uses. It serves as food for human consumption as well as feed for livestock. Industrially it is milled into flour and used in making starch/adhesives for the paper and plywood industry, serves as a starch base for pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. Cassava Peeling Washing Chipping Drying (Fermentation for 7-12 days) Cassava Chips Kokonte Fig. 3.3: Flow chart for processing cassava into chips/kokonte (adapted from Osei et al. 2004) Lafun Lafun is a processed cassava product very popular in Nigeria and Benin. For lafun production, peeled or unpeeled cassava tubers are immersed in a stream, in stationary water (near a stream) or in an earthenware vessel, and fermented until the roots become soft. Fermented cassava flour (lafun) is usually made from freshly harvested cassava roots. The roots are peeled and subjected to a fermentation and drying process. The drying process helps to increase the shelf life and reduces the bulkiness of the product. Milled dried fermented cassava root materials give the lafun (cassava flour). The microorganisms involved in lafun production include four yeasts: Pichia onychis, Candida tropicalis, 19

20 Geotrichum candida, and Rhodotorula sp.; two molds: Aspergillus niger and Penicillium sp.; and two bacteria: Leuconostoc sp. and Corynebacterium sp. (Nwachukwu and Edwards 1987). Moisture, ph and temperature conditions are critical for the growth of these microorganisms in roots and thus for fermentation Fufu Two forms of fufu are traditionally produced in Nigeria: wet fufu paste and ready-to-eat fufu. The third form is a recently produced fufu powder. The peeled cassava is usually immersed in water to ferment. The water is pressed out and the pulp is pounded, wrapped firmly in leaves or nylon and steamed. The later processing method stops at the pounding, i.e steaming is not done. This means that the consumer would have to steam before serving. This is commonly transported to urban centres while the former is usually sold a few kilometres away from the point of processing. The shelf life of both forms of fufu is about 9 days. The third method is the outcome of a recently concluded research work (Oyewole and Phillip, 2001). Fufu powder has been test-marketed and is currently undergoing widespread publicity, large-scale production and commercialization INDUSTRIAL CASSAVA PRODUCTS High-Quality Cassava Flour (HQCF) High quality cassava flour (HQCF) is a relatively new cassava product. The production process of HQCF from harvesting to drying must be completed in a day to ensure that cassava flour produced is near white and odourless. Freshly harvested healthy, mature, firm, cassava roots with no bruises are used to produce high quality cassava flour (HQCF). The flesh of the roots should be white with no cracking. The roots are peeled and washed thoroughly to remove any dirt, including sand, soil, leaves or other impurities and then grated. The grated cassava mash is packed into a clean bag, such as a jute or sisal sack that will allow extra water to escape. The sack is pressed using a screw press or hydraulic jack to remove excess water until the cassava is crumbly. The pressed cassava mash is spread thinly on a clean black plastic sheet placed on a gentle slope in full sun. Ideally this should be raised off the floor. The mash is dried until it is very floury. A netting is used to cover the mash to keep off flies and birds. Though solar, stove and hot-air dryers are more expensive, 20

21 the drying process is more reliable and of higher quality. The dried cassava mash is milled to produce flour. Milling can be done using a hammer mill. Using a simple home-made sieve, the milled flour is sifted to remove fibrous materials and any lumps. This is important to obtain high-quality free-flowing flour, free of fibre with a good particle size. The sifted cassava flour is packed in airtight moisture-proof black plastic bags. The bags are sealed using a burning candle (or an electrical polysealer if electricity is available) and label with date of manufacture and expiry date (after six months). The bags are packed in a carton to protect them from light and the cartons stored in a well-ventilated, cool, dry place. The packaged flour will keep for about six months. HQCF It is either used whole or in the composite forms in the preparation of bakery products such as cakes, cookies doughnuts and breads. In industry, HQCF is used in the production of adhesives for the paper and wood industries, used as a base for pharmaceutical drugs and in making cosmetics. 21

22 Fig. 3.4: Flow chart for cassava processing into high quality cassava flour (adapted from Quaye et al., 2009) 22

23 HQCF is a major intermediate product. Development of HQCF is a key success in cassava processing, as it became the means to scale up industrial utilization in Nigeria. The flour is being used either alone or as a composite in bakery products. Before this, Nigeria used to import over one million tons of wheat annually. In the 1990s, after the depreciation of the naira, the high cost of wheat almost sent bakers out of business, thus compelling them to look for an alternative. To face this challenge, IITA developed a simple and appropriate process for producing HQCF that is suitable for baking. This was tested in the baking and confectionary industries; it was found successful and the cost implications were favorable. In Togo and Benin, cassava flour is used, but not to the same extent as in Ghana and Nigeria. In Bénin, cassava flour is used in making fritters (small, round, or flat fried cakes) and some bakers, trained by NGOs, have started using cassava flour in bread making. In Sierra Leone, cassava flour has been used to produce a common local food called dippa. This is an intermediate food, which is stored and made into a paste like fufu and served with any choice of sauce Starch In starch production, cassava is peeled and washed to remove dirt. It is then grated into a fine pulp and washed with a lot of water over a fine strainer. The mixture is allowed to settle. The water over the mixture is decanted leaving the starch below, which is dried and processed into other food products such as tapioca. 23

24 Fig. 3.5: Flow chart for cassava processing into starch (adapted from Quaye et al. 2009) Cassava starch processing is another success recorded in the target countries. The introduction of cassava starch in the food and non-food industries in Nigeria has transformed the cassava utilization industry. In Nigeria, cassava starch is used as an ingredient in manufactured foods (infant foods, confectionary, glucose, alcohol) and in nonfood industries (glues, oil well drilling, adhesives, paper sizing and bonding, textile sizing and strengthening). 24

25 It is also widely used as a thickening agent in soup and for laundry purposes. Starch is used in the other countries as well, although at varying levels. In Ghana and Bénin, it is produced in minimal quantities and used by tie-dyers of cloth. The traditional starch is used for clothes or consumed at a local level in the form of tapioca, often with special flavors (vanilla, banana). Some NGOs are encouraging this form of utilization as an income-generating activity as the product can be sold at weekly or seasonal village markets 3-4 PROCESSING EQUIPMENT Traditional cassava processing does not require sophisticated equipment. Processing cassava into gari requires equipment such as grater, press and roaster. The traditional cassava grater is made of a flattened kerosine tin or iron sheet perforated with nails and fastened onto a wooden board with handles. Grating is done by rubbing the peeled roots against the rough perforated surface of the iron sheet which tears off the peeled cassava root flesh into mash. In recent years, various attempts have been made to improve graters. Graters which are belt-driven from a static 5 HP Lister type engine have been developed and are being extensively used in Nigeria. Its capacity to grate cassava is about one ton of fresh peeled roots per hour. For draining excess liquid from the grated pulp the sacks containing the grated pulpy mass are slowly pressed down using a 30-ton hydraulic jack press with wooden platforms, before sieving and roasting into gari. Stones are used in traditional processing to press out the excess moisture from the grated pulp. Tied wooden frames are used for this purpose in places where stones are not available. Pans made from iron or earthen pots are used for roasting the fermented pulp. Fuelwood is the major source of energy for boiling, roasting, steaming and roasting. Fuelwood may not be easily and cheaply obtained in the future because of rapid deforestation. Slight changes in the equipment used in processing can help to save fuel and lessen the discomfort, health hazard, and drudgery for the operating women. The economic success of any future commercial development of cassava processing would depend upon the adaptability of each processing stage to mechanization. However, the first step to take for improvement of cassava technologies should be to improve or modify the simple processing 25

26 equipment or systems presently used, rather than to change entirely to new, sophisticated, and expensive equipment. Mechanization of cassava processing operations will enhance human capacity, leading to intensification and increase in production. The present upsurge experience in the demand of cassava products both locally and abroad has begun to overshoot the price of gari which is the most popular food derived from cassava. The cassava processing operations have been reported by many authors as labour-intensive. The study has shown that women and children are the major producers. Poor quality of locally produced cassava products have been traced to problem associated with peeling, grating, milling, dewatering, roasting, sifting, etc. which are labour-intensive. It was reported that gari processing takes an average of 90 hours to process 100 kg of gari per person. It was further iterated that 65% of the total time could be spent on peeling and 25 percent in roasting (Davies et al, 2008). To alleviate some of these problems encountered by traditional processors, various processing machines are developed for these operations such as peeling, grating of various sizes, pressing, sieving, roasting, chipping and milling. In Togo, the introduction of the mobile motorized grater, which is attached to a bicycle or motor bike, by the Institute of Togo Agricultural Research (ITRA) and its partners, Council and Institute of Technical Support (CITA), National School of Engineers of the University of Lome (ENSI) and ADEGNON Settlements, has made cassava grating easier. This new grater has been put into use only in the prefecture of Vo. Many fabricators are being trained on its manufacture and maintenance in order to facilitate its dissemination. This study has revealed that apart from this equipment, no new cassava processing equipment has been disseminated in Togo. In Benin, through the IFAD sponsored Programme on Development of Roots and Tubers (PDRT), processing equipment such as the grater and press were popularized to facilitate the development of derivative products. These equipment have been significantly adopted in nearly all areas by all classes of processors. Adoption of these equipment were not very high in areas in the South where the production of gari has always been a traditional activity. It was also due to the proximity of Nigeria where implementation of a number of 26

27 programs have encouraged the adoption of the press over the last thirty years and the grater in the past ten years. In Ghana, the major intervention in cassava processing was the introduction of a mediumscale motorized cassava grater by the Agricultural Engineers Ltd in The cassava grater presented a great innovation in cassava processing since grating is central to traditional processing of cassava in Ghana. Since then, several equipment manufacturers including engineering firms, research institutes, university departments, small-scale artisanal shops, blacksmiths and mechanics have developed and produce various types of cassava processing equipment. Cassava processing machinery manufactured locally are drum graters, horizontal disc graters, cassava chippers, screw presses, hydraulic presses, cassava dough disintegraters, sieving machines, grading machines, plate mills, hammer mills and mechanical dryers. Over the past three decades there has been a gradual but steady increase in the adoption of cassava processing equipment in the cassava processing industry. The adoption of mechanized cassava processing appears to have escalated in recent years through assistance provided by non-governmental organizations to various local communities. There are a number of public and private equipment manufacturers in Ghana presently. The major ones are shown in Table 3.2. Table 3.2: Some major equipment manufacturers in Ghana Equipment Manufacturer Government Owned Privately Owned SIS Engineering Ltd X CSIR-Food Research Institute X Entesel Hormeku Engineering Company Ltd Agbemskod Engineering Company Ltd X X X GRATIS Foundation X Source: Field Data Survey, May,

28 The different types of processing equipment manufactured by the companies in Table 3.2 are shown in Tables 3.3 to

29 Table 3.3: Technical Specifications of Cassava Processing Equipment manufactured by SIS Engineering Ltd., Kumasi. No Equipment/Machine Energy Source 1a Large Cassava Grater Electricity / Diesel 1b Medium Cassava Grater Electricity / Diesel 1c Small Cassava Grater Electricity / Diesel 2a 2b Dried Cassava Hammer Mill with separate cylone Dried Cassava Hammer Mill only Electricity / Diesel Electricity / Diesel 3 Cassava Chipping Machine Electricity / Diesel Power Drive 10 HP motor/ 8 HP Diesel Engine 10 HP Motor/ 8 HP Diesel Engine 5 HP 6 HP Diesel Engine 20 HP Motor/ 12 HP Diesel 5 HP Motor/ 6 HP Diesel HP/ 8-12 HP Diesel HP motor/ 8HP Diesel Capacity/Types of Material used MS or SS or G tons/hr SS tons/hr SS tons /hr SS kg/hr SS kg/hr SS 5-6 tons /hr SS Fuel Consumption / hr 2 liters of Diesel /hr 1.5 liter of Repair, maintenances Replace bearings 8-12 months Replace grating mesh after 9-12months Change batters months Size of Equipment (Dimensions) L W H 50 x 24 x 60 Price with Motor or Engine (US$) Diesel / hr 50 x 24 x liter of Diesel 30 x 24 x /hr -1.5 liter 2.5 liter of Diesel / hr 2.5 liter Diesel /hr 2 liters of Diesel /hr Change bitters months Re-sharpened chipping knife 41 x 71 x 10 ft Elec Eng x 30 x 72 Elec Eng x 30 x a Cassava Dough press Nil Nil 0.5 ton/batch Nil b (large) Cassava Dough press Nil Nil mild steel 200 kg / batch Nil Oil Nuts Regularly (Simple double screw) 5 Sifter (vibratory type) Electricity / Diesel 5 HP motor/ 8 Hp Diesel Not yet determined 1-5 liter /hr - 81 x 21 x 4 ft Cassava Chip Drier Electricity / Diesel 10 HP motor/ 8Hp Diesel 1 ton / batch 3 liters Bearings 121 x 81 x Indirect heat tons / batch 5 liters / hr Ball Bearings 16ft x 81 x

30 Stainless Steel tons / batch 6 liters / her Ball Bearings 20ft x 81 x Source: Dr. Nanam T. Dziedzoave, C:AVA Project, CSIR-FRI, Accra, Ghana Table 3.4: Technical Specifications of Cassava Processing Equipment manufactured by the CSIR-Food Research Institute, Accra. No Equipment/Machine Energy Source Power Drive Capacity/Types of Material used MS or SS or G 1 Cassava Drum Grater Diesel Eng./Electricity 8 HP 4 Tons/hour MS (body and stand) SS(grater) Fuel Consumption / hr Repair, maintenances - Rasper replacement every 1000 hrs of use Size of Equipment (Dimensions) L x B x H 91cm x 61Cm x 112Cm Price with Motor or Engine (US$) Robust Screw Press Manual N/A 1 Ton/hour x56 x HS/MS 90 3 Cassava Slicer Petrol 5 HP 1 Ton/hour x 76 x Eng./Electricity MS Diesel/Kerosene Dryer Diesel/Kerosene 15 HP 2 Tons/batch Electricity 5 Hammer mill Electricity HP Hardened steel motor 6 Centrifugal flour sifter Electricity 2 HP 500kg/hour Hardened steel (body), SS/nylon (sieving mesh) 7 Improved roasting stove Wood fuel/lpg Mechanical Gari roaster a Diesel fired bin dryer Electricity/Diesel 7.5 KW motor 2 tons/batch 2 gals/hour Burner servicing every 3 months Drying bin 8 x12 x

31 9b LPG fired bin dryer Electricity/Gas 7.5 KW motor 2 tons/batch 1.5 Kg/hour Burner servicing every 3 months 9c Residual oil fired bin dryer Electricity/Residual oil Source: Dr. Nanam T. Dziedzoave, C:AVA Project, CSIR-FRI, Accra, Ghana 7.5 KW motor 2 tons/batch 3 gals/hour Burner servicing every 3 months Table 3.5: Technical Specifications of Cassava Processing Equipment manufactured by ENTESEL, Ashaiman, Accra. Drying bin 8 x12 x 16 Drying bin 8 x12 x No Equipments/Mach ine Energy Source 1 Cassava Grater Electricity Petrol 2 Chipping Machine Electricity Petrol 3 Double Screw Press Power Drive Capacity/Types of Material used MS or SS or G N/A N/A kg per batch Fuel Consumption /hr Repair, maintenances 5 HP 5 HP 1 Ton/hour 1.5 ltrs/hour Rasper replacement every 1000 hrs of use 3 HP 1.2 Tons/hour 0.8 ltrs/hour Sharpen blades occasionally N/A Washing and greasing of screws after work. 4 Bagging Stand N/A N/A 1000kg per batch N/A Washing and Repainting regularly Source: Dr. Nanam T. Dziedzoave, CSIR-FRI, Accra, Ghana Size of Equipment (Dimensions) Price with Motor or Engine (USD$) 1100x550x1000 1, x680x725 1, x400x x Table 3.6: Technical Specifications of Cassava Processing Equipment manufactured by ENTESEL, Ashaiman, Accra. No 1a 1b Equipments/Mach ine Large Cassava Grater Medium Cassava Grater Energy Source Electricity/ Diesel Electricity/ Diesel Power Drive 10 HP motor 8 HP Diesel Engine 10 HP Motor/ 8 HP Diesel Engine Capacity/Types of Material used MS or SS or G 3 tons/hr Stainless Steel 1-2 tons/hr SS Fuel Consumption/ hr 2 liters of Diesel /hr 1.5 liter of Diesel / hr Repair, maintenances Replace bearings 8-12 months Replace mesh months Size of Equipment (Dimensions) L W H 90 x 73 x113 Price with Motor or Engine (US$) x 26 x a Hammer Mill with separate cylone Electricity/ Diesel 15 HP Motor/ 8 HP Diesel kg/hr SS 2 liters of Diesel / hr Change batters months 41 x 71 x 10 ft Elec

32 2b Hammer Mill only Electricity/ Diesel HP/ 8 HP Diesel kg/hr SS Source: Dr. Nanam T. Dziedzoave, C:AVA Project, CSIR-FRI, Accra, Ghana 2 liters Diesel /hr Change batters 14 16months Dies x 28 x 70 Elec Eng Table 3.7: Technical Specifications of Cassava Processing Equipment manufactured by Agbemskod Engineering Company Ltd, Accra. No Equipments/Machine Energy Source Power Drive Capacity/Types of Material used MS or SS or G 1a Small Cassava Grater Electricity/Diesel HP Motor 8 HP Diesel Eng. 1b Medium Cassava Grater Electricity/Diesel 10 HP Motor 8 HP Diesel Eng. 1c Large Cassava Grater Electricity/Diesel 10 HP Motor 8 HP Diesel Eng. 2a Large Hammer Mill with Electricity/Diesel 20 HP Motor/ 12 separate cylone HP Diesel Eng. 2b Medium Hammer Mill with separate cylone Electricity/Diesel 10 HP Motor/ 8 HP Diesel Eng. 2c Hammer Mill only Electricity/Diesel HP Motor/ 12 HP Diesel Eng Source: Dr. Nanam T. Dziedzoave, C:AVA Project, CSIR-FRI, Accra, Ghana kg/hour SS. 1 2 Tons/hour SS tons /hour SS kg/hr SS kg/hr SS kg/hr SS Fuel Consumption /hr 1.5 ltrs of diesel/hour 1.5 ltrs of diesel /hour 2 ltrs of diesel /hour liters of Diesel / hr 2 liters of Diesel / hr 2.5 liters of Diesel / hr Repair, maintenances Replace mesh 9 12 months Replace mesh 8 12 months Replace mesh 8 12 months Change bitters months Change bitters months Change bitters months Size of Equipment (Dimensions) Price with Motor or Engine (US$) L x W x H 40 x 20 x 50 L x W x H x 24 x 60 L x W x H x 30 x x 6.5 x 10 Elec Dies x 6 x 8 Elec Dies x 5 x x 50 x 60 Elec Dies

33 Table 3.8: Technical Specifications of Cassava Processing Equipment manufactured by GRATIS FOUNDATION, Tema, Accra. No. Equipment/Machine Energy Source Power Drive Capacity/Types of Material used MS or SS or G 1a. Conventional Cassava Grater SAA/IITA Cassava Diesel Engine/Electricity. 8 HP D/Eng./15Hp EM 1b. Grater manual 5HP D/eng./3HP EM 33 Fuel Consumption /hr Repair Maintenances tons/hr, S.S N.D Replace bearings & grating plate every 18 mths. 1 ton/hr, SS N.D Replace bearings & grating plate every 12 mths. Size of Equipment (Dimensions) Price with Motor or Engine (US$) 1.2 x 0.6x 1.6m 4, x 0.45 x 1.0m 3, c. Manual Cassava Grater manual N/A 0.1 tons/hr, SS N/A Clean after use 1.0 x 0.3 x 1.1m Double Screw Press manual manual 200kg/batch, MS N/A Replace screw 1.3 x 1.1 x when worn 3. Grated Cassava/Dough manual manual 1 mini bag at a N/A Wash after use 800mm high Bagging Stand time, MS 4a. Gari Roasting Pan Fuel wood/lpg Heat 5 kg/batch, N/A N/A 600mm diameter (Round) Aluminium 4b. Gari Roasting Pan manual manual 15 kg/batch, SS N/A N/A 610 x 1220mm (Rectangular) 5. Gari/Dough Sifter manual manual 200kg/hr, SS N/A Clean after use 60x80x Gari Grading machine electricity 3 HP motor 1 ton/hr, SS N.D Replace 1.5 x 1.3 x 0.8m 1, bearings, 24 months 7a. Cassava Flour Hammer Mill with Cyclone electricity 10 HP motor 0.5 ton/hr, SS N.D Replace bearings, x 1.2 x 0.8m 18,000.00

34 7b. Cassava Flour Hammer Mill with Air Bag 8a. Cassava Grits/Chips Bin Dryer 8b. Cassava Grits/Chips Solar cum Fuel wood (the MEC) Dryer 9. Mechanical Gari Stirrer Roaster 10. Mechanical Cassava Harvester 16 months electricity 10HP motor 0.5 ton/hr,ss N.D Replace bearings, months electricity & 5HP motor 8HP 1.5 ton/batch, SS N.D Service burner diesel d/engine after 3-6 months sunshine & Wood fuel electricity & wood/lpg tractor solar energy, manual 10 HP motor, LPG/F.wood 60 HP tractor at least 11. Fermentation Rack manual N/A wood, 0.3 tons/batch Source: Dr. Nanam T. Dziedzoave, C:AVA Project, CSIR-FRI, Accra, Ghana 1.5 tons/batch, SS N.D Clean transparent sheet regularly 50kg/batch, SS N.D Replace bearing, months Medium carbon steel: 1.2 acres/hr. 1.4 x1.2 z 0.6m 12, x 2.1 x 1.5m 14, x 3.0 x 2.8m 18, m wide x 1.0m high 4, N.D Clean after use 1.2 x 1.8 x 1.1m 5, N/A Clean after use 1.9 x 70 x

35 Nigeria has substantial comparative advantage in processing technology and cassava transformation is more improved than in the other target countries. A number of improved processing equipment have been introduced over the years partly because: it is the largest producer of the crop (35% of total African production and 19% of world production), cassava forms a major part of the dietary intake of Nigerians, especially in southern Nigeria, and is said to have a daily per-capita dietary calorie equivalent of 238 kcal (Ugwu, 1996). there have been more cassava processing related projects as compared to the other target countries. In gari processing for example, a number of improved equipment have been introduced into Nigeria lately and are shown in Table 3.8. As a result of the comparative advantage of more processing equipment found in Nigeria, the study below was specifically carried only in that country and is expected that results of this study could be extrapolated for the other target countries because of similar socio-economic conditions. The survey of cassava processing machinery was carried out in Oyo State. The study was carried out in Lagelu, Ibarapa and Oyo Local Government Areas by means of a structured questionnaire, administered through a participatory learning technique. Each of the three Local Government Areas was divided into four zones. Furthermore, each zone was divided into four locations. Thus, a total of 48 processing centres were visited. Care was taken to include semiurban towns in the sample to obtain information on the rural-urban interface of cassava processing machines. Some of the issues addressed by the questionnaires include: (a) the different type of machine, (b) most acceptable machine, (c) effect of cost of machine on the processors, (d) cost of maintenance and services, and (e) gender relationship on the cassava processing operations, etc. The data was subjected to quantitative statistical analyses using computer software (SPSS, Version 10, 1993). 35

36 Table 3.9: Traditional and Improved Cassava Processing Technologies/Equipment in the Study Area Processing Stages Traditional Technology Improved Technology 1. Peeling Knife made of bamboo, flint or metal Mechanical peeler Motorised peeler Hand peeler, hand rasper 2. Washing Local Calabash bowl Aluminium tank 3. Grating Rough Stone, prickly trunk of palms sheet / tin iron pierced with nail on one side Mechanized Grater, Motorised grater, Hammer mill, disk grater, hand grater 4. Fermentation Heavy stone on heavy weighed cloth or nylon bag 5. Dewatering Pressing Heavy stone on heavy weighed cloth nylon bag (for several days) 6. Sieving Woven baskets, suspended cloth pieces holding mash Batch fermentation in aluminium tank, locally made hydraulic or mechanical Hydraulic jack press, screw press, parallel board press, upgraded traditional press for few minutes. Improved pulverizer e.g. drum sieve, rotating sieve 7. Roasting Cast Iron pan over wood fire Upgraded roaster, solar dryer, kiln type dryer 8. Sifting Woven basket Improved pulverizer and sifter Source: Field Data Survey, May

37 The results of the study showed a total of 48 processing centres were visited in Oyo, Ibarapa and Lagelu Local Government areas of Oyo State, Nigeria. A cursory look at Table 3.9 shows a total of 212 cassava processing machines were observed, prominent among the machines were grater (37.6%), dewatering press (28.8%) and milling machine (24.1%). Peeling as a unit operation in cassava processing presented a considerable problem and was still largely undertaken mostly by women and children using knife (Kehinde, et al., 2007; Faborede and Ajibola, 2000). The only one peeler, all washing machines as well as fryer had been abandoned due to high operation cost. Cassava chippers and sifters were well utilized for production of flour and gari, respectively. The diesel engine was the most popular prime mover (82.1%) observed in all the processing centres and capacity ranged from ( kw), the petrol and electric engine ranged from (2.3-5 kw) (Table 3.10). On the spot assessment revealed that more than 90% of petrol and electric engine attached to machines were operated by women while diesel engine attached to machines were mainly operated by men. Table 3.10: Summary of cassava processing machines observed during study Machine Type Total Observed Zone 1 Total Observed Zone 2 Total Observed Zone 2 Total Machine Observed Observed Machine (%) Peeler Washing Grater Presser Chipping Sifting Slicing

38 Roasting Drying Milling Source: Field Data Survey, May 2010 Table 3.11: Prime mover Prime mover No observed Observed (%) Diesel engine Petrol engine Electric motor Source: Field Data Survey, May 2010 Table 3.12: A summary of ownership of processing centers Ownership Percentage (%) Individual 65.0 Government - Non-Government Cooperatives societies 32.0 Source: Field Data Survey, May 2010 Table 3.13: Relationship between the cassava processors and machine manufacturer 38

39 Relationship grading Response (%) High 0 Moderate 7 Poor 93 Source: Field Data Survey, May 2010 Despite some impressive technological achievements through development of new machinery and equipment, cassava processing still continue to present daunting challenges because the production level of these processors are either cottage or small-scale level. And this is characterized by low level of technology use and poor management leading to the low productivity. Table 3.11 shows individual ownership of processing centers were predominantly 65% while 32% were owned by cooperatives bodies and 3% were sponsored by nongovernmental organizations. Relationship between the machine operators (i.e. processors) and machine producers revealed that there was virtually no interaction (93%) (Table 3.12). The locally produced cassava processing machinery and equipment such as cassava graters, sifters, dewatering press, gari roasters, chippers, batch dryers, pelleting machines and cassava starch mill, developed by research institutes, engineers and Nigerian Equipment Manufacturers were not commonly observed with the processors during this study. Interestingly about 85% of the observed machines utilized by processors were produced by artisans and road side welder. This group of producers had no knowledge of strength of materials and other quantity control assurance since they only copy and reproduce what others have made. No wonder over 40% of the observed machines had been abandoned over a short period of time. The greater numbers of abandoned machines were observed in individual ownership processing centres (Table 3.13). Table 3.14: Reason for machine abandonment Reason Type of No. Old age High Cost Availability Repairer Quality of 39

40 machine abandoned (%) of Operation (%) Peeler of Spare Sparts (%) (%) Construction Materials (%) Grater Presser Sifter Chipping 1 6 Roasting Milling Diesel engine Petrol engine Electric Source: Field Data Survey, March 2010 Non-governmental assisted bodies ownership only recorded two abandoned machines. On-thespot evaluation revealed that apart from the quality of the machines, the operators were not trained on how to manage the machines. Some of the processor complained bitterly on adulterated spare parts as well as lack of experience machine repairers. It was obvious from Table 3.14 that men predominantly engaged in machine operations while women undertook cassava processing operations that were prominently manual. Peeling, washing, roasting, sifting and drying were almost done manually and by women. Women were dominant in operating milling machines powered by petrol engines and electric motors. Women were favourably employed (about 65%) in the cassava processing centres and this was similar to the report of Ajibola (1995). There was high shared of female labour in cassava processing which 40

41 called for an urgent need for appropriate gender sensitive machines and equipment for cassava processing. Atala and Tafa (1991) recorded similar observation in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Table 3.15: Sex of the cassava processors in the study Types of operation Male operators (%) Female operators (%) Peeling 8 92 Washing 3 97 Pressing Sifting Roasting 3 97 Drying 4 96 Milling Grading Source: Field Data Survey, March 2010 In all the processing centres visited cottage industry (65%) was owned by individuals while small-scale industry was 35% and owned by cooperative and non-governmental bodies. None of the processing centres had less than two machines. Grater, dewatering press and milling machine were most prominent. The most acceptable machine and prime mover were grater and diesel engine, respectively. More than 80% of machine operators were men. Women were most often operating machines attached to petrol engines. Women were considerably engaged in any manual operations in cassava a processing such as peeling, washing, sifting, drying and roasting. Peeler and roaster were abandoned for high operation cost. Some machines were 41

42 equally abandoned based on old age, lack of good technicians (repairers), poor construction materials and non-availability of spare parts (mainly adulterated). Also, contributed immensely was lack of technical knowhow and training on the part machine operators. The diversification of cassava products, processing and utilization are presently constrained inspite of Nigeria s rating as the world s largest cassava producer for these reasons: inadequate processing machinery and equipment; lack of credit for peasant processors, low returns from small-scale processing, bulkiness and high perishability of the crop. There is no significant interaction between the processor and machine producers to evaluate problems relating to the machines. It is recommended that the locally produced processing machinery and equipment developed by research institutes, engineers and Nigeria Equipment Manufacturers should be jointly demonstrated by processors, relevant research institution and Agricultural Development Programmes (ADP). Processors comment should influence necessary modification and final selection of the processing machinery. Peeling has been found to constitute a substantial percentage of the total cost of production. Thus, it is pertinent to develop appropriate machine to take care of the constraints experience during peeling operation. Moreso, agronomy research into various cassava varieties that are of uniform size and shape be developed. The high costs of most of the cassava processing machinery constitute a major hindrance to the acquisition of the readily available machinery. Since the capital investment of the peasant processors is low, they are enjoined to form cooperative bodies so as to buy communally those machinery they lack. Provision of basic infrastructure amenities such as electricity, potable water, accessible roads and filling stations will not only go a long way to improve the standard of living of rural farmers and processors. It will also serve as encouragement for the processors to adopt machinery using electricity and diesel as source of power. 42

43 CHAPTER 4 CURRENT POLICIES ON POST-HARVEST SYSTEMS, THE ROLE OF OTHER PROJECTS IN PROMOTING PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES, POSSIBLE SYNERGISTIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THESE PROJECTS AND THIS PROJECT 4.1 CURRENT POLICIES ON POST-HARVEST SYSTEMS GENERAL (FOR ALL THE TARGET COUNTRIES) The study found out that there is no separate policy articulation for the development of agribusiness sector or for the cassava subsector in all the target countries. Other than broad statements, there is no specific articulated national policy that focuses on the development of cassava as an important sub-sector especially in the areas of agricultural commodity, quality standardization, storage, processing, packaging, packing, and marketing. Also, there are no such specific policies on cassava except for the presidential initiative in Nigeria. There are attempts to introduce this legislation in Ghana. As a first step to developing policies, there has to be programmes on cassava processing which could be a catalyst for legislation Togo According to the most recent Agricultural Policy of Togo (MAEP, 2006), the general objective is to increase the income of farmers and contribute to improving the living conditions of rural people, in terms of sustainable development, with particular emphasis on the poorest populations and most vulnerable groups (especially youth and women). The overall objective is divided into four specific objectives below: develop the capacity of all stakeholders in the agricultural sector; improve farm productivity and promote sustainable agricultural development; reduce the dependency of food vis-à-vis imports, and facilitate access to the buoyant market for agricultural products. 43

44 The direction of agricultural policy includes 3 areas namely: strengthening the legal and institutional framework; improving the structure of rural society and the professionalization of the agricultural sector, and improving sustainable access to productive resources and market. On agri-business, what was found in the Policy (Section 5.27) is that there will be improvement in funding for agricultural and rural activities as a prerequisite for the revival of the sector. The establishment of the National Fund for Institutional Support Fund (FNAIA) and inter-regional Fund for Agricultural Development (FRIDA) is also is progress. Support will be needed to strengthen the operational capacities of MFIs and to develop their networks. The creation of a professional resource center for rural MFIs to provide an advisory and training to MFIs and a fund for institutional strengthening could provide adequate support tools. Presently, there are virtually no projects on cassava post harvest in Togo. The few projects in the past were not national in scope. One project that was developed and implemented through collaboration and technology transfer was carried out between the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and the Institute of Togo Agricultural Research (ITRA). Known as the "Promotion of cassava production through diversification of its forms of use", this project was designed to organize the processing of high quality cassava flour (HQCF) as an adjunct for the production of bread in local and in improved bakeries with the view to reducing wheat imports in line with the General Guidance Note on Agricultural Policy. The project trained two groups of processors, one in Vogan and the other in Tsevie. In March 2010, an NGO Support Programme to Civil Society for Integrated Development (PASDIB) in collaboration with the International Centre for Soil Fertility and Development (IFDC) organized acceptability trials through tasting of HQCF/wheat bread at the BOMACO bakery. 44

45 Benin The agricultural policy of Benin according to Biaou (2007), took its origins from the difficulties and vulnerabilities faced by cotton which is the only export crop in the country. Thus, the Government of Benin decided to diversify its export crop. In 1991, Benin clearly defined the main direction of its agricultural policy through its Declaration of Political Rural Development policy which has enabled the implementation of certain actions. Among these are the Draft Restructuring Agricultural Services (PRSA) and the holding of the round table on the Rural Sector in September Ten years after the policy definition there have been different evolutions of the PRSA and the major political and economic setting of Benin was defined in the Policy Framework Document Economy for the period The goals of this document were pursued in a comprehensive manner through Benin's agricultural policy on rural development as follows: strengthening the participation of the agricultural sector to the socio-economic development by contributing to the restoration of macroeconomic balances, creating jobs and boosting the potential for agro-ecological development; contribution to improving the standard of living, by increasing the purchasing power of producers, the fight against poverty, control of food quality; maintaining food security and nutrition in a context of rapid population growth now estimated at 3.3% per year; agricultural diversification and increased productivity; conservation of the ecological heritage, and improving gender relations in rural communities following the analysis of "Gender and Development". To achieve these objectives, strategic directions were identified in several areas including: production, processing of agricultural produce, agricultural marketing. Thus, the processing of agricultural products is one of the strategic directions of agricultural policy in Benin. 45

46 The processing of agricultural products which was assigned to the private sector, has particular importance because of their regulatory function of markets, their contribution to food security and nutrition, and the value they provide to stakeholders where women constitute the majority in rural areas. To promote the processing of agricultural products including cassava, priority was given among others to: research, development and dissemination of appropriate technologies for processing and storage mainly by women; dissemination of information on the storage of plant and animal products to promote the attainment of storage facilities/appropriate conservation in the context and level of rural populations production; support to developers for building storage/preservation infrastructure and manufacture of packaging materials; access to credit for storage/preservation and processing; the definition and implementation of a policy in close collaboration with the Ministry of Industry and Small and Medium Enterprises, to support small and medium processing enterprises of agricultural products (cassava, yam, etc.) to improve their performance, as well as the development of local agro-industries; and implementation of measures to ensure greater efficiency of procurement functions and marketing. To achieve these goals, concrete actions were implemented since 1991, mainly through the Ministry of Rural Development (MDR) which is now the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MAEP). These actions involved several crops including cassava. The current policy of promoting cassava began in earnest in 1998 following the call to 46

47 thousands of young cassava producers to produce in quantity and quality for export to the EU market. For agricultural marketing, to be effective, the government has planned to focus its efforts on: compliance with competition rules should allow a service at lower cost and better rewards for producers; reduction of tax barriers and regulatory burdens on private operators and the lifting of restrictions on exports of agricultural products; improving information flows on prices of local merchants and exporters by strengthening market observatories; sales promotion through, for example, Benin Centre for Foreign Trade, the Chamber of Agriculture, the National Council for Export, diplomatic missions abroad, in compliance with the law of business affairs; the implementation of a bold policy on quality control of export products and import; sanitary control in housing market, particularly for livestock products and fish; improving roads and rural tracks and the achievement of priority to public investments in infrastructure. In the area of Agricultural Finance, the following measures have been laid out: The taxation sector will be reviewed and made consistent with the objectives of the Letter of Agricultural Policy Statement; The State contribution to the functioning of agricultural services will be revised upwards; Make a consistent allocation of resources for this sector given its importance for the development of national economy; Improving management of counterparties to state programs funded from external resources, with particular emphasis on the release time of the amounts provided in order to avoid implementation delays; Devolve budgets for better efficiency of state services to the grassroots stakeholders and communities; 47

48 Develop partnerships between the public and private sectors to finance certain investments in the agricultural sector; Supporting the strengthening of existing institutions and the diversification of sources of credit, loans for adapting to the conditions of small farmers; Promote the establishment of medium-term credits, including the necessary equipment procurement and storage operations, processing and marketing; Creating the conditions for the emergence of private banks to support agricultural sector investment involving the use of credits medium and long terms; Promote the establishment of a support mechanism or agricultural credit guarantee; Promote women's access to credit and youth through support to all local financing structures, such as Financial Services Associations (FSAs), or any other form of decentralized financial services Ghana According to Ghana s Medium Term Agriculture Sector Investment Plan (METASIP) of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA), a major focus to reduce post-harvest losses will include capacity building of producers in better harvesting, transportation and storage methods, introduction of grading methods and linkages between producers and markets. A core team of extension staff will be trained in post-harvest technologies to provide a reservoir of specialized extension agents in each region for training of producers and other actors (grain traders and distributors) along the value chain. Available data shows that up to 35% of maize and 34% of cassava produced is lost along the chain (METASIP, 2009) (Table 4.1). This is a major loss and potential cause of food insecurity. Factors associated with losses include limited knowledge on post-harvest handling, poor harvesting methods, poor storage systems, poor access to information on pest control methods and poor transportation methods and equipment. In general, Ghana is considered food secure, but there are pockets of regional disparities in food availability in some regions such as the 48

49 northern regions being food insecure. improved food distribution network. This regional disparity can be addressed through Table 4.1: Levels of Post-harvest Losses and Reduction Targets Crop Current level of postharvest Targets by 2015 Percentage reduction from losses (%) (%) baseline Maize Cassava Yam Rice Source: METASIP, MOFA, Ghana (2007) Distribution systems will be improved to balance food deficit and food surplus areas through improved information gathering and dissemination and development of an efficient grain trade system. Efforts will also be directed at improving the transportation system and roads in major producing areas. Value addition increases the economic value as well as increase shelf life of food commodities. Various interventions for value addition will be pursued including warehousing, agroprocessing, packaging and distributing. Investment in warehousing will be promoted to improve the quality of staples along the chain and to increase trade in legumes and cereals. Warehousing is also expected to contribute to commodity price stabilization. Existing warehouses will be upgraded by installing appropriate equipment, while new ones will be established in strategic areas in the country. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) and relevant agencies will put in place and enforce grading standards to be applied in all warehousing centres. The Directorate of Agricultural Extension Services will be expected to a play major role in linking smallholders with warehousing investments. Market information gathering and intelligence will be improved to provide up to date information on commodity 49

50 trade in order to make the linkages between producers and smallholders efficient and transparent. Information collected will include production forecasting, actual production data, market prices and food supply situation of major food crops in all the regions. Agro-processing will be promoted through support to individual and group initiatives aimed at adding value to major food staples. Priority will be given to maize (milling and packaging), rice (milling and packaging), cassava (gari, flour, etc), yam (flour), cowpea (grading and packaging) etc. The support includes targeted training in value addition and linkages with relevant service providers and markets. Use of appropriate grades and standards will be emphasised to improve quality, improve market penetration and reduce post-harvest losses. In promoting agro-processing, care will be taken to ensure that the activities are carried out in an environmentally safe and sustainable manner. Thus all agro-processing interventions will be required to put in place environmental mitigation measures. Gender equity will be emphasised in all activities along the value chain to ensure that the disadvantaged, especially women and youth play a major role in all activities. The Women in Agricultural Development (WIAD) Directorate of MoFA will play a leading role in these initiatives. MoFA now wishes to advise the Ghana government to make production of composite wheat flour containing between 5 to 10% cassava flour mandatory for all flour mills operating in Ghana. MoFA s position is based on the following considerations: Partial substitution of imported wheat flour with locally produced high quality cassava flour even at levels as low as 5% will lead to substantial savings in foreign exchange used to important large tonnage of wheat annually. Economic activity will be generated in the agro-processing industry through small and medium-scale enterprises (SMEs) which will be supported for the production of high quality cassava flour for sale to the flour mills. Expanded markets for fresh cassava roots will be created for farmers in the eight regions due to demands by the cassava flour production enterprises. 50

51 Jobs will be created in the eight regions through the expanded markets for fresh cassava roots and the establishment of SMEs leading to economic growth and poverty reduction in the districts involved. Mandatory production of composite flour by the flour mills will contribute substantially to ensuring national food security which is becoming increasingly important in the light of the current world food crises. With minimal investments and equipment adjustments, the existing flour mills in Ghana can produce composite wheat/cassava flour. Women who are important players in the cassava production and processing industry and mandatory production of composite flour by the flour mills will offer new opportunities and improve their lot. Mandatory production of composite flour has been tried successfully though to limited extents in some countries including Ethiopia and Nigeria. Currently Ghana does not have the capacity to produce the required 130 metric tonnes of high quality cassava flour for substitution daily. To achieve this level of production, the government will have to facilitate and support the private sector to establish four medium-scale cassava processing plants in each of the proposed eight regions making a total of 32 plants. Each of the 32 plants will be required to process an average of 20 metric tonnes of fresh cassava roots into 4 metric tonnes of high quality cassava flour. This will provide the 130 metric tonnes of HQCF required by the flour mills daily. The government will have the option of giving financial support to either upgrade and upscale selected existing cassava plants or giving support to establish new plants where suitable plants are not available Nigeria The Nigerian Agricultural Policy ( aims at the attainment of self-sustaining growth in all the sub-sectors of agriculture and the structural 51

52 transformation necessary for the overall socio-economic development of the country as well as the improvement in the quality of life of Nigerians. The broad policy objectives include: attainment of self-sufficiency in basic food commodities with particular reference to those which consume considerable shares of Nigeria s foreign exchange and for which the country has comparative advantage in local production; increase in production of agricultural raw materials to meet the growth of an expanding industrial sector; increase in production and processing of exportable commodities with a view to increasing their foreign exchange earning capacity and further diversifying the country s export base and sources of foreign exchange earnings; modernization of agricultural production, processing, storage and distribution through the infusion of improved technologies and management so that agriculture can be more responsive to the demands of other sectors of the Nigerian economy; creation of more agricultural and rural employment opportunities to increase the income of farmers and rural dwellers and to productively absorb an increasing labour force in the nation; protection and improvement of agricultural land resources and preservation of the environment for sustainable agricultural production; establishment of appropriate institutions and creation of administrative organs to facilitate the integrated development and realization of the country s agricultural potentials. The main features of the policy include the evolution of strategies that will ensure selfsufficiency and the improvement of the level of technical and economic efficiency in food production. This is to be achieved through the introduction and adoption of improved seeds 52

53 and seedstock, husbandry and appropriate machinery and equipment, efficient utilization of resources, encouragement of ecological specialisation and recognition of the roles and potentials of small-scale farmers as the major producers of food in the country. Reduction in risks and uncertainties were to be achieved through the introduction of the agricultural insurance scheme to reduce natural hazards factor militating against agricultural production and security of credit outlay through indemnity of sustained losses. A nationwide, unified and all-inclusive extension delivery system under the Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) was put in place in a joint Federal and State Government collaborative effort. Agro- allied industries were actively promoted. Other incentives such as rural infrastructure, rural banking, primary health care, cottage industries etc. were provided, to encourage agricultural and rural development and attract youth, including school leavers, to go back to the land. The agricultural policy is supported by sub-policies that facilitate the growth of the sector. These sub-policies cover issues of labour, capital and land whose prices affect profitability of production systems; crops, fisheries, livestock and land use; input supply, pest control and mechanisation; water resources and rural infrastructure; agricultural extension, research, technology development and transfer; agricultural produce storage, processing, marketing, credit and insurance; cooperatives, training and manpower development, agricultural statistics and information management. Implementation of the agricultural policy is, however, moderated by the macro-economic policies which provide the enabling environment for agriculture to grow pari passu with the other sectors. These policies usually have major impact on profitability of the agricultural system and the welfare of farmers as they affect the flow of funds to the sector in terms of budgetary allocation, credit, subsidies, taxes etc and, therefore, must be in harmony and mutually reinforcing with the agricultural policy. The macro policies comprise the fiscal, monetary, trade, budgetary policies and other policies that govern macro-prices The Nigerian Cassava Initiatives Concerned about its singular dependence on a mono product (oil) for its foreign exchange, since her independence in 1960 the Nigerian Government has made several forays at policies 53

54 for the development of its agricultural and business sector. Various government policies on agricultural development have been developed and more recently, geared towards the cassava sub-sector, in particular, the Presidential Initiative on Cassava launched in July The objective of the Initiative is the expansion of production and use of cassava to satisfy domestic demand and also as foreign exchange through its products export. The Initiative focused its intervention on the development of production, processing, and marketing of the processed products. The promotion of HQCF in the baking and confectionary industries was further given political support to enhance public and industrial acceptance. With strong advocacy at all levels, there was support for processing and export. A policy was promoted to add 10% of cassava flour to the wheat flour used in bread, to open additional market opportunities for smallholder farmers. This national effort created a potential market for 330,000 metric tonnes of cassava flour yearly. The growth in demand activated the industrial scale-up of HQCF and starch processing by about 48% (Maziya-Dixon and Onadipe, 2007). The awareness created greater interest and increased investments in the industry by foreign and local investors. The Initiative s challenge however, is how Nigeria can earn US$5 billion from value added cassava exports by the year The vision for cassava is that it will spur rural industrial development, helping to raise incomes for producers, processors and traders while contributing to the food security status of its producers and consumers, by a shift from cassava as principally a subsistence food crop to an industrial crop used in the processing of ethanol, starch, pellets, and high quality cassava flour for the export trade. To achieve this goal, Nigeria must adopt a demand-driven approach in promoting, developing and diversifying its cassava-based industries. A critical analysis of the data supports the view that Nigeria has the potential to achieve its US$5 billion earnings target from cassava products, once it addresses the current major bottlenecks along the Value Chain. Her high cassava production levels mean that the implementation of equitable governmental policies, such as import substitution, 10% 54

55 mandatory use of ethanol as fuel, and 10% cassava flour substitution in bakery and confectionery, could see her earnings from reduced imports and industry savings surpass the projected government target. Existing and new policies aimed at supporting investment and market development in the cassava industry include: Policy on national strategic food reserve: The Food Reserve policy is aimed at ensuring food security, guaranteeing food and industrial raw materials and providing employment opportunities for the rural labor force. Gari, the most produced and traded cassava product, has recently been added to the list of products. This should stimulate the gari production industry, creating more cassava plantation, essential for the growth of the overall cassava industry. Policy on Pioneer Status Investment Incentives: Companies can obtain Pioneer Status in several ways: if they produce products declared pioneer products under the Industrial Development (Income Tax Relief) Act No. 22 of 1971 as amended in 1998; if the Nigerian Investment Promotion Council (NIPC) has declared it a deserving enterprise; or if the company locates in an economically disadvantaged area. The Pioneer Status provides a five-year tax holiday to qualified investors, with a two-year extension for those located in economically disadvantaged areas. These areas are defined in the NIPC guidelines to investment incentives in Nigeria (NIPC, Investors Guide to Nigeria 1998). However, it must be noted that pioneer status is not automatic and must be applied for and even with a pioneer status such companies must report taxes to the Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS) but the tax is not taken from the company. Policies on Export Incentives for non-oil sector: These include: (a) a 10% tax concession for 5 years for industries exporting no less than 60% of their products, (b) retention of export proceeds in foreign currency, 55

56 (c) Export Development Fund (EDF), that provides financial assistance to private sector exporting companies, (d) Export Grant Fund Scheme (EEGF): provides cash inducement for exporters that have exported a minimum of N50,000 worth of semi-manufactured products, (e) Duty Drawback/Suspension and Manufacture-in-Bond Scheme, (f) Export Adjustment Fund Scheme provides supplementary export subsidy to compensate exporters for the high cost of local production arising mainly from infrastructure deficiencies, and other negative factors beyond the control of the exporter; (g) Nigeria Export/Import (NEXIM) Bank Foreign Exchange facilities and (h) Capital Assets Depreciation Allowance which is an annual allowance of 5% on plants and machinery to manufacturing exporters who export at least 50% of their annual turnover provided that the product has at least 40% local materials content or 35% value added. All these incentives are also applicable to cassava-based industries (e.g. starch or ethanol) that are produce for export purposes. Policy on the provision of credit loans for agriculture producers through specialized banks like the Nigerian Agriculture, Credit, and Rural Development Bank (NACRDB). Policy on mandatory substitution of 10% wheat flour with high quality cassava flour in the Flour Mill industry. This policy will link high quality cassava flour processors to large scale wheat flour millers in Nigeria and consequently create the desired jobs. Policy on provision of gainful employment for the country s population. The present government of Nigeria strongly supports a growth-oriented economy with the capacity to create jobs. Policy on blending of 10% Ethanol in fuel: The Nigerian government as part of its commitment to the 2000 Kyoto Agreement has decided to implement a policy of 56

57 blending fuel with 10% Ethanol. Ethanol s blended fuels will lower the emission of carbon dioxide in the earth atmosphere. 4-2 THE ROLE OF OTHER PROJECTS IN PROMOTING PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES TOGO As stated in Section , there are no projects on cassava post harvest in Togo presently and that the few projects in the past were not national in scope. The last project introduced the processing of HQCF, trained a few processors in the towns of Vogan and Tsevie, and made attempts at introducing HQCF into bread making BENIN Several projects and programs have been implemented in the development of the cassava sector in Benin. The projects include: The Rescue Plan on the promotion of cassava cultivation, the Research Program on roots and tubers in the national agricultural research programme, Development Project in the Cassava Sector in Benin (PDFM), and the Development Project of Root and Tubers (PDRT). Among these projects, the last three had components that attempted to improve processing technologies Development Project in the Cassava Sector in Benin (PDFM) The Development of Cassava Chain Project (PDFM) had the aim to promote the producers, processors and traders of products from cassava. Its strategy was to strengthen the capacities of action of these three types of stakeholders through their respective organizations. There was talk initially to stimulate the emergence of professional organizations. After the formation of structures at the base of professionals (producers, processors and traders), the second step of the project strategy was the establishment of local committees of stakeholders. These committees, at the district levels, in collaboration with the project, worked on the emergence of a National Inter-Professional Committee. PDFM in addition, the aimed to: 57

58 increase production of cassava; improve the level of productivity of cassava farmers; improve the quality of products obtained from processing cassava; satisfy the domestic market and win the regional and international markets; develop and improve collaboration between different stakeholders (policy makers, producers, researchers, extension workers, manufacturers, processors, traders, etc.) in the cassava sector, and alleviate rural poverty. To achieve these objectives, the PDFM planned to implement the following actions (Sodjinou, 2003): 1. Increasing productivity of cassava: provision of equipment and plant performance inputs (fertilizers, pesticides) to farmers; training farmers in production techniques and improved processing; establishment of a credit system to facilitate the acquisition of inputs and equipment for processing by all producers and processors, and introduction of new technology equipment to improve through the processing capacity of cassava. 2. Facilitate processing and marketing of cassava and derived products by involving and empowering existing organizations to: increase the volume of commercial transactions for products from cassava, while continuing to meet the needs of local food supplies; reduce production costs of cassava products to make them more competitive both on the domestic, regional, international markets initiate the organization of the cassava sector and implementation of new types of stakeholders who will be more oriented towards market agriculture. 58

59 the installation of the project implementation unit; produce and supply to producers high yielding planting materials. A total of 2,147,872 stems were produced to meet the needs expressed; train farmers on farming techniques that can promote good performance and great production of cassava; train processors, equipment manufacturers and artisans of extension activities; undertake micro-finance activities of cassava processing. At December 15, 2001, 1156 cassava micro-frinance groups were registered of which 405 were validated for an amount of FCFA 424,756, Programme on Development of Roots and Tubers (PDRT) The most recent cassava Programme is the Programme for Development of Roots and Tubers (PDRT) which started in 2001 and ended in It was funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) to fight against poverty in general and food insecurity in particular for small farmers who constitute two thirds of poor households in the country. The Government of Benin decided to undertake this Programme under the policy of diversification of crops in the fight against poverty and promotion of new agricultural industries, thereby reducing the dependence of national economy of the cotton which has been subject to instability. The overall objective of the Programme was to increase the incomes of the most vulnerable rural people by improving the production, processing and marketing of roots and tubers. The Programme gave special attention to the activities of women, who constitute more than 90 per cent of all processors. The people who benefitted directly from the Programme included approximately 15,000 small farmers, 10,000 women processors and 1,600 school dropouts in 312 villages. Women have a major role in the subsector. They do more than 85 per cent of the processing at the village level, and they also dominate trade. The Programme strengthened women s organizations and facilitated their access to labour-saving technologies, training and credit. 59

60 The Programme was established as shares of interest to about 300,000 households of rural farmers and/or processors of roots and tubers with a focus on women and rural youth. These rural households are characterized by their poor access to factors of production (fertile land, agricultural inputs, technologies for sustainable production, credits, etc.) The specific objectives of the program were to: improve the productivity of growing roots and tubers by linking them to a sustainable improvement of soil fertility; improve the productivity of small processing and product quality, and create conditions conducive to the marketing group profit target. PDRT was organized into four components, namely: o o o o Component A: Support for improving the productivity of roots and tubers; Component B: Support for the processing and marketing primary Component C: Support to basic institutions, and Component D: Programme Management. One of the main achievements of PDRT in the field of processing and marketing of roots and tubers were in the Processing Component which focused on technologies used to make cassava and yam products. The Programme provided training on the use and construction of traditional ovens and yam storage facilities. Ovens were immediately built in Atacora/Donga and south Benin. The Programme encouraged processing groups to pay special attention to product hygiene and packaging. The products are very popular and should considerably increase incomes for members of the processing groups. PDRT supported the introduction of processing equipment in the activities of women who work as groups or individually. As part of the extension of these innovations into its intervention villages, PDRT trained the group members on the new derivatives and diversification of cassava processing (Biaou et al., 2007). These derivatives are: improved gari, cassava bread, tapioca, bread, biscuits, confectionery (atchomon), donut, lafou, etc. Other achievements were: 60

61 enhancement of cassava peel for feeding sheep; the development of feed-based chips and cassava flour for feeding rabbits and poultry; the use of biscuits and breads; cassava flour by the processing groups to produce savoury and sweet capacity building of 6000 processors in making derivatives of roots and tubers, 1500 processors operating processing equipment, 600 processors for the holding of specifications, 50 processors on the construction of traditional ovens and 90 bakers in the use of cassava flour; the construction of 29 processing workshops equipped with stores and drying area; training in equipment maintenance for at least 12 local artisans; bringing together 60 villages in less isolated high cassava production areas; 13 marketing warehouses built; In Research and Development, the Programme worked in collaboration with the National Agricultural Research Institute of Benin to select 5 processing technologies for sweet potato and cassava. The new technologies were disseminated to villages to diversify their range of products for human and animal consumption. These include: sweet (orange-fleshed) potato flour used to make biscuits for children cassava peelings recycled to feed small ruminants cassava morsels used to feed rabbits for reproduction in south Benin maize substituted for cassava flour to improve the performance of laying hens different food rations based on sweet cassava tested for fattening pigs Under the Marketing Component, innovative programmes were proposed alongside traditional training in accounting. To improve inventory management, members of processing groups and multi-village marketing associations were trained in the building and use of yam storage structures. They were also trained in marketing techniques to encourage consumers to buy 61

62 their products, rather than those of their competitors, on the strength of good quality and reasonable prices. Lack of the information and knowledge necessary for decision-making and lack of access to needed services are root causes of poverty. PDRT addressed these constraints through a focus on market knowledge, animation, information, education and communication. Other innovative features include emphasis on enhancing security of access to land as an incentive for recommended soil fertility and protection investments, and adoption of an advisory services approach as an alternative to public services. The Programme also worked through memoranda of understanding, networking and exchange visits to develop linkages to other roots and tubers Programmes developed by IFAD in Nigeria and Ghana. It has undertaken a regional market study on cassava and has organized workshops. The Programme has established strong with the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) through linkages with an IFAD grant financed Programme for the dissemination of improved cassava and yam technologies. A year before the Programme closed, efforts made to improve productivity have led to an important increase in cassava and yam production, which has contributed to food security and a sustainable increase in poor rural people s incomes. Despite significant progress in processing and marketing, some problems remain, principally because of insufficient access to mediumterm credit. Support to grass-roots institutions has had an important role in laying the foundation for capacity building and sustainable reinforcement both of grass-roots institutions and local public entities. Key assets for sustainable development of the chain are the adoption of a national policy for roots and tubers promotion, the establishment of apex organizations and the beginnings of industrial processing for some cassava by-products such as alcohol, biofuel and bread flour. 62

63 4.2.3 GHANA In Ghana currently, two country-wide projects are on-going to promote cassava processing technologies. These are the Root and Tuber Improvement and Marketing Programme (RTIMP) and the Cassava: Adding Value for Africa (C:AVA) Project The Root and Tuber Improvement and Marketing Programme (RTIMP) From 1999 to 2005, the Ghana Government and IFAD-financed Root and Tuber Improvement Programme (RTIP) aimed at developing the root and tuber sub-sector and focused essentially on developing crop production through research and extension. Although RTIP achieved remarkable results, it became clear that a balance between crop production and the development activities like processing and marketing was needed in order to ensure that farmers derived maximum benefits from higher yields and higher production. The Root and Tuber Improvement and Marketing Programme (RTIMP) is a follow-up programme which is being implemented to address the challenges that came up because of RTIP. The goal of RTIMP is to enhance income and food security in order to improve livelihoods of the rural poor. The main purpose of the programme is to build a competitive and marketbased Root and Tuber Commodity Chain (RTCC) supported by relevant, effective and sustainable services that are available to the rural poor. RTIMP will support the emergence of an inclusive private sector that is deeply anchored in the realities of Ghana, and a stronger public sector capable of improving the policy and regulatory environment and delivering the required public goods. Under RTIP, MoFA trained a total of 2,486 persons including entrepreneurs, MoFA staff, caterers, bakers, hoteliers, women groups, vocational teachers, etc, in the use of cassava flour as partial substitute for wheat flour in bread making and production of pastries. This extensive promotion of composite wheat/cassava flour was carried out between 2000 and 2004 by Women in Agricultural Development of MoFA (WIAD) supported by the CSIR-Food Research Institute and the Biochemistry Department of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and 63

64 Technology (KNUST) with financial support from RTIP. In addition to MoFA s training workshops, various bakery products made from wheat/cassava composite flour were exhibited at various exhibitions and fora including AGRIFEX 2001, 2002, 2003, TRATECH 2000, WESTFAIR 2000, Asanteman Agrofair 2001, MoFA Meet the Press 2003, and World Food Day Farmers Forum Thus considerable sensitisation and awareness was created throughout the country on the importance of HQCF and its utilisation as partial substitute for imported wheat flour. HQCF can also be used in industry for other purposes including the plywood, paperboard and textile industries and presently a few companies such as Amasa Agro-processing Company and ELSA Foods are engaged in the commercial production of HQCF The Cassava: Adding Value in Africa (C:AVA) Project The Natural Resources Institute (NRI) of the UK is the lead investigator in a multinational research and development project, Cassava: Adding Value for Africa (C:AVA) funded by Bill and Melinda Gates. Partnering with the Ghana Food Research Institute, University of Agriculture in Abeokuta, Nigeria, the Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre, the Africa Innovations Institute in Uganda, and Chancellor College at the University of Malawi, NRI will address the cassava value chain and the production of High Quality Cassava Flour (HQCF) in the 5 Sub-Saharan (SSA) partner institutions countries. The project aims to improve the livelihoods and increase incomes of smallholder farmers, focusing particularly on women and other historically disadvantaged groups. The two-year C:AVA Project which started in 2009 is to address three intervention points in the value chain by: ensuring a consistent supply of raw materials; developing viable intermediaries acting as secondary processors or bulking agents in value chains; and driving market demand and building market share (in, for example, bakery industry, components of traditional foods or plywood/paperboard applications). 64

65 C:AVA s objectives are: To ensure that by the end of 2011, at least 90,000 smallholder farmers (20,000 for Ghana are earning an additional US$0.52 per day from each producing 0.8 tons per farmer of consistent quality grits per annum for the HQCF industry in the 5 SSA countries; To ensure that by the end of 2011, 9 intermediaries (2 for Ghana) are each profitably buying and processing smallholder farmers cassava grits output to produce 5,600 tons (1400 for Ghana) of quality HQCF per annum for consumption in the plywood, food processing and bakery industries in the 5 Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries; To ensure that by the end of 2011, at least 6 plywood/food processing and 4 bakery associations (2 companies for Ghana) have profitably substituted of their annual raw material demand for HQCF in 5 countries; To undertake value chain mapping, within value chain coordination, gender analysis activities supporting scaling and sustainability and project management; and Monitoring and Evaluation. To assess performance and impact of the projects and intervention in order to improve effectiveness and dissemination of lessons learned for scaling-up and market development. A summary of outputs delivered as at the end of 2009 include: Objective 1 Eleven service providers contracted and funded to deliver specific outputs on project (6 NGOs, 2 Extension Service Providers, and 3 Technical Service Providers). Key capacity strengthening activities for service providers undertaken as follows: Training in: i. Supply chain management (6 NGOs) ii. Planting material multiplication techniques 65

66 iii. Key capacity strengthening activities of farmers, farmer processors and smallscale processors undertaken as follows: Organization of 6616 farmers into 279 farmer groups, 1198 farmer processors into 54 farmer processor groups, Training of 138 farmer groups in : i. Planting material multiplication, ii. Good agronomic practices, iii. Weed control iv. Group dynamics and v. Business management. Training of 56 farmer processor groups in the production of HQCF. Supply of 19,860 bundles of improved cassava planting material to 6616 farmers. Establishment of 106 acres of improved cassava planting material multiplication plots. Objective 2 Loan portfolio guarantee (LPG) established at Ecobank Gh. Ltd. in the sum of US$209, Three rural banks (Amanten and Kassei Community Rural Bank, Wanfie Rural Bank and Ga Rural Bank) have signed MOUs to extend credit to intermediaries against the LPG Credit has been extended to six (6) medium-large scale intermediaries up to a total sum of US$114, A total of tons of cassava products have been produced and supplied by nine intermediaries into the value chain, since project inception. Linkages have been established between nine (9) intermediaries and forty eight (48) end-users since project inception. Objective 3 Demonstrations and training activities in the utilization of HQCF in plywood production were undertaken for eight (8) plywood companies 66

67 Demonstrations and training activities in the utilization of HQCF in bakery products has been undertaken for one (1) biscuit manufacturer. Firms orders totaling 785 metric tonnes per month obtained from ten of these end users. Objectives 4 & 5 One-on-one meetings have been held with service providers to streamline deficiencies in data reporting. One stakeholder meeting was organized for all project implementation partners. M&E Baseline survey was initiated during the period NIGERIA The Cassava Enterprise Development Project USAID/Nigeria and SPDC in association with the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) commissioned a Cassava Enterprise Development Project (CEDP) in 11 States of the south-east and the south-south geo-political zones in support of Nigeria s Presidential Cassava Initiative since The project addressed the critical threat of an outbreak of Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) to Nigeria and West Africa, while developing processing, enterprise development, and marketing outlets for cassava products. Target states are: South-South (Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Edo, Delta, Enugu and Rivers) and South-East (Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi and Imo). The project objective is to increase economic opportunities through sustainable and competitive cassava production, processing, and marketing development. Major successes of CEDP for the past 5 years are as follows: Established nearly 500 processing enterprises and created over 3000 new permanent jobs. The three types of processing centres established were small medium enterprises (SMEs) processing 1-2 tonnes/day of cassava, microprocessing centers (MPCs) processing less than 1 tonne/day of cassava, and mobile grater enterprises (MGE) processing 0.5 tonne/day; 67

68 Income from selected commodities and products was US$4.4b. Average yield of introduced cassava varieties were 29t/ha from 9-14t/ha as at In some states averages from 32 to 33t/ha were recorded. From 2005 to date more than 700 sustainable producer associations groups have been formed. Over $44 million revenue generated from gross sales of cassava products such as mash, gari, odourless fufu flour, high quality cassava flour for bread making, cassava chips cassavita, starch and ethanol; In collaboration with Ekha Agro Farms Limited, Ogun State, built the largest glucose syrup factory in Africa. This has saved Nigeria $15 million per annum on importation; Diversified into the use of cassava as a livestock feed both as a waste disposal mechanism of the cassava peels and as a cheaper way of replacing maize with cassava in animal feed. This reduced the current competition for maize by human beings and livestock. The enterprises considered included poultry, fishery, snailery, small ruminants, grass cutter, piggery, and edible worms; Trained over 10,000 farmers, extension workers, and processors on commercial cassava production techniques, processing and utilization, enterprise development, and environmental hygiene; Linked farmers to service providers such as chemical companies, tractor hiring services, and micro credit schemes. In collaboration with Syngenta, formed weed control groups in all the senatorial districts as a way of creating jobs for youths and at the same time providing reliable services for farmers; Provided market information for 38 commodities from 80 markets spread over the 36 States of Nigeria and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT); 68

69 Promoted trade by linking producers, fabricators and processors to local, national, regional and international markets; The agro-enterprise and publication units continuously provided investors with feasibility drafts for various cassava-based products to assist them in setting up successful businesses. In addition, a wide range of publications and a website was developed and maintained; The project had over the years formed reliable partnerships with a wide range of institutions in the project areas and at both the national, regional and international levels. Served as a catalyst to other Cassava Presidential Initiatives in Africa (Sierra Leone, Liberia, Malawi, Zambia, Ghana, Guinea Conakry, etc). Over 300 clients have been adopting improved Technologies from CEDP project. CEDP served as a catalyst to other Cassava Presidential Initiatives in Africa leading to the emergence of several projects using its model. These off-springs include Unleashing the Power of Cassava in Africa (UPoCA) operating in 7 countries: DR Congo, Tanzania, Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Malawi and Mozambique; West Africa Cassava Value Chain Project (CFC) operating in 3 countries: Northern Benin republic, Nigeria & Sierra Leone, Cassava: Adding Value to Africa (C:AVA) operating in 5 countries: Nigeria, Ghana, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, USAID-MARKETS Cassava Value Chain in Nigeria operating in 8 States, and Cassava-plus in 3 States of Nigeria. The local and international team of consultants commissioned separately by the two donors mentioned that the project has generated impact and deserves to be replicated. Some of the constraints/challenges faced on the CEDP Project include: limited capacity of fabricators, lack of capital and access to credit, lack of access to inputs including farm machinery, poor infrastructure and difficulties in complying with environmental norms. Some of the lessons learned were: 69

70 consulting with beneficiaries before developing equipment in communities adopting measures that will ensure less disputes amongst groups, i.e. appointing strong leaders training more than one machine operators including women in order to avoid monopoly applying the no-free lunch concept where communities must provide matching funds or make in kind contributions to ensure ownership and sustainability Cassava Value Chain Development by Supporting Processing and Value Addition by Small and Medium Enterprises in West Africa To sustain the already initiated cassava enterprise development by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, The Common Fund for Commodities (CFC) sponsored cassava value chain project in Northern part of Nigeria, Benin Republic and Sierra Leone since 2008 till date. In each country, CFC selected organizations signed sub-agreement documents with IITA for project implementation; the Federal Ministry of Commerce and Industry (FMCI) signed for Nigeria while Vredeseilanden (VECO) for the republic of Benin and Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) now National Agricultural Research Centre (NARC) under Sierra Leone Agricultural Research Institute (SLARI) signed for Sierra Leone. The first regional meeting was held at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria between 14 th and 17 th April, National stakeholders workshops in each participating country was held between 15 th June and 9 th July, 2008 with the objectives of familiarizing with cassava stakeholders in each country, assessing the status of cassava enterprise in each country, selection of locations and beneficiaries for the CFC project in each country, ratifying country s work plan and budget and commencing formally, the project implementation in each country and conducting rapid market assessment of cassava in each country. In each country, rapid market assessment of cassava was carried out to determine commercial status of cassava in the countries and identify areas of intervention. 70

71 From the assessment, there seems to be the need for market expansion/intensification in the countries especially Sierra Leone and Benin, although this varied with cassava products. The project being supervised by FAO, adapted best agronomic and post harvest technologies coupled for capacity building for nationals of the project countries as well technical backstopping. The project witnessed appreciable achievements in terms of meeting the set targets. The project distributed high yielding disease resistant cassava stems to the beneficiaries farmers in Northern Benin and Nigeria to ensure processors uninterrupted access to raw material. Automated roaster and mechanical peeler, which were locally fabricated were procured and installed in some of the processing centers. Overall, 1 SME and 12 medium-scale processing centres (MPCs) were constructed, equipped and commissioned in the three countries. Business plans had been developed while that of Benin also translated to local language. Processors and other key stakeholders at the centers were trained at different capacities; farmers on best agronomic practices, machine operators on equipment operation and maintenance, processors on high quality cassava products and business plans. From the monitoring visits, the existing MPCs were visited and appreciable progress reported in term of processing/sales capacity, introduction of new cassava products, and capacity enhancement in processing and equipment management. The processing centers are being used as reference for academic and development purposes The Cassava: Adding Value for Africa (C:AVA) Project Sanni, (personal communication) indicated that the Cassava: Adding Value for Africa (C:AVA) Project, in 2009, successfully worked with the following service providers: Ogun State Agricultural Development Programme (OGADEP), Ondo State Agricultural Development Project (ODSADEP), UNAAB Food Science & Technology Department (UNAAB-FST), Federal Institute of Industrial Research Oshodi (FIIRO), Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology (NIFST), UNAAB Agriculture Media and Rural Extension Centre (UNAAB-AMREC), Justice, Development and Peace Movement (JDPM), Federal College of Agriculture, Akure (FECA) and Country Women Association of Nigeria (COWAN). Specifically in 2009, C: AVA worked with 113 farmers group comprising of 2,520 individual farmers, 40% being women; 62 village processing 71

72 units/cpgs comprising of 1,542 individuals, 90% and 2 SMEs in Ogun and Ondo State. The total HQCF produced by benefitting intermediaries (63,700t) has been absorbed by end-user companies. A total of 8,775 bundles of the improved cassava varieties have been distributed to 2756 farmers for the establishment of 500m 2 farm each equivalent to ha. 14 ha Multiplication farm has been established so far for year 3 and this is made up of multiplication plots at UNAAB, FECA and IITA. Four locations have been carefully chosen for the Demonstration Farms (8.1 ha) Centres under the supervision of JDPM two centres per local government area. The locations are Ilaro & Oke-Odan in Yewa - South LG; and Ado-Odo Farm Settlement and Aisunle in Ado-Odo/Ota LG. C: AVA Nigeria facilitated a Stakeholders Forum at Abuja, Nigeria to raise awareness on the HQCF Inclusion Policy that will soon be passed at the National Assembly. The bill will soon be passed at the National Assembly. On-site trial at UAC Foods Plc., Ojota, Lagos, Nigeria for the development of a new snack-like products having 50% HQCF and 50% cowpea flour with modification of IITA recipe has been carried out with C:AVA, IITA and UNAAB FST. The company is carrying its techno-economic and market analysis for product launch. On-site trials of the use of HQCF in bread and confectioneries have been done at Labaika Bakery, Akure, Ondo State being the bakery of Ondo State Chairman of Master Bakers & Caterers Association and Tekobo Bakery, Abeokuta, Ogun State, which is equally owned by the Ogun State Chairman of the Association. C:AVA has developed and distributed the following training manuals to project beneficiaries: Manual on common errors in cassava cultivation has been developed and used for training farmers and Objective 1 service provider organization s staff. Manual for Cassava wet cake production has been developed and the translation into Yoruba language is almost ready. Manual for the use of HQCF in bread and confectioneries making has been developed and used for the training of Master Bakers & Caterers in Ondo and Ogun States. The development of the Manual on Total Quality Management in HQCF production is on-going. 72

73 Roots and Tubers Expansion Programme IFAD-initiated Roots and Tubers Expansion Programme (RTEP), which is spanning between 2001 and 2010, built on the achievements of the earlier IFAD-supported Cassava Multiplication Programme (CMD). CMD contributed to a two-fold increase in cassava production in less than eight years and enhanced the potential role of cassava and other root crops in raising the country's food self-sufficiency level. The overall objectives of this RTEP were to enhance national food self-sufficiency and improve rural food security and the incomes of poor farmers. The project worked to: increase production of cassava, yam and Irish potatoes adopt improved processing technology educate farmers about adequate storage methods increase support for and training in marketing activities About 3.2 million farming households are estimated to be in the roots and tubers growing belt. The Programme s principal target group comprised smallholders who generally have less than 2 hectares of land per household. The smallholders live in 18 states in the southern and middle belt. The poorest farmers have households that are less than average in size, with limited labour. They have no access to fertilizer or credit, which results in low crop yields. They have no marketable surplus and a strong dependence on low income, off-farm activities for economic survival. benefited from Programme activities. Women, who are the traditional processors of cassava, particularly Building on the experience gained from the Cassava Multiplication Programme, the RTEP included activities to: expand the scope of IFAD interventions to support the production of roots and tubers use the existing extension system to provide farmers with information relating to on farm, off-farm and conservation-oriented technologies, while exploring alternative approaches, such as the community based approach to dissemination of the information emphasize poverty-oriented packages, including measures to maintain soil fertility for smallholders who face land and labour constraints 73

74 combine the IFAD loan with other financial resources to encourage partnerships between government agencies and civil-society organizations, such as NGOs and community-based organizations specializing in agricultural training for farmers and food processors, to work towards long-term sustainability Regional Cassava Processing and Marketing Initiative IFAD has launched the Regional Cassava Processing and Marketing Initiative (RCPMI) for Western and Central Africa as a response to the call of African leaders, through the New Partnership for Africa s Development (NEPAD), to give priority to cassava in regional agricultural development strategies. The RCPMI started its activities in March The objectives of the RCPMI, which is totally funded by the Government of Italy, are to: maximize cross-fertilization among IFAD projects through both loans and grants in the area of cassava processing and marketing; develop new markets for both existing and new cassava products; enhance policy dialogue at the national and regional level to support cassava industry development efforts. To achieve these goals, the RCPMI will implement activities to: develop markets for existing and new products; identify the best processing technologies and good practices within and beyond the region, and adapt them to local environment and practices; increase integration of participants into the cassava chain; promote policy dialogue with regional and national policymakers, building new partnerships or consolidating existing ones; strengthen mechanisms for exchanging cassava market and technological information through use of the Fidafrique network. Activities will be implemented in the context of and jointly with the four IFAD-funded Roots & Tubers (R&T) programmes. The expected outputs of the regional initiative are: 74

75 upgrading the production and trade of traditional cassava products in Western and Central Africa and developing new cassava derivates for human and/or animal consumption; achieving increased integration of participants into the cassava chain throughout the region; investigating and securing new markets for cassava derivates both at the national and regional level and at the level of export markets, such as ethnic markets within the countries of the European Union; fostering the exchange of know-how and good practices related to cassava production, processing and marketing throughout the region; providing guidance in the selection and development of market and trade information platforms and systems for the four roots and tubers programmes under implementation within the region; fostering advocacy and policy dialogue on cassava-related matters among and with national and regional institutions and organizations; organizing yearly meetings of the various IFAD-funded roots and tubers projects in Western and Central Africa. 4-3 POSSIBLE SYNERGISTIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THESE PROJECTS AND THIS PROJECT Apart from C:AVA and CEDP Projects in the target countries which are funded by Bill and Melinda Gates and USAID, respectively, most of the cassava Programmes were carried under IFAD Portfolio. These include PDRT in Benin, RTIP and RTIMP in Ghana, and RTEP in Nigeria. Opportunities for linkages exist with these country projects, other donors and institutions and this current CORAF/WECARD project which is being funded by the USAID. Strategic partnerships can possibly be developed by identifying and following up on opportunities for new collaborations through co-financing, linkages and coordinated action. For example, IFAD s guiding framework for strategic partnership-building has been the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, of March All IFAD-financed projects and programmes seek out synergy-fostering complementarities with like-minded development partners with a 75

76 view to enhancing the impact in terms of poverty reduction. Four areas have been identified as promising for such partnerships. These are: supporting fruitful sharing and innovation among IFAD-funded programmes; setting up of knowledge-sharing practices among IFAD programmes, through the Fidafrique regional information network; and supporting policy dialogue at national and regional levels based on ongoing experiences. In the area of market development, synergies can be fostered by: consolidating a country market development strategy (based on demand, products, volumes, expected return on investments); taking action on pursuing selected market opportunities, starting with pilot programmes; and spurring dialogue at all levels to strengthen industry commodity chains and voice cassava sector development needs. In Francophone West Africa especially Benin, the synergy can be for: assistance for emerging entrepreneurs supported by the Agricultural Sector Support Programme and the Farming Systems Improvement and Diversification Project, to be financed by Danish and French Development Cooperation, respectively; training in functional literacy and basic French, to be supported by SwissAid; support for the agricultural sector and farmer organizations by a group of donors led by the World Bank, especially through the Agricultural Services and Farmer Organizations Support Programme (Programme d appui au secteur agricole et aux organizations paysannes); and support for community-led development, a programme being formulated by the World Bank (National Community-Driven Development Support Project). IFAD has significant experience and lessons to offer in the four areas above. Furthermore, as a member of the donor group on rural development and poverty reduction, IFAD can meet 76

77 regularly with like-minded development partners (e.g. the USAID, World Bank, the African Development Bank, the West African Development Bank, French Cooperation, Danish International Development Agency) in order to take advantage of their strong in-country presence and thereby enhance the policy dialogue between the donor community and the Governments of the target countries. IFAD s contributions will reflect its field-level experience in assessing the impact of policies and programmes in rural poverty. 4-1 AREAS FOR POLICY DIALOGUE Areas for policy dialogue are grounded firmly on experience and the lessons IFAD learned in the field. IFAD s goal has been to promote pro-poor changes in policies and institutions. According to the performance-based allocation system (PBAS) review for Benin for example, IFAD s policies are well tuned to those of the Government and the donor community. The PBAS findings can be used as a tool for policy dialogue and linkage between IFAD s operations and the observatory on social change, the entity recently created to monitor Benin s progress towards achieving the country s Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). IFAD and USAID s efforts to deepen and broaden dialogue on the policy issues that arise during the implementation of the poverty reduction strategy paper (PRSP) can include: continued support for the development of models for strategic public-private partnerships capable of delivering needed advisory services to IFAD and USAID target group and, lobbying in favour of pro-poor policies (backed by appropriate institutional and regulatory frameworks) that will facilitate access by small-scale rural producers to rural financial services and new markets. This project through USAID and IFAD and can stimulate discussion of key policies and of the institutional bottlenecks that are blocking the efforts by members of rural producer organizations and small scale entrepreneurs to develop profitable and self sustaining commercial activities. 77

78 CHAPTER 5 CONSTRAINTS IN THE PROMOTION OF PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES WAYS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVING AND PROMOTING THE TECHNOLOGIES The constraints against cassava processing in the target countries are presented under the following: policy issues, capacity building, environmental, economic, socio-cultural, institutional, engineering/processing, biological and agricultural constraints. 5-1 POLICY ISSUES Cassava is at different stages of transformation in countries of sub-saharan Africa. While it is still a staple food in most countries, it is presently a cash crop for urban consumption and food export notably in Ghana and Nigeria. To shift cassava to being an industrial crop for domestic and export markets, the policy issues which need to be implemented are as follows: cassava production needs to be modernized. Its traditional systems of production in small hectarages (less than 1 hectare) cannot sustain an industrial market. There is a need to drive down the cost of cassava production per tonne in order to give this crop the price competitiveness it requires in comparison with maize and other cereal crops. The need therefore is to recognize the relative neglect that cassava has had in comparison to cereal crops in terms of research development activities. Cassava production has been promoted largely through special projects since independence in many countries, rather than through the systematic improvement of the productivity of the entire cassava food system. It is important to adopt a policy whereby African and donor attention is focused on support for the entire cassava production processing and utilization system to accelerate cassava transformation to an industrial crop in sub-saharan Africa; while the debt burden and unfavourable currency exchange in many African countries have influenced government policy of looking inwards for its food and feed raw material supplies, the inconsistent policy of banning and unbanning importation of 78

79 non-cassava foods has affected the cassava economy in many African countries. A fundamental problem is the need to remove subsidies on imported maize and wheat in order to provide a level ground for cassava to compete in the food and feed industries; the varied levels of transformation of cassava in countries of sub-saharan Africa create a need for injection of varying technologies in different regions. In West Africa particularly in Nigeria and Ghana, cost saving devices exists for chipping and pelletizing cassava into animal feeds for example, although there is still the need to perfect and disseminate these technologies as developed through IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. There is also the need in these countries to diffuse labour saving technologies for production and harvesting of cassava. Diffusion of information on the suitability of whole unpeeled cassava roots for livestock feeding against the use of peeled roots will reduce labour costs and drive down cost of cassava chips and pellets for the feed industry. The adoption of white-skinned and thin-peel varieties will also enhance this cost reduction strategy. In other regions of sub-saharan Africa, there is a serious need for diffusion of information on mechanized production and processing. 5-2 CAPACITY BUILDING The lack of incentives and serious under-funding of most research stations on the continent had dampened the enthusiasm of the few researchers committed to cassava development. Yet, due to the long-term growth cycle of the cassava plant relative to maize, breeding research, in particular, takes a longer time for cassava. Due to the low ratio of extension agents to farmers on the continent coupled with underfunding of extension services, poor rural roads and mass illiteracy, development of human capacity for cassava production, processing and marketing has been greatly hampered. Capacity building for cassava development on the continent must therefore take cognisance of the need for researchers, extensionists and practitioners i.e. cassava farmers and processors and would be industrialists. The need to institute private-led initiatives in capacity building is underscored by recent experience in South America where the Latin American and Caribbean 79

80 Consortium to Support Cassava Research and Development (CLAYUCA) consortium serves as an arrowhead for private-led initiatives in cassava development. The need to target cooperative farmers and processors of cassava in capacity building is also critical to its industrialization. 5-3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS Traditional processing of cassava into food in sub-saharan Africa is often associated with the discharge of large amounts of water, hydrocyanic acid and organic matter in the form of peels and sieviates from pulp as waste products. These are often improperly disposed and when they are carried out on a large-scale, as in commercial gari production, the resulting wastes are often left in mounds which generate a highly offensive odour and are rather unsightly. Cassava processing is therefore generally considered to contribute significantly to environmental pollution and depletion of water resources as they contaminate surface water particularly during the dry seasons of the year. Traditional cassava processing in Africa is usually carried out around homesteads and closely associated with rearing of sheep, goats, chickens and at times pigs. These stocks therefore consume a substantial part of these wastes in the form of peels, sieviates and often leaves. Indigenous stock reared around homesteads therefore, helps to reduce environmental pollution from cassava waste. It is also a common sight to find roaming indigenous cattle, sheep and goat aggregating around large mounds of cassava peels in cassava food processing centres consuming some part of the generated wastes. An organized collection of cassava wastes particularly the peels and pulp wastes and their proper processing into dry cassava products, can serve as useful supplementary feed particularly for ruminants in sub-saharan Africa. Indeed, this is the most practicable form of utilizing cassava for livestock feeding in scenarios where cassava storage roots are still insufficient as human food. Cassava processing into commercial livestock feeding presently involves peeling of cassava storage roots and sundrying. While the peels are left to rot, the drying of the storage roots into chips does not entail discharge of water, which is removed by solar drying. Hence, the risk of cyanide discharge into surface of water is also eliminated and such processing sights are less unsightly. The more recent introduction of producing cassava chips and pellets from whole unpeeled storage roots 80

81 with incorporation of leaves (Tewe and Bokanga, 2001) eliminates the problem of waste disposal as unpeeled storage roots and leaves are shredded and sun-dried. This is therefore an environmentally friendly method of cassava processing and reduction of waste disposal problems. It is also important to note that processing of cassava into pellets in Thailand often involves incorporation of pulp wastes particularly from the starch industries. Adoption of this in Africa will help reduce waste in food and starch industries. Moreover, wastes from ethanol industries contain protein rich yeast containing by-products. These are often left to discharge in surroundings of industries using cassava for ethanol production as in Nigeria. These protein rich by-products can serve as very useful complements to energy rich cassava storage roots in rations and supplements for different livestock species if the wastes are properly harnessed through drying and proper storage. Use of cassava by-products for livestock feeding can therefore be a major means of recycling wastes into wholesome livestock feeds in Africa. 5-4 ECONOMIC CONSTRAINTS Myriads of economic constraints limit the processing of cassava in the target countries. Such constraints include problems of labour, capital, credit, price fluctuations, marketing problems and processors decisions objectives (Okorji et al. 1989). It is the processors objectives that determine the allocation of economic resources to alternative uses. Ekpere et. al. (1986) and Karumwi and Ezumah (1988) identified major barriers to increasing cassava processing (especially in gari production) in the humid forest part of Nigeria to include lack of capital, high cost of roasting pans, high cost in transportation of cassava roots, shortage of cassava roots and market uncertainty as well as the tedious operation of roasting. Most processors finance these activities themselves and are not able to make significant profits from product sales. There is the need to explore the financial instruments available within each country to capitalize the poor. 5-5 SOCIO-CULTURAL CONSTRAINTS Cassava is often regarded as food for those who have little to eat due to its low protein value and high content of prussic acid. Writing on the social attachment of the crop, Akoroda et al. 81

82 (1987) reported that not many like to be identified with it in the public. Not even in these days of economic vicissitudes. However, privately or when corned, the lower class in the target countries may drudgingly admit its salutary role in their efforts to feed the family but not so for the upper and middle classes. Cassava at least in the public posturing of such people is meant not only for the economically downtrodden, but also for socially disadvantaged ones who the affluent members of the society believe should eat the crop and its by-products. Thus in a study on elasticity of demand for major food items in root and tubers based food system in South-Eastern Zone in Nigeria, Nweke et al. (1994) found that among the high expenditure households, expenditure elasticity of demand for cassava products combined was less than zero. 5-6 INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTS Lack of functional extension institutions coupled with poor infrastructure facilities such as roads, etc. have added to hinder the increased processing of cassava in the target countries. Lack of necessary infrastructure, such as roads, transport, water and electricity contribute to the lack of interest of processor to expand their processing operations as such that expansion will require heavy investment in creating micro-infrastructure. There is the problem of accelerated deterioration of root quality as result of mechanical damage to roots especially along bad roads. As finance is indispensable in the expansion of cassava processing, agricultural extension officers would have to play a very important part in assisting processors with documentation necessary to secure financial assistance from banks or any other credit institutions using information gathered. The cassava processing enterprises although profitable, operate on small scales. Not only is credit crucial for modernizing the business but also, the mobilization of savings to enhance entrepreneurial capacity is very important. Clearly, microfinance institutions are best suited for 82

83 small-scale rural production and processing units with minimal funds hence, policy efforts should be directed at providing necessary infrastructural support that could enhance their location in the rural areas (Anyanwu, 2004; Oluwasola and Alimi, 2008). 5-7 PROCESSING/ENGINEERING CONSTRAINTS IITA (1989) remarked that lack of efficient technology for processing and conversion of roots and tubers commodities to commercial product is a barrier to the increased use of cassava both for food and feed. FAO (undated) reported that irregularity of shapes of cassava roots poses a challenge to all interested in cassava processing as it reduces both speed and efficiency of peeling. Research is needed to determine whether breeding methods can lead to the development of cassava varieties with uniform sizes and shapes. Constraints are related to processing techniques such as high energy, low-output, time consuming traditional methods of processing found in many communities in the target countries. Ekpere et al. (1988) asserted that traditional methods of processing consume a lot of energy and time. Processing requirements are labour intensive. Jones and Akinrele (1976) noted that labour is probably an even more binding constraint in cassava processing than its production: the amount of cassava which can be processed at any given time by the household is therefore still limited. Cassava s bulk is substantially reduced when processed into flour or gari and thus more suitable for transport. Shelf life is also increased. The cassava roots must be peeled, chipped, soaked/fermented, dried, and sometimes grated PEELING Peeling represents the most labor-intensive unit operation of the cassava value chain, nonmechanized and traditionally done by women and sometimes children. Moreover, peeling represents a critical stage in terms of food safety as the process removes the outer periderm of the root, where the highest concentrations of cyanogenic compounds lie. When farmers are able to efficiently and effectively chip, grind, and dry cassava, they are better able to trade with bulk purchasers in local markets. Farmer incomes will rise when they are able to guarantee 83

84 processed cassava for products that are high-quality inputs and have a long shelf-life (Hillocks, 2002). Peeling of cassava roots, for both domestic and industrial purposes in Africa is still being carried out manually. The process is labor intensive, arduous in nature, time consuming and unsuitable for large scale industrial processing. Peeling the cassava root is the best practice currently for removal of the outer skin, however, abrasion technology could allow for a minimal loss of viable cassava product. Traditional methods of peeling cassava resulted in an average 6.1 percent loss of viable cassava (Akosua & Bani, 2007). In Nigeria some institutes and private fabricators have produced prototype peelers that require further development (Sanni et al., 2007a Maziya-Dixon, B. and O.O. Onadipe Cassava industrial market study in Nigeria. IITA. Ibadan, Nigeria). Technology considerations are: Mechanization of peel removal with special attention to root shape; Mechanization of slicing where needed for a specific product; Developing abrasion technologies further to reduce product loss and reduce cost SIZE REDUCTION (GRATING) Grating is often mechanized in West Africa. This step is responsible for increasing surface area for drying and extracting the starch from the root. It is also an important step in ensuring the safety of processed products. In places where grating is not mechanized, the step represents an extremely labor-intensive component of the value chain. Graters have been successfully introduced in all communities in the target countries and are now widespread. Technology considerations are: Improving efficiency of existing grating technologies; Developing appropriate-scale (hand-held or mechanized) graters, chippers, pelletizers, and peelers DRYING AND DEWATERING Cassava roots are 70 percent water by volume. Thus, drying is a critical step for many processed cassava products (e.g. flours, fufu, lafun and non-traditional products such as HQCF) and is accomplished mainly through sun-drying, although solar dryers and bin-type artificial 84

85 dryers are also used. More efficient flash and rotary dryers with appropriate capacity for African scale of cassava production have been recently developed in Nigeria (Sanni et al., 2007). For some processed products (e.g. gari processing in West Africa and in the processing of HQCF), grated cassava (fermented cassava for gari) is dewatered by pressing prior to drying. Dewatering through pressing the cassava has problems associated with waste products. This is a challenge to reducing pollution in sub-saharan Africa and recycling of water could benefit a region known for low soil nutrients, degradation, and drought. Currently, farmers rely primarily on the sun for drying. While the sun presents a free input, drying is time-consuming and there is a greater risk of spoilage. Solar drying removes some seasonality from the process, as it is difficult to dry cassava during the rainy season. Solar dryers, however, generally add expense and can cope with relatively small volumes. Solar dryers have been used for some high value crops, such as fruits. As an indication of the impact of seasonability, in Zambia between August and October (dry season) the amount of dried cassava sold at market reaches 150 tons while in January it can be as low as 20 tons (Haggblade & Nyembe, 2008). Consequently cassava harvested during this time must be consumed without processing. In Ghana, drying of kokonte (sun-dried cassava pieces) takes seven to ten days during the dry season and requires an additional two to three days during the rainy season. These long drying times mean that the product is frequently mouldy and hence potentially a source of mycotoxins, especially in the rainy season. Dried cassava prices peak during the rainy season and bottom out during the dry climate periods. Fresh cassava, however, does not mimic the opposite pattern as might be expected; fresh cassava prices remain high during the rainy season because there are few staple crop substitutes (Haggblade & Nyembe, 2008). Nonetheless, the fact that cassava can be harvested at the beginning of the rainy season bolsters its position as a food security crop in the rainy season when hunger is most acute ( As compared to the sun, batch and bin dryers save time, ensure a consistently high quality product, but pose a significant increase in cost due to the need for fuel to power the dryers. Flash drying as 85

86 developed and adopted in Nigeria holds some promise, but needs further development and price reduction. To avoid costs associated with drying, the Dutch Agricultural Development and Trading Company (DADTCO) is working on a slurry process that peels and processes fresh roots and converts them into a paste. The paste can be economically transported and used in other manufacturing processes (glues, syrups and the like). Syrups, for example, may never need completely dried cassava. Technology considerations include: Improved mechanized (flash, rotary and bin) dryers; New approaches to cost effective and efficient drying; New energy sources for flash, rotary, bin, or other dryers; Improvements to sun-drying; Waste reduction and water treatment/recycling from dewatering FERMENTATION Grated root fermentation, underwater/soaking fermentation, and mold fermentation represent the three major forms of cassava fermentation in sub-saharan Africa. The fermentation of grated roots from 1-5 days is common in West Africa and forms a unit operation in products such as gari, agbelima, placali and attieke. This is a fermentation dominated by lactic acid bacteria. The products differ in their final processing steps. Gari is sieved and roasted, while attieke is granulated then steamed. Soaking roots in water is a lactic fermentation that is common across West and Central Africa and also found in some parts of East and Southern Africa. Fermentation softens the roots so that they can be easily broken up by hand into smaller pieces for sun-drying or passed through a sieve to remove excess fibers. Fermentation also allows the leaching of cyanogenic compounds from cassava. Underwater fermentation is associated with products that require a wet paste like fufu and dried flours like lafun. In a third type of fermentation, cassava root pieces are deliberately allowed to go moldy. This mold growth softens the roots contributing to a reduction of cyanogenic compounds. Mold 86

87 growth is scraped away before the final stage of sun-drying. These products include, for example, udaga in Tanzania. Significant research has been conducted to understand the microbiology of the fermentation process and the mechanisms by which cyanogenic compounds are reduced (Westby, 2008). Common research approaches have included isolation and characterization of microorganisms that could be used as starter culture, modification to fermentation regimes, but to date little of this research has been put to use. Technology considerations are: Improvements to fermented products with identification of pure cultures, optimal temperatures, ph, and enzymes; Use of isolated starter cultures in product quality QUALITY Quality is critically important for cassava products. In traditional processing, quality of products can be variable and will be product specific. Variations in drying, processing and storage can have major impacts on product quality. The recognition that there is demand for higher quality product has fostered research on improved versions of traditionally processed products - where quality and convenience can be provided in packaged food products. Instant fufu has been developed and commercialized in Ghana. This saves consumers the need to pound fresh, boiled cassava to make fufu. In Nigeria instant fermented fufu has been prepared using the rotary and flash drying technology to produce a high quality product that also saves on household processing. Technology considerations include: Techniques that would ensure consistent quality in the value chain for fresh roots, traditional processed products and new commercialization opportunities; Review of grades and standards for cassava products in Africa CYANOGENS Although many millions of people safely eat cassava every day of the week, cyanogenic compounds are a potential health risk associated with the crop. Cassava contains cyanogenic glucosides, which can be hydrolyze by linamarase during processing to form cyanohydrins. 87

88 These cyanohydrins breakdown at a rate dependent on ph and temperature to release free HCN. If ingested in sufficient quantities, these cyanogenic compounds can lead acute intoxication resulting in nausea, dizziness, vomiting, and in some cases death. Additionally they can cause complications known as goitre or cretinism in individuals with iodine deficiencies. In some rare cases these cyanogenic compounds have been linked to konzo, a disease causing permanent lower leg paralysis. Acute cyanide intoxication and konzo are rare and occur only under specific circumstances. Safety of cassava products can be ensured through effective processing involving cellular disruption (such as grating or certain types of fermentation) combined with effective drying. Konzo, for example, often occurs when food is in short supply or when the region is plagued by social instability, because typically households/processors seek shortcuts to enable to eat the cassava the same day. Some varieties of cassava have higher levels of cyanogens than others and these are commonly referred to as bitter varieties. These varieties should not be used in areas where processing methods are not conducted correctly, unless there is education as to what constitutes effective processing. Low cyanogens (or sweet ) varieties can be consumed without processing. A promising prevention tactic of wetting the roots has reduced cyanide content by a factor of three to six (Nhassico, et al., 2008). A recent innovation has been the development of a wetting method that reduces the cyanogen content of high cyanogen cassava flour by wetting for 5 hours prior to consumption. This reduces the cyanogens content by a factor of 3-5. Techniques exist for measurement of cyanogens in cassava in the laboratory, but there are more limited field methods available. The picrate test, which measures cyanide levels in cassava and urinary thiocyanate and can be done outside of a laboratory, has been deployed in kits to some communities in developing countries (Nhassico et al., 2008). Technology considerations are: Low-cost cyanogens detection tools; Ensuring that innovations in processing suggested above deliver a safe product; Rapid processing technique for bitter varieties that deliver a safe product. 88

89 5-8 BIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS This is related to chemical and physical prosperities of cassava (toxicity and perishability). In terms of toxicity, cassava contains hydrocynaide (HCN), which is toxic to man and livestock if not property processed and there has always been the side effect of inhaling cyanide fumes in the final stage of frying in gari production and it is dangerous to health of the processor. In terms of perishability, cassava generally has poor storage potentials largely because of its high water content. For instance, water accounts for two third fresh weight (61.3%) (Onwueme, 1978). Cassava has the disadvantages of rapid deteriorate soon after harvest due to its high water content. Hence harvested piece-meal (Anyanwu, 1982). 89

90 CHAPTER 6 THE PRESENT SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS (FOOD SECURE FAMILIES, INCOME STATUS, ACCESS TO CREDIT, MARKETS, ETC.) OF THE TARGET PROCESSING GROUPS IN THE TARGET COUNTRIES 6-1 INTRODUCTION A purposive sampling was done at three different levels; community, processors groups and membership to capture socio-economic profile of the target processing groups in the communities surveyed in the target countries. Selection of processors for one-on-one interview was done in collaboration with extension officers in the various districts surveyed. In addition to the one-on-one interview using a structured questionnaire, a checklist was prepared for group discussions among the processors. The questionnaire was designed into seven (7) main indicators capturing the underlisted headings: socio-economic characteristics of processors; identification, characteristics and description of various cassava processing technologies; identification of constraints and opportunities for the various processing technologies; training on cassava processing technologies; evaluation of perceptions influencing decisions to use or reject cassava processing technologies/innovations; determination of income and gross margins; food security. 90

91 6-2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE Socio-economic characteristics relating to age, gender, position in household, marital status, education and income generating activities are captured in Table 6.1. Across the 4 countries, a third of the respondents had ages ranging between 41 to 50 years with an average of 43 years. Family size was between 2 and 15; with an average of 7. Cassava processing is predominantly a female activity. The data showed 79.3% of the respondents were females and 85% of them married. In terms of position in the household, close to 30% were head of family and 64.6% of respondents were wives of head of family. About two thirds of the respondents did not have any formal education as literacy rate was high (56.0%). Cassava processing is the primary income activity of 70.0% of the respondents where 25 to 50% of their income came from cassava processing. Table 6.1: Socio economic profile of respondents in the 4 target countries Characteristics % Overall Response Togo Benin Ghana Nigeria Across the Target Countries Male Female Age Sex 91

92 Position in household Head of family (HF) Wife of HF Child of HF Nephew/ Niece of HF Father/ Mother of HF Marital status Married Divorced Widow Single Formal education Yes No Literacy Yes No Level of literacy Read Read and write Primary income generating activity Cassava processing Farming Trading

93 Poultry % Contribution of cassava processing to income > < Source: Field Data Survey, May IDENTIFICATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS CASSAVA PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES Cassava processing operations across the target countries can be described at 5 levels of capacity. The common terms used to describe these capacity levels are household (or cottage), micro, small, medium and large. Household level processing typically does not employ any outside labour. The household consumes virtually all of the processed products and sells a small amount to raise income for additional household needs. At present, most processors surveyed (51.7%) fall within this category in the target countries (Table 6.2). At the micro processing capacity the employment of one or two units of labour may take place while processing a variety of cassava products. This enterprise typically uses batch processing. Batch processing may take four hours per day and this would be sufficient for the owner/operator. Some of the cassava processors (29.2%) were in this category of operation. The small and medium processing operations typically employ three to ten workers and are sparse at present (19.2%). Large scale cassava processing is virtually non-existent in all the target countries. Large-scale operations are defined as enterprises employing or more 93

94 labourers. Large-scale operations would also have the capacity for large tonnage processing with wider marketing opportunities. Table 6.2: Levels of gari processing in the target countries Levels of processing Number of processors in each country 1 Togo Benin Ghana Nigeria Overall % Household Micro Small Medium Large Thirty (30) processors were surveyed per country Source: Field Data Survey, May PROCESSED PRODUCTS AND PROCESSING CAPACITIES Most of the processors surveyed in the target countries process cassava mainly into gari. In Togo, next to gari is tapioca and agbelima. In Benin, processors interviewed were mainly involved in gari, tapioca and fufu production. Kokonte and agbelima production are next to gari processing in Ghana. In Nigeria, lafun and fufu production are important after gari production. The peak monthly processing capacities of processors interviewed varied greatly and ranged from 1680 to kg of raw cassava (Table 6.3). During the lean season, between 708 to about 5445 kg of cassava was processed. On the average, processing levels were about 1000 to 8768 kg cassava. Sources of raw cassava for processing included own farms and other farms in the localities. Processing levels were influenced by supply of cassava, availability of labour and processing machines, demand for products and ease of uprooting of raw cassava 94

95 which is seasonal, easy in rainy season but extremely difficult in the dry season. Cassava is usually in abundance during the farming season when farmers need their lands for cropping. Availability of other staples during harvesting also affects demand for cassava products. Peak season occurs in March to July; average in August to October while lean season occurs in November to February. The variety of cassava for processing is not standardized and depends on what the processor has available. In Ghana, commonly used improved cassava varieties for processing are Afisiafi and Biafra while in Benin and Nigeria, the TMS varieties introduced by the IFAD cassava projects are popular. Table 6.3: Processing capacities in the target countries Monthly Processing Capacities Peak Season Capacity/Month (kg cassava) Country Togo Benin Ghana Nigeria Lean Season Capacity/Month (kg cassava) Average Capacity/Month ( kg cassava) Source: Field Data Survey, May TRAINING IN CASSAVA PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES According to Chamala (1987), farmers and processors adopt innovations that are consistent with their needs, their socio-economic status and their attitudes towards the particular class of 95

96 innovations. Over the years, cassava processors in the target countries have received training to help them process the crop in order to improve on their activities for better quality products (Table 6.4). New technologies in milling, pressing drying, roasting and packaging have been demonstrated to processors. Since the development and popularization of the farming systems research and extension approach in the 1980s the importance to consider farmers needs in technology development processes has been emphasized (Norman et al., 1995). In other words, the intensity of an individual s attitude towards an innovation is a major determinant of his anticipated adoption behavior (Lemon, 1973). The attitude of a decision-maker towards an innovation depends on his valuations of the set of characteristics of that innovation (Wossink et al. 1997). Accordingly, negative perceptions on innovation characteristics are sometimes mentioned as a main reason for lack of adoption. Quite a number of the processors are still using the new technologies. Table 6.4: Training received in various processing technologies in the target countries Togo Benin Ghana Nigeria Technology % With % Still % With % Still % With % Still % With % Still Training Using Training Using Training Using Training Using Milling Pressing Drying Roasting Packaging Source: Field Data Survey, May

97 The source of training has been government agencies, NGOs, research organizations, and from individuals (Table 6.5). In Togo, training has been received from Institute of Togo Agricultural Research (ITRA) and International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). In Benin, processors received from many sources including: Development Project on Roots and Tubers (PDRT), the Support for Development of Agricultural Sector (PADSA), the Rural Development Project (PADER), the Regional Centers for Agricultural Promotion (CERP). Processors in Ghana were trained by Root and Tuber Improvement Programme (RTIP). In Nigeria, sources of training include Agricultural Development Program, (ADP) the National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI), and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). In Togo and Benin, the processors have benefited from training programmes. These include: the use of equipment (grater and press); maintenance of grater and press; processing techniques; maintenance techniques, and safety concerns In Ghana, the courses trained in were: Business Plan Development Business management and group dynamics Records Keeping Marketing and customer care Processing under hygienic conditions Some level of training in packaging has been received but consumer appreciation for packaged products in their market outlets is low. In most communities traders prefer unpacked products since they buy in larger quantities. It appears that generally drying and packaging technologies were the ones in which the least training have been received. If further training is to be carried out for processors, it must be focused mainly on drying and packaging since this will give a big boost to the export and local markets. Drying technology will be of immense help to HQCF processing if this product is being targeted to spur on cassava as an industrial crop. 97

98 Table 6.5: The source of cassava processing training in the target countries Source of Training Milling Pressing Drying Roasting Packaging Togo Government Research Projects NGO Other People Benin Government Research Projects NGO Other People Ghana Government Research Projects NGO Other People Nigeria Government Research Projects NGO Other People Source: Field Data Survey, May 2010 In Benin, Ghana and Nigeria, NGOs have not been active in training in cassava processing technologies. The NGOs working in public-private partnership should pay critical attention to addressing the main challenges related to the low productivity of smallholder farmers/processors. This would serve as the main vehicle for improving competitiveness, including enhancing their incomes and promoting better livelihoods. Among other issues, this entails ensuring more systematic access to markets by adopting a value chain approach, as well as linkages with others also in the private sector, for example, for the provision of sustainable rural financial services. Moreover, the heterogeneity of small farmers and processors requires different approaches that cater to the needs of both subsistence and market-oriented individuals and groups. 98

99 6-6 ACCESS TO CREDIT Availability of credit facilities in most of the processors living in communities of the target countries of Togo, Benin, Ghana was 53.3%, 66.7% and 66.7%, respectively. In Nigeria it was 10%. (Fig.6.1) Yes No Togo Benin Ghana Nigeria Fig. 6.1: Access to credit in the target countries In Benin for example, 53% of respondents have actually benefited from these loans. The amounts varied from 10,000 FCFA (US$21.16) to 400,000 FCFA (US$846.56) with an average of 145,313 FCFA (US$307.54). In Ghana, only a third of the respondents had been beneficiaries of such credit facilities. Amount of credit accessed ranged between GH (US$35.71) to GH (US$714.29), with an average of GH (US$142.86). Most of the processors finance processing activities from their own savings and assistance from friends and relatives. Reasons for not accessing credit from financial institutions include being scared of default consequences, not having bank account, having no idea on how to apply, and applied for loans but not approved. In Nigeria, analysis of data on access to credit suggests that majority (90%) of the respondents do not have access to credits. Upon further enquiries, it was observed that the major reasons for the respondents not having access credits is due to lack of collateral demanded by the banks, high interest charged and lack of knowledge of the existence of such a loan facility. 99

100 FAO (2005) reported that lack of cash capital is a major factor influencing adoption of improved cassava processing technology in Nigeria. A common feature in that country is the difficult access to capital from government lending or credit institutions. Only about 1 percent of the farmers are known to have benefited from formal credit schemes. Farmers mainly rely on income from the farm and traditional sources of credit (relatives, friends, money-lenders and cooperative groups). The funds available at this level are limited and cannot meet the credit requirements of the farmers. Also, interest charged on credit obtained from money-lenders can be quite high. The low level of income of poor farmers prevents them from meeting the capital requirements of improved technology. On the whole, the farmers are generally poorly organized and poorly educated and find it difficult to gain access to agricultural support services. Virtually all the farmers interviewed during a Rapid Rural Appraisals in Benue, Imo and Ogun States between 1993 and 1995 mentioned capital as a major constraint in their agricultural enterprises. 6-7 FOOD SECURITY According to FAO (1996) food security is the state achieved when food systems operate such that all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Food security therefore relates to: (i) (ii) food availability (with elements related to production, distribution and exchange); food access (with elements related to affordability, allocation and preference) and (iii) food utilization (with elements related to nutritional value, social value and food safety (Ericksen, 2008). A commitment to household food security carries with it an important implication for development practitioners, namely the need to measure food security outcomes at the household and individual level. Measurement is necessary at the outset of any development project to identify the food insecure, to assess the severity of their food shortfall and to characterize the nature of their insecurity (seasonal versus chronic). Further, it provides the 100

101 basis for monitoring progress and assessing the impact of these projects on the beneficiaries' food security. Dietary Diversity Score (DDS), Frequency of Food Intake (FFI) and Months of Adequate Household Food Provisioning (MAHFP) were the indicators used to assess food security situation in the surveyed areas in the target countries. The use of DDS stems from the observation made in many parts of the developing world that as households become better-off, they consume a wider variety of foods (Hoddinott, 1999). This author notes that field testing of DDS indicates that it is correlated with levels of caloric acquisition; tracks seasonal changes in food security measures of dietary diversity are highest just after harvest time and lowest during the hungry season; and also appears to capture differences in distribution within the household. A diverse diet is a valid welfare outcome in its own right the nutritional literature is placing increasing emphasis on the importance of consuming a wide variety of foods so as to enhance dietary quality in addition to longerstanding concerns regarding quantities of consumption. The DDS records 10 food groups (cereals, root and tubers, grain legumes and nuts, vegetable leaves, vitamin A rich foods, animal products, milk and dairy products, sugar and sweetened products, oils and fats, and condiments, spices and beverages) and measures their frequency per Week (Nil, 1-2 times, 3-4 times, 5-6 times, and daily). The disadvantage of this measure is that the simple form of this measure does not record quantities. Since it was possible to ask about frequency of consumption of particular quantities, it was possible to estimate the extent to which diets are adequate in terms of caloric availability. Based on the frequency of their dietary intake in the last 7 days prior to the study, a DDS value below 4, 4-6, and 7-10 indicates Poor, Satisfactory and Good, respectively. For all the target countries, the DDS values for the 30 processors in communities was good as shown in Fig

102 Fig. 6.2: Dietary diversity score for each individual target country 100% Good For Frequency of Food Intake (FFI), usual dietary intake is the long-run average daily intake of a nutrient or food. The concept of long-term average daily intake, or "usual intake," is important because dietary recommendations are intended to be met over time and diet-health hypotheses are based on dietary intakes over the long term in periods of abundance and scarcity. Consequently, it is the usual intake that is often of most interest to policy makers when they want to know the proportion of the population at or below a certain level of intake or to researchers when they want to examine relationships between diet and health. However, until recently, sophisticated efforts to capture this concept have been limited at best. The percentage response of the processors in 3 districts in Togo who consumed meals during periods of food scarcity and food abundance are shown in Figs 6.3 (A) and Figs 6.3 (B), respectively. 102