RIJSS Volume 6, Issue 4 (April, 2017) ISSN: TEFF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING IN ETHIOPIA

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1 A Journal of Radix International Educational and Research Consortium RIJSS RADIX INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE TEFF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING IN ETHIOPIA BIRARA ENDALEW Department of Agricultural Economics College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar Ethiopia ABSTRACT More than 80% of the Ethiopian population earns their livelihood from crop cultivation and livestock rearing activities. Crop production is a major contributor to Gross Domestic Product accounting for approximately 28% from the sub sectors of agriculture. Among the crops, coffee, pulses, oilseeds, potatoes, sugarcane, vegetables and cereals are principal crops grown in Ethiopia. As a result, cereal production and marketing are the means of livelihood for millions of small holder households which accounts for 60% of rural employment, 80% of total cultivated land, more than 40% of a typical household s food expenditure, and more than 60% of total caloric intake. Teff is the most important cereal in terms of both production and consumption in Ethiopia. Mostly Teff is produced by small holder farmers at the central, eastern and northern highlands of the country. The objective of this study is to review the trends of teff production, marketing, application of inputs and consumption. In addition to this, the constraints and opportunities of teff production and marketing were reviewed. Finally, the results were presented using graphs, tables and narration form. The result indicated that the minimum and maximum production was recorded in 1993/4 (12,546.2 thousands of quintal) and 2014/15 (47,500 thousands of quintal) production year though the trends of fertilizer and pesticide application increases since Teff production, productivity and marketing depends on good weather condition and use of appropriate technologies (fertilizer, improved seed, and herbicide), and other socio-economic factors. On the other hand, the volume of teff export has fluctuated and relatively a larger quantity was exported in, , and But Teff export has declined since 2006 due to high domestic prices and government ban on export. Keywords: Agriculture, cereal, crop, Ethiopia, teff, marketing, production, 1 P a g e

2 INTRODUCTION The domestication of animals and plants is considered to be one of the most important developments in history, and one of the prerequisites for the rise of human civilizations which triggered the uptake of crop farming, and affected the distribution and density of the wild species hunted for food (Duguma et al, 2012). The discussion by Fitsum et al (2009) demonstrated that more than 80% of the Ethiopian population earns their livelihood from crop cultivation and livestock rearing activities. The same source indicated that crop production is a major contributor to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) accounting for approximately 28% from the sub sectors of agriculture. On the other hand, livestock rearing is an integral part of agriculture and the contribution of live animals and their products to the agricultural economy accounts for 40% (Duguma et al, 2012). But, production is tremendously of a subsistence nature, and a large part of commodity exports are provided by the small agricultural cash crop sector (Matous et al, 2013). Smallholders account for 96% of total area cultivated and generate the key share of total production for the main crops (Alemayehu et al, 2012). According to Getu (2011), coffee, pulses, oilseeds, potatoes, sugarcane, vegetables and cereals are principal crops grown in Ethiopia. Cereals are the most important food crop of the world and it provides the world with a majority of its food calories and about half its protein (Balasubramanian, 2007). In Ethiopia, cereal production and marketing are the means of livelihood for millions of small holder households which accounts for 60% of rural employment, 80% of total cultivated land, more than 40% of atypical household s food expenditure, and more than 60% of total caloric intake (World Bank, 2007). In the production year of 2014/2015, the total grain production reached to million quintals, of which cereal production accounted for 87.3% (CSA, 2015). Thus, cereals including barley, maize, wheat, sorghum and teff are the most important crops for Ethiopian agriculture (GAIN, 2014). Teff is the most important cereal in terms of both production and consumption in Ethiopia, and is grown as food grain in only one other country, Eritrea (FAO, 2015). Teff (Eragrostis Teff) is a nutritious small grained cereal, related to millet, which originates in Ethiopia and is thought to have been domesticated by Ethiopian farmers between 3 and 6 millennia ago (Samuel and Sharp, 2008). Teff is grown mainly in Amhara and Oromiya, which together accounted for 84 and 86% of the total cultivated area and production in East and West Gojam of Amhara and East and West Shoa of Oromiya are particularly known teff producing areas in the country (Demeke and Marcantonio, 2013). Among cereals, teff accounts for the largest share of the cultivated area (28.5% in 2011), followed by maize (with 20.3%) (Demeke and Marcantonio, 2013). Even though teff production is expanded by 72% between 2004/05 and 2010/11 (CSA, 2012), it is second (to maize) in terms of quantity of production. Similarly, with only 1.3 tons per hectare, teff yield is the lowest among cereal crops (Demeke and Marcantonio, 2013). Supplementary to this, teff is grown entirely by smallholders, and has been actively marketed for many generations. Until recently, its market was almost wholly domestic, within Ethiopia (and formerly Eritrea): however, a promising niche export market is now developing in Europe and America (Samuel and Sharp, 2008). In light of the above information, this study focused to review teff 2 P a g e

3 production, consumption and marketing in Ethiopia as well as constraints and opportunities of teff production and marketing. 2. TEFF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING IN ETHIOPIA 2.1 Teff production In Ethiopia In Ethiopia, crop agriculture constituted on the average 68% of agricultural GDP (EEA, 2013). During this period, smallholders generated about 95% of the total production of the main crops (cereals, pulses, oil seeds, vegetables, root crops, fruits and cash crops) in the country (Alemayehu et al, 2012). Tamru (2013) reported that about two thirds of cereal production is still consumed by the producing households themselves, with only just over 16% being supplied to the market. Teff and wheat have relatively higher marketable surplus shares at 29% and 20% of total production, respectively. Mostly Teff is produced by small holder farmers at the central, eastern and northern highlands of the country on fragmented lands with rain fed conditions in both, Meher and Belg, seasons (Engdawork, 2009). In addition to this, it is relatively resistant to many biotic and abiotic stresses and can be grown under different agro-ecological conditions, ranging from lowland to highland areas (FAO, 2015). Teff is mostly concentrated in the centre and the northwest of the country. East Gojjam, East Shewa, West Shewa and North Shewa are the four most important teff producing zones all in Amhara and Oromia regional states (Yihenew et al, 2013). A smaller quantity of it is also produced in the Tigray and Southern Nations Nationality People regions (FAO, 2015). In line with this idea, Engdawork (2009) identified surplus and deficit areas in relation to teff production. His finding indicated that entire shewa of Oromia and Amhara regions and entire Gojjam are the major Teff surpluses producing areas of the country. On the other hand, entire Wollo, Tigray region, and the Harar/ Dire Dawa region in eastern Ethiopia and most of the pastorals area of the country are considered as deficit areas of the country. In 2011/12, it was estimated that teff made up 20% of all the cultivated area in Ethiopia followed by maize at 15% of all cultivated area, covering about 2.7 million hectares and grown by 6.3 million farmers ( Minten et al, 2013). But, the total national production of teff (3.5 million ton) was lower than maize (6.1 million ton) and sorghum (3.9 million ton) (CSA 2012). From the above evidences, we can conclude that teff has covered the largest area of land under cultivation; and its price is also maximum as compared to other cereals, but its production is low compared to others. Table 1: Teff Area Cultivated, Production and Yield by Region, 2015/2016 Region Area (ha) Share (%) Production (Qt) Share (%) Yield(Qt/ha) Share (%) Tigray 162, Amhara Oromia SNNPR 212, , Benishangul 27, P a g e

4 Total 2,865, ,714, Author s calculation from CSA data Teff production has increased by 24.5% between 2003/2004 and 2012/2013 cropping years. This growth was achieved mainly due to 37% expansion in area under cultivation and 64% increase in yield levels per hectare (CSA, 2015). Table 2: Trends of Teff production, yield and cultivated area Year Area(000ha) Production(000 qt) Yield 1992/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / Minimum Maximum Average Source: CSA data and Birhanu et al, P a g e

5 Figure 1: Trends of teff, maize and wheat yield from : Source: CSA data and Birhanu et al, Applications of Agricultural Inputs in Teff Production According to Ajayi et al (2003), in developing countries, improving the livelihoods of rural farm households via agricultural productivity would remain a mere wish if agricultural technology adoption rate is low. Hence, there is a need to adopt the proven agricultural technologies so as to heighten production as well as productivity and thereby the living condition of the rural poor. Furthermore, for developing countries, the best way to catch developed countries is through agricultural technology diffusion and adoption (Foster and Rosenzweig, 2010). Similarly, Ibrahim et al. (2012) assert about the direct effect of technology adoption on the farmer s income resulting from higher yields and prices. In line with this thought, adoption of high yield variety has long been taken as a solution to heighten agricultural income and diversification. The procurement and distribution of agricultural inputs more particularly high yield varieties and chemical fertilizer have been the central solution to enhance crop production and productivity so as to improve the living standards of farm households. This thought is crucial for countries like Ethiopia whose people heavily rely on subsistence farming. In line with this idea, different literatures were review regarding to the amount of agricultural inputs which have been applied to increase the production and productivity of Teff in Ethiopia. Finally eight years data ( ) was obtained to address the above objective. So, the result indicated that on average, 1,593, kg of fertilizer, 15,157.3 tone improved seed and 1,870,250 pesticides were consumed for teff production. The discussion by Engdawork (2009) explained that Teff productivity depends on good weather condition and use of appropriate technologies (fertilizer, improved seed, and herbicide) with the recommended rate and time. 5 P a g e

6 Table 3: Application of agricultural inputs on teff from Year Fertilizer Improved seed Pesticide Extension package ,105,928 4,640 1,534, , ,322,390 8,030 1,655, , ,214,563 7,005 1,620, , ,128,123 19,304 1,691,970 1,234, ,486,884 16,414 1,912,761 1,357, ,471,172 20,910 1,908,803 1,732, ,823,133 13,730 2,308,710 1,661, ,195,958 31,225 2,328,713 2,553,547 Minimum 1,105,928 4,640 1,534, ,505 Maximum 2,195,958 31,225 2,328,713 2,553,547 Average 1,593, , ,870,250 1,388,162 Source: Emama et al, P a g e

7 Figure 2: Fertilizer application for all crops versus teff Source: Emama et al, Teff consumption Figure 3: Improved seed utilization for all crops versus teff Source: Emama et al, 2015 In term of caloric intake, cereals dominate the diets of Ethiopian households. Of the total calorie consumption, four major cereals (maize, teff, wheat, and sorghum) account for more than 60%, with maize and wheat representing 20% each. The low share of teff in calorie consumption often come as surprise to urban Ethiopians, as teff is the predominant staple in the of the middle- and high income households (Rashid, 2010). Similarly, FAO (2015) demonstrated that Teff is a major staple food for many Ethiopians. Most prefer teff to other grains but is in general more widely consumed by the economically better off 7 P a g e

8 urban residents than by rural households. Teff contributes up to 600 (28.5% of minimum requirement) kcal/day in urban areas, compared to only 200 (9.5% of minimum requirement) kcal/day in rural areas. Table 4: Daily calorie intake of cereals Cereals Daily calorie intake Share Maize Wheat Teff Sorghum Other Total 1, Source: Rashid, 2010 Teff is one of the major cereal crops in Ethiopia which is mainly used for food consumption. The composition of Teff shows that it has good mineral content and generally higher amount of the essential amino acids (Engdawork, 2009). Its grain flour is mainly used for preparing injera, which is the favorite national dish of most Ethiopians. Injera produced from teff flour is of good odor, flavor, texture, and keeping quality. The grains give higher returns both in flour upon milling (i.e. 99 percent compared to percent from that of wheat) and in injera upon baking. The flour is also used for the preparation of porridge and kita (non-fermented unleavened bread). Sometimes, the grain is also brewed into a native beer, tella and a traditional alcoholic liquor, Katikalla or local arakie. Alternative tef dishes such as tef breakfast cereal, tef waffles, tef banana bread and the like are appearing in the western world particularly in the USA (Teklu, nd). It is nutritionally rich with high levels of iron and calcium and has the highest amount of protein among cereals consumed in Ethiopia. It ranks low on the glycemic index (making it suitable for consumption by Type II diabetics), is gluten free and is high in fibre (FAO, 2015). Teff is the most nutritious of all grains grown in Ethiopia (Crymes, 2015). Table 5: Nutrient contents of teff Nutrient Content Type of Teff White Brown Mix Energy (kcal) P a g e

9 Protein Fat Carbohydrate Fiber Calcium Phosphorous Iron Source: Crymes, 2015 Table 6: Utilization of teff production by regions Year Region Production(Qt) Household consumption (%) Seed (%) Sale (%) Others (%) 2014/15 Tigray Amhara Oromia SNNPR Benishangul Total /16 Tigray Rate of change Amhara Oromia SNNPR Benishangul Total Production Productivity Source: Calculated from CSA data Teff is gluten-free, rich in phosphorous, copper, aluminum and thiamine and is an excellent source of protein, amino acids and carbohydrates. Teff is higher in calcium, iron and zinc content than corn, wheat, or rice (Baye, 2014). In Gamboa and van Ekris s (2008) study on the nutritional and health aspects of teff, it was found the small grain is too small to refine and teff flour includes the bran and germ, which are the 9 P a g e

10 most nutritious parts of any grain. Another health related benefit of teff is the high in fiber content (Bay, 2014). According to Zung (2004), this is particularly important in dealing with diabetes and assisting with blood sugar control. 2.4 Teff Marketing in Ethiopia Teff is a commercial crop mainly because of the high price it fetches and the absence of alternative cash crops (such as coffee, tea or cotton) in the major teff producing areas of Gojam (Amhara) and Shewa (Oromiya) (FAO, 2015). It is the second most important cash crop after coffee and generating almost 500 million USD incomes per year for local farmers (Minten. et al., 2013). The annual volume of marketed surplus of Teff depends on the yearly use of improved agricultural technologies, weather condition suitable to Teff production and availability of family or hired labor for peak agricultural activities (Engdawork, 2009). Due to its high demand for consumption, teff is distributing to other areas. As reported by FAO (2015) while the bulk of the grains move through Addis Ababa, some urban consumption centers, such as Mekele and Dessie, get their supplies directly from production areas. Other urban centers, such as Harar and Dire Dawa, are supplied from Adama/Nazeret (East Shoa). For consumers, its taste and preference is unique making other grains the poor substitute for Teff. Because of these reasons, the demand for Teff is consistently high over time and its demand is inelastic to price variability compared to other grain crops in Ethiopia (Engdawork, 2009). Compared to other staples, the price of teff has increased at a faster rate in recent years; hence, the price gap between teff and other staples is widening. In particular, the price gap between teff and maize has widened considerably since 2008 (Fufa, et al, 2011). Poor farmers growing teff have benefited in recent years, as the relative price of teff (which they sell) has increased. Although teff has been consumed in the Horn of Africa for millennia, it has not been known to the outside until very recently. With increased globalization and labor migration, teff began to be exported to the Middle East, North America and Europe to satisfy the demand of Ethiopians abroad (Demeke. et al., 2013; FAO, 2015). Furthermore, because of its nutritional properties high in fibre, calcium, iron and increasing demands in European and North American markets (FAO, 2015). Some reports indicate that the volume of export has fluctuated and relatively a larger quantity was exported in , , and Export has declined since 2006, mainly due to high domestic prices and government ban on export (Demeke. et al., 2013) (see figure 4). FAO (2015) figure out major destination areas of Ethiopian teff from The result indicated that 23.21%, 23.52%, 24.23%, 4.32%, 1.28%, 11.54% and 3.78% quantities of teff were received by Israel, Yemen, United Arab Emirates, United States, Italy, Djibouti and Sudan, respectively. 10 P a g e

11 2.5 Determinants of Market Supply Figure 4: Teff export in quantity and value Source: FAO, 2015 Different articles were reviewed in relation to determinants of market supply for agricultural commodities in general and teff in particular. The main purpose of this section is to identify the factors that affect market supply of agricultural products and the method they used to quantify the cause and effect relationship between variables. Efa Gobena et al (2016) analyzed determinants of market participation and intensity of marketed surplus of teff producers in Bacho and Dawo districts of Oromia State, Ethiopia using double hurdle econometric model. His result indicated that family size, credit access, farm size, lagged market price, agro-ecology and transport equipment affect the market participation of teff producers; on the other hand, proxy to nearest market, perception of farm gate price, family size, farm size, on/off farm income, agro-ecology and livestock ownership were found to be statistically significant factors of intensity of marketed surplus of teff producers. The study conducted by Mohammed (2011) applied multiple linear regressions to quantify determinants of market supply of teff and wheat in Halaba Special Woreda, Southern Ethiopia. The author runs separate regression analysis for the teff and wheat. Among 11 explanatory variables, sex of the household head, teff production, access to market information and extension service were statistically significant factors affecting teff market supply; on the other hand, price of other crops, wheat production and credit access affect market supply of wheat. In addition to the above study, Tadele et al (2016) analyzed factors affecting teff and wheat market supply in Dendi District, West Shoa Zone, Ethiopia using multiple linear 11 P a g e

12 regression. Similar to Mohammed (2011), he incorporated 11 explanatory variables and examined separate analysis for teff and wheat market supply. He got the same result with Mohammed (2011) for teff market supply; whereas, price of teff in 2013/14, wheat quantity produce and credit access significantly affect market supply of wheat. In relation to the above evidences, Ayelech (2011) conducted market chain analysis of fruits for Gomma woreda, Jimma zone. In her study, she examined factors affecting marketable supply of avocado and mango using multiple linear regression. The result of the model indicated that educational level of the household head, market distance, avocado quantity produce, farm experience and price of avocado in 2008/9 were major determinants of avocado market supply, whereas, extension service, educational level of households and mango quantity produce were the factors of mango market supply among 11 explanatory variables. Similarly, Nega Mateows (2015) conducted market chain analysis of agro-forestry products the case of fruit at Tembaro District, South Ethiopia particularly on mango, banana and avocado. The result of multiple linear regression analysis for each commodity indicated that quantity produce of each commodity, market information, extension service, market distance, active family member and price of the commodities were major predictor variables that affect the market supply of the stated commodities. Woldemichael Somano (2008) conducted dairy marketing chains analysis the case of Shashemane, Hawassa and Dale District s of Souhern Ethiopia. He analyzed the factors affecting volume of milk supply and milk market participation decision by dairy households using Heckman two stage econometric model. The output of the model revealed that age of the household head, family size, educational level of heads, experience in dairy farm, market distance, number of cross bred cows and income from non-dairy source were major explanatory variables that affect the volume and participation of milk market supply. 2.6 Production and Marketing Constraints Problems or constraints are obstacles or unfavorable conditions which hinder development where as opportunities are favorable conditions which facilitate any activities which lead to development. Different researches have been conducted to identify major constraints of agricultural production and marketing in general and teff in particular. For example, Bosena (2008), Kindie (2007), and Mohammed (2011) identified the major factors that adversely constrain cotton, sesame and teff and wheat production in their study area includes shortage of technical inputs, inadequacy of capital, serious pest attack at seedling stage, lack of efficient extension service and low sells price. In other side, poor market linkages, collusion of buyers on price setting, high transport cost, unavailability and poor quality of packaging materials, adulteration, and inconvenient taxation system affects marketing of the listed agricultural commodities. In addition to the above mentioned problems, Alemnew (2010), Beza (2014) and Astewel (2010) founds that existence of diseases and soil erosion are serious problems those affects production and marketing of different crops. 12 P a g e

13 2.7 Production and Marketing opportunities In parallel with the above problems, the research reviewed different literatures regarding to the opportunities of agricultural crop production and marketing in general and teff in particular. Among the opportunities, suitability of the area for production, proximity to highly populated and newly booming towns, government suitable agricultural policies designed to support farmers at the grass-root level, and the presence of NGOs working on development projects are major opportunities which increases efficiency and effectiveness of production and marketing of different crops like teff, wheat, maize and red pepper (Mohammed, 2011, Beza 2014, and Alemnew, 2010). Related researches conducted by Bosena (2008) on analysis of cotton market chain in Mettema District indicated that, availability of vast potential areas, availability of labor, increasing access to foreign market, increasing population and recent trend in cotton production in the world are available opportunities for production and marketing of cotton. Similarly, Kindie (2007) who conducted his research in the same area to Bosena (2008) found that, high potential of the area for sesame production, the local varieties that have got good taste and preferences by most of the importers and their organic nature attracts the attentions of exporters and it become an opportunity for sesame production and marketing. Similarly, Engdawork (2009) summarized major opportunities of teff production and marketing in his study. These are: It can be grown in areas experiencing moisture stress, waterlogged areas and withstands anaerobic conditions better than many other cereals, including maize, wheat and sorghum. It is suitable for use in multiple cropping systems such as double, relay and intercropping. It has acceptance in the national diet, has high demand and high market value and hence enables farmers to earn more than with other crops. It is a reliable and low risk crop. It is not attacked by weevils and other storage pests and therefore is easily and safely stored under local storage conditions. This results in reduced postharvest management costs. Compared with any other cereals growing in Ethiopia, it has fewer disease and pest problems 3. CONCLUSION Teff is produced by small holder farmers at the central, eastern and northern highlands of the country. Teff constitutes 20% of all the cultivated area in Ethiopia followed by maize at 15%, covering about 2.7 million hectares and grown by 6.3 million farmers. But, the total national production of teff (3.5 million ton) was lower than maize (6.1 million ton) and sorghum (3.9 million ton). Teff production has increased by 24.5% between 2003/2004 and 2012/2013 cropping years. This growth was achieved mainly due to 37% expansion in area under cultivation and 64% increase in yield levels per hectare. On average, 1,593, kg of fertilizer, 15,157.3 tone improved seed and 1,870,250 pesticides were consumed for teff production from Cereals dominate the diets of Ethiopian households. Of the total calorie consumption, maize, wheat, sorghum and account for more than 60%. It is a major staple food crop for both rural and urban consumers 13 P a g e

14 due to its good mineral content and higher amount of the essential amino acids. At national level, 44,714, quintals of teff were produced in 2015/16 production year. From this amount, on average, 25,278, quintals (56.53%) were used for household consumption. Teff is a commercial crop mainly because of the high price it has and the absence of alternative cash crops in the major teff producing areas. It is the second most important cash crop after coffee and generating almost 500 million USD incomes per year for local farmers. Due to its high demand for consumption, teff is distributing to other areas both in domestic and abroad but the annual volume of marketed surplus depends on the use of improved agricultural technologies, weather condition, the availability of family labor, government policy and other socio-economic factors. 4. REFERENCES Alemayehu, S.T., Dorosh, P and Sinafikeh, A., Crop Production in Ethiopia: Regional Patterns and Trends. Summary of ESSP II Working Paper 16. Alemnew Abay, Market Chain Analysis of Red Pepper: The Case of Bure Woreda, West Gojjam Zone, Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia. A thesis Submitted to the School of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness Management, Haramaya University. Ashenafi Amare, Analysis of Grain Marketing in Southern Zone of Tigray Region,Ethiopia. A thesis Submitted to Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Master of Art in Cooperative Marketing, Mekelle University. Astewel Tekele, Analysis of Rice Profitability and Marketing Chain: The Case of Fogera Woreda, South Gondar Zone, Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia. A Thesis Submitted to College of Agriculture Department of Agricultural Economics, School of Graduate Studies, Haramaya University. Ayelech Tadesse, Market Chain Analysis of Fruits for Gomma Woreda,Jimma Zone, Oromia National Regional State. Haramaya University, MSc. Thesis. Balasubramaniyan, P and Palaniappan S., Principle and practice of Agronomy. 2 nd edition, Wishwa Prahashan, New Delhi. Baye, K., Teff: nutrient composition and health benefits. Beza Eba, Maize and Faba Bean Value Chains: The case of Bakotibe and Gobu Seyo Districts in Central Western Ethiopia. MSc thesis submitted to School of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, School of Graduate Studies, Haramaya University. Birhanu, G., Akinbamijo, Y., Abiodun, F,O., Baumuller, H., Von Braun, J., Debarry, A., Gallant, K., Getahun, T,D., Husamann, C., Jaenicke, H., Kirui O,K., Razaei,E,E., Smith, Y., Tambo, J,A., Virchow, D and Zinn, K., Potentials and Possibilities for German Collaboration in Agriculture. Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa. 14 P a g e

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