CIHIAPTER ' 2 REV][EW OIF ll][terairu]r.]e,- NEEID, SCOPE AND RESEARCH MIETHODOLOXGY

Transcription

1 CIHIAPTER ' 2 REV][EW OIF ll][terairu]r.]e,- NEEID, SCOPE AND RESEARCH MIETHODOLOXGY

2 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE, NEED, SCOPE AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The introductory chapter indicates some of the main problems plaguing the apple industry of Himachal Pradesh. The major ones mentioned are plantation on marginal lands, erratic production and low productivity. It also brings to light two facts which are relevant for the present study. One is that the productivity of Indian apple is markedly lower than the major apple producing countries of the world. The second is that the productivity of Himachal Pradesh apples is higher than Uttarakhand but lower than Jammu and Kashmir although the area under apple in the two states is comparable. The reasons for the former appear to be plenty. Superior geographical, topographical, technological and economic situation being the more obvious ones. The great divide between the developing and the developed countries cannot be overlooked. China leads apple production on account of area under cultivation which far exceeds that in any other nation. The much documented scientific and systematic farm management, better utilization of technology and mechanization and a better support and infrastructure seem to contribute a great deal. However, it may be noted that the highest producer is not necessarily the one reaping the richest harvest in terms of profitability. France is a case in point regarding this. So it would seem that there are two aspects to the apple business. One is to optimize quantity and quality and the other is to optimize the whole process of farming, pre and post-harvest activities (including value addition) and successfixl marketing leading to profit optimization. The review of literature is being undertaken with the aim of developing a thorough understanding of the conceptual constructs and empirical research in the field of the various operational areas hence identified as skills. The goal is to identify the main operational skills (controllable factors) at the farm level. The study fiirther seeks to explore which of these skills significantly affect the profitability of Himachal Pradesh apple orchards and whether or not there is a gap between recommendations and actual practice. Such a gap if uncovered, would translate into specific areas needing up gradation and augmentation through training. The complex and inter-related nature of all areas of operation at a farm level make it difficult to attribute specific contribution of each skill. Therefore a survey was conducted in the two leading apple producing districts of Himachal Pradesh. It was found that there is a substantial difference in the profitability of apple orchards of the two districts. It was also observed that in many respects the farm and farming practices in both the districts are similar whereas in others they are different. The difference in 31

3 output and profitability is attributed to those practices which show different approaches by farmers of the two districts. 1 hcse practices are tested for significance and those found to exhibit a correlation are the ones recommended for optimized management through training. With the identification of those skills which are significant contributors in profitability followed by zeroing in on those which presently demand better management by way of training, it is hoped to highlight a feasible way to "create an impact by better skill management on the sustainability of apple orchards of Himachal Pradesh" from a farmer's perspective. This whole exercise has also resulted in establishing a relationship of the present study with the existing body of knowledge, 2.1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE The comprehensive review of literature sourced from research papers, project reports, books, journals, newspapers, magazines and the internet is being presented below in the logical sequence of the chapter scheme of the present thesis. As mentioned by Ghosh (Ghosh)',about 99 percent of area under apple in India falls under the North Western Hills region, covering six districts of J&K (Srinagar, Budgam, Pulwama, Anantanag, Baramullah, Kupwara), 6 districts of H.P.(Shimla, Kullu, Mandi, Sirmour, Chamba, Kinnaur) and 8 districts of U.P. (Almora, Nainital, Pithauragarh, Tehri,Pauri, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Dehradun). Swarup & Sikka, (1987)^ mention that out of the 12 districts of Himachal Pradesh, apple is grown mainly in Shimla, Kullu, Kirmaur, Mandi, Sirmaur and Chamba districts. Shimla and Kullu together account for nearly 65 per cent area and 91 per cent of the total production in the State. According to Azad (2000)', horticulture in the hilly regions of India is an economic necessity and is one of the most important diversifications for sustainable and more productive hill agriculture. Azad (2000)'' opines that the emerging trends in the dietary habits of affluent populations indicate that the fruit and vegetable production development has a bright future especially in developing countries. With regard to the nutritive value of fruit and vegetables and the potentialities of increasing the production and productivity of horticultural crops, he quotes Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, an eminent agricultural scientist who had described the fruits and vegetables as the "Foods of the Future". According to Kaura (1961)\ in Himachal Pradesh, apple was first introduced by Captain Lee in 1870 at Bandrole, Kullu district. As per Singh & Jawanda (1962)*, the varietal wealth was 32

4 subsequently enriched by Captain Banon, Theodor, Donald, Rennik and Minnikin who imported a number of best English varieties during the last two decades of thel9*century. They further state that in Shimla Hills, the first apple orchard was planted by Mr. Alexander Coutts at Mashobra, in Singh D. (1963)' states that Coutts planted some 90 varieties of apple in his garden at Hillock Head which later on became the famous Coutts Garden, Mashobra. As per Karkara B. K. (2000)^ during 1920 Mr. S.N. Stokes, an American Missionary originally a resident of Philadelphia, introduced Starking Delicious, Red Delicious and Rich-a-red Delicious apples from U.S.A. in Kotgarh area of Shimla district which proved to be a turning point for the apple industry of Himachal Pradesh. The date of introduction of the Delicious varieties by S.N. Stokes is variably mentioned as 1916, 1918 and 1920 by different sources. The above passage indicates that the large number of varieties which were planted initially were later passed over for the Delicious cultivars which resulted in better market acceptance but heralded the dominance of the Delicious strain. Review of literature pertaining to various aspects of apple cultivation and the skills involved therein is presented here. An effort has been to present them in the sequence followed in the rest of the study. The main areas for literature survey were: i) General Operational skills- Those skills which affect the overall output of an orchard indirectly are categorized under this skill set. It will cover: a) Land utilization pattern i) Distribution and size of land holdings ii) Utilization of land b) Planting Systems and Density of Plantation c) Harvest and Post harvest management d) Input- Output Analysis and e) Human Resource Management ii) Agronomic skills- Skills which are related to apple production somewhat more directly and hence influence the overall yield of an orchard form this sub-skill set. Three sub skills are categorized under this skill which are : a) Plant management skills which cover: 1) Variety management 2) Age-mix management 3) Pollination management 4) Canopy management and 5) Pest and Disease management 33

5 b) Soil management skills which cover: 1) Nutrition management 2) Moisture management and 3) Floor management c) Weather management skills which cover: 1) Precipitation management (the only controllable aspect) GENERAL OPERATIONAL SKILLS As mentioned earlier, those skills which affect the overall output of an orchard indirectly are collectively categorized as general operational skills. The first sub-skill studied under this skill is 'Land utilization pattern' which has two aspects namely 'Distribution and size of land holdings' and 'Utilization of land'. 2.L1.1 LAND UTILIZATION PATTERN The distribution of operational land holdings in an area, the size of holdings and ultimately the utilization of an operational holding are prime factors that determine the output from it. Distribution and Size of Land Holdings On the basis of studies conducted on the plots of 42 farmers in different areas of Himachal Pradesh between 1981 and 1985, Singh H. (1993)^ categorically states that production per unit area of the existing plantations can be doubled if orchard management is improved. The studies reveal that yield increase with modem technology can be as high as 225 per cent when compared with the yield procured from traditional management techniques. The following passages quote studies regarding the distribution, size and utilization of land holdings in Himachal Pradesh. Out of the total geographical area of lakh hectares, the area of operational holdings is about 9.79 lakh hectares and is operated by 9.14 lakh farmers. The average holding size comes to 1.1 hectare. Distribution of land holdings according to agricultural census (table 2.1) showed that 86.4 per cent of the total holdings were of small and marginal farmers, 13.2 per cent of holdings were owned by semi medium and medium farmers and only 0.4 per cent by large farmers. According to the census figures, per cent holdings were of marginal and small categories, per cent were of semi-medium and medium categories taken together and.89 per cent fell under the large category. 34

6 It is clear that even in a span of two years, the proportion of large land holdings has shown a decline whereas the proportion of the smaller sized land holdings especially the marginal and small land holdings has increased drastically. Table 2.1 DISTRIBUTION OF LAND HOLDINGS* ( ) Size of Category Number of Area Average size Holdings (Ha) Holdings (lakh). (lakh Ha) of Holding (Ha) Below 1.0 Marginal 6.15 (67.3%) 2.52 (25.8%) Small 1.74 (19.1%) 2.45 (25.0%) Semi medium 0.90 (9.8%) 2.43 (24.8%) Medium 0.31 (3.4%) 1.76 (16.0%) and Above Large 0.04 (0.4%) 0.63 (6.4%) 15.7 Total 9.14 I.l *Source. Economic Survey Himachal Pradesh, , Department of Economics & Statistics, Government of Himachal Pradesh Utilization of Land According to Swarup & Sikka (1987)', the land utilization pattern of districts Shimla and Kullu indicates an inverse relationship between the size of holding and intensity of cropping. They also observed that the area under apple occupied more than 50 per cent of the total farm land during that year. A study of land utilization includes decisions regarding orchard layout which means the pattern of distribution of plants in the orchard. A related decision is that of how close or apart each tree should be planted. These two aspects are touched upon in the following passages PLANTING SYSTEMS AND DENSITY OF PLANTATION Once an orchard site has been selected and the proposed apple variety chosen, it is vitally important for an orchardist to be sure of the intended design and layout of the plantation. The layout decision is dependent upon a number of criteria like the degree of slope, the amount of sunshine received in the orchard, the geographical location of the orchard, its direction along the 35

7 North South plane, proposed density of plantation etc. Some of the more popular plantation layout systems are mentioned below. Terrace System Terrace system refers to planting in flat strips of land formed across a sloping side of a hill, lying level along the contours. Kanwar (1987)" advocates that trees under the terrace system which is fairly popular should not be planted in frost prone areas because cold air is prevented from drawing down by the tree rows. Contour system This system is generally followed on the hills where the plants are planted along the contour across the slope. It particularly suits to land with undulated topography, where there is greater danger of erosion and irrigation of the orchard is difficult. The main purpose of this system is to minimize land erosion and to conserve soil moisture so as to make the slope fit for growing fruits and plantation crops. The contour line is so designed and graded in such a way that the flow of water in the irrigation charmel becomes slow and thus finds time to penetrate into the, soil without causing erosion. Terraced fields rise in steps one above the other and help to bring more area into productive use and also to prevent soil erosion. The width of the contour terrace varies according to the nature of the slope. If the slope becomes stiff, the width of terrace is narrower and vice-versa. The planting distance under the contour system may not be uniform. In South India, tea is planted in contours either in single hedge system or in double hedge system. Double hedge contour planting system accommodates nearly 22 per cent higher population than single hedge system (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore)'^. Square system This system permits inter cropping and cultivation in two directions. According to Kumar N. (1997)'\this is one of the most commonly followed systems and is very easy to layout. Diagonal or quincunx system This is a modified form of square method in which one more plant in the centre of the square. It accommodates double the number of plants, but does not provide equal spacing. The central (filler) tree chosen may be a short lived one. This system can be followed when the distance between the permanent trees is more than 10m. As there will be competition between permanent and filler trees, the filler trees should be removed after a few years when main trees come to bearing Kumar N. (1997)'^ 36

8 Density of Plantation Planting of fruit trees rather at a closer spacing than the recommended one using certain special techniques with the sole objective of obtaining maximum productivity per unit area without sacrificing quality is often referred as 'High density planting' or HDP. One of the most crucial decisions which are inseparable from the plantation layout system is whether to have a low or high density plantation. According to Cain (1971)'^, the old orchards have been planted under traditional systems of planting at a spacing of feet. These orchards take years to attain commercial scale of production while the dwarf orchards come to commercial fruiting after 6-7 years of their planting. Areas with gentle slopes of flat soils having high fertility and irrigation facilities are available and still low density orchards with traditional spacing of feet are being planted and as such productivity has not increased. The superiority of high density planting in apple employing MM 106 rootstock has been demonstrated at Regional Horticultural Research Station, Mashobra Shimla where yield up to 79 tones/ha has been obtained in comparison to 4-5 tons per ha average yield of the State. This shows high yield potential of the high density orchards in comparison to traditionally low density orchards. However, the availability of plant material on dwarfing clonal rootstock has remained a persistent problem notwithstanding the efforts made by the development agencies in raising the material of dwarfing rootstock. The dwarfing rootstock M9, M4, M7, MM 106 and M26 showed the best promise for high density planting. However, higher density caused a reduction in light penetration into large trees which sometimes reduced bearing capacity of the tree believes Cain (1971)'^. At this point it is imperative to mention that the most prevalent planting system around the globe is the 'high density planting system', henceforth abbreviated as HDP. Chadha & Awasthi, (2005) mention that this technique was first established in Europe during the sixties and now a majority of the apple orchards in Europe, America, Australia and New Zealand are grown under this system. In this system, four planting densities are recognized for apples viz., low HDP (<250 trees/ha), moderate HDP ( tree/ha), high HDP (500 to 1250 trees/ha) and ultra high HDP (>1250 trees/ha). Recently, super high density planting system has been also established in apple orchards with a plant population of 20,000 trees per ha. In some orchards, still closer, planting of apple trees is followed (say 70,000 trees/ha) which is often referred as 'meadow orchards'. In all these HDP systems, dwarfing rootstocks are invariably used in raising of trees. 37

9 The main advantages of HDP can be summarized as: 1. Early cropping and higher yields for a long time; the average yield in apple is about 5.0 MT/HA under normal system of planting and it is about t/ha under HDP. 2. Reduced labor costs. 3. Improved fruit quality. Chadha & Awasthi, (2005)'^ discussed the plus and minus points of high density plantation with regard to apple in Himachal Pradesh and advocated the use of high density plantation after taking into consideration the planting material, orchard management practices, moisture stress and location of the orchard. Table 2.2 presents the recommendations given by Awasthi and Verma (1986)" for Himachal Pradesh. The latest concept throughout the world is to have optimum utilization of available space both horizontal and vertical, to achieve maximum level of production per unit area by way of accommodating maximum number of plants in a given area and also harvesting maximum solar energy by photosynthesis Azad (2000) 20 Table 2.2 RECOMMENDED ROOTSTOCKS FOR HIMACHAL PRADESH Cultivar Rootstocks Spacing (m) Tree per ha Non-spur type MM 106, MM 109 5x5 400 Spur type MM 111, MM 109 4x4 625 Non-spur type M9 2x Spur type MM 106, M 7 3x PRE AND POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT SKILLS Pre harvest management skills pertain to all those activities which are carried out before the fruit it picked or harvested. These are aimed at improving the size, color and appearance of fruit; in short pre harvest activities are designed to improve the marketability of fruit while it is still on the tree. Therefore fruit or harvest management are terms used interchangeably with pre harvest management. Pre harvest management or Fruit (Harvest) management It is widely expressed that in Himachal Pradesh, the extent of cultivation and production of apple has increased manifold during the last five decades but the quality of fruits is not up to the mark. 38

10 especially in marginal and warmers areas. Thus the farmers are not getting premium price in the market due to production of low quality fruits. Delicious cuhivars of apple in the market can be easily recognized by their conical shape and five prominent calyx lobes. Delicious apple showing these characteristics are known as "Typey" and these apples fetch premium price in the market. Several factors like high post bloom temperatures, rootstock, strain, crop density and flower position affect the fruit shape and length/diameter (L/D) ratio of Delicious fruit. Sharma et al (2005)^' studied the effect of clonal rootstocks on the growth and cropping of spur type apple cultivars in mid hill conditions of Himachal Pradesh at the Progeny cum Demonstration Orchard of the state Department of Horticulture at Anu in District Shimla and concluded that maximum fruit set, yield per tree and yield per hectare were recorded in cultivar Oregon Spur with rootstock EMLA106. Plant bio-regulators are very effective means for improvement apple productivity as a result of their direct influence over the quantitative as well as qualitative aspects of fruits growth. There are some commercial formulations of gibberellins and cytokinin such as Promalin (GA"**^ and BA) and photosynthesis stimulants namely mixtalol have become popular in western countries. Greene, Lord, & Barmlage (1982)^^ found that concentration of 25, 50 and 100 ppm GA ^^' +BA) along with 1000 ppm diaminozide applied after 17 days of full bloom caused a linear increase in fruit set with increasing concentration. Similarly, Basak & Neizborala (1992)^'' reported that Promalin 25 mg/litre applied in Golden Delicious apple at full bloom and two weeks later increased the fruit weight up to 24 per cent over the control. Greene & Lord (1978)^'' further observed that there was no significant increase in the fruit weight of Richared Delicious apples sprayed with 25 ppm Promalin one day after full bloom. Williams & Stahly (1969)^' found that cytokinins and gibberellins alone or in combination, when applied to Delicious apple tree just after full bloom, affected fruit shape by increasing the length/diameter (L/D) ratio of the fruits. Cytokinin resulted longer fruits with well developed calyx lobes. Promalin applied at 12.5 and 25 mg/litre at full bloom and after two weeks or only once at 25 and 50 mg/litre at full bloom increased the fruit length and diameter in Golden Delicious, while increased in length only in Starkrimson. Generally, two applications were reported more effective than one Basak & Neizborala (1992)^^. Liu elal (1994)" reported that Promalin applied at 1200 ppm during fiiu bloom and 10 days after full bloom resulted in marked elongation of the fruits. However, in comparison to Promalin, the plant bio regulators CPPU and thidiazuron were found more effective in increasing length: diameter ration when applied during bloom period at concentrations less than 5 ppm in cultivars namely Golden Delicious Greene (1993)^*, Pal (1997)^' reported that Mixtalol, a photosynthesis stimulant, was also found to increase fruit set, flesh firmness, total soluble solids, total sugars in apple. 39

11 Pal (1997)^" also reported that Promalin treatments especially at bloom could improve the fruit shape and quality of Starking Delicious apple. Rom & Miller (1991)^' reported that 8 per cent foliar urea sprays at green tip stage to temperature stressed Golden Delicious trees advanced bud break and increased the number of flower buds. Zilkah et al (1997)^^ applied 8 per cent urea sprays on tree canopy at the beginning of green bud swell under climate conditions of insufficient accumulation of chilling units and high temperature in early spring and observed that these sprays advanced the initial bud break and elevated total number of reproductive buds. Boron plays a significant role in pollen germination and pollen tube growth in pome and stone fruits. Boron observed from all sprays of boric acid was metabolized and became available for flowers in early spring according to Chaplin «& Westwood (1980)". Greene (1989)^'' observed that post blooms sprays of GA ""^ increased fruit set in Empire apples with single application of ppm concentration, while two application of 50 ppm each on similar trees in another year caused fruit thinning. Post harvest Management Post harvest management skills come into play after picking the fruits when they are considered ready for the market. They include operations that aim to maximize the shelf-life of the picked fruit and make it ready for the market. Thus, the list of operations may include all or some of the following which are adopted depending upon the awareness, availability and purchasing power of the farmers. Singh (1993) states that the post harvest management of horticultural crops has not kept pace with the expansion of production. As a result of the inefficiencies, the system is advantageous to the middlemen and works against the interests of the orchardist and the consumer. He has listed the stages through which the fruit passes for marketing. 1. Picking 2. Assembly in the packing shed 3. Sorting and Grading 4. Packing 5. Transport to the forwarding areas (mainly head loads) 6. Loading (in lorries) 7. Transport 8. Unloading in the wholesale market 9. Storage 10. Sale in the market to retailers or bulk purchasers 40

12 11. In case of bulk purchasers unpacking, re-grading, packing, loading, transporting, un loading in other markets and sale to retailers 12. Transport by retailer to his retail shop 13. Consumer Post Harvest Management Treatments To maintain post harvest quality, efforts should be made from the pre-harvest stage as treatments with fungicides and calcium chloride (0.05 per cent) before harvest is recommended. Fruits should be harvested at proper maturity and efforts should be made to minimize mjury during harvesting and handling. Fruits should be graded and packed in CFB cartons using appropriate trays for different grades. To minimize bruising fruits in a carton should neither remain loose nor should it be packed too tightly. Various chemical and waxing treatments are effective in retaining fruit quality and prolonging storage life of fruits. Calcium chloride is effective in maintaining fruit firmness and can also be applied as a post harvest dip treatment. Waxes form a thin layer on the fruit surface and prevent moisture loss and the consequent shriveling besides restricting gas exchange, thereby slowing down the respiration rate. Application of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) is also effective in reducing the ripening of fruits as it prevents ethylene action. It is applied as a fumigation treatment in a closed chamber and should be applied immediately after harvest. Grading - Generally apples are graded into different grades depending upon their soundness, visual appearance, typical varietal characters, etc. Following is the common 7 size grading system with the conventional method of measurement with finger and thumb by the orchardists Anonymous (1992)^^. Table 2.3 presents the common size grades of apple most commonly followed by farmers in Himachal Pradesh. Table 2.3 SIZE GRADES OF APPLE Grade Minimum Fruit Diameter (+ 2.5mm) Super large 85 Extra large 80 Large 75 Medium 70 Small 65 Extra small 60 Pittoo 55 Source; (Anonymous, Package of Practices for horticultural crops in Himachal Pradesh., 1992) 41

13 As reported by Chadha and Awasthi (2005)" following proportion (per cent) of fruit size of different grades of apple fruits is found on a tree. 1. Large, super and extra large per cent 2. Medium per cent 3. Small per cent 4. Extra small, pittoo and culls per cent Packaging Lai (1982)'* found 8 per cent bruising in Royal Delicious apples transported in tray packed wooden boxes from Khadrala (Shimla) to Delhi against 36 per cent in conventionally packed wooden boxes. Fruit shriveling can; however, be checked by inside lining of fruits with ventilated polyethylene sheet. The use of polyethylene liners in field boxes/corrugated cartons has also been found effective to prevent the weight loss and shriveling of Golden Delicious apples during storage. Joshi et al. (1988)'^ reported that transportation of apple in CFB cartons (15 kg capacity) resulted in minimum loss in fruit weight (3.33 per cent) and least spoilage/bruising compared with 80 kg cartons or 15 kg wooden boxes. Attempts have been made since 1985 to evaluate and introduce corrugated plastic cartons in fruit trade or to use laminated CFB cartons to overcome its drawback Lai (1994)^. Lai et al. (1994)"*' reported that tray packed plastic cartons with apples remained perfectly safe and sound without any rubbing, bruising or damage during their transportation from Solan to Delhi. Marketing Delhi (Azadpur) is the most important terminal market with a high absorptive capacity. More than 75 per cent of marketable surplus of apples is dispatched to this market by the orchardists. Some enterprising apple growers, however, are also patronizing distant markets of Ahmedabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangaluru and Chennai. However, apple growers have to take measures to compete in some of these markets where imported apples are being sold Chadha & Awasthi (2005)^1 Apple fruits are sent to various markets for sale and there are many channels that include contractors, commission agents, wholesalers, etc. Thus, the cost involved is also to be borne by the grower/producer. Producers' total marketing cost varies from marketing channel to chaimel. 42

14 It also varies from market to market due to market distance and differences in market conduct Swarup & Sikka (1987)'*\ According to Chadha & Awasthi (2005)'*'', the marketing cost in the past decade has increased by more than 96 per cent. The increase is attributed to a steep hike in transportation charges (about 84 per cent), and cost of packing material (about 185 per cent). The cost of transportation and risks of spoilage and other transport losses are related to the market distance. Thus, there are variations in marketing margins charges in various markets LITERATURE RELATING TO INPUT-OUTPUT ANALYSIS The following passages deal with as the title of this section implies the input which in concrete monetary terms be called the cost of cultivation and the output which means the returns both in quantitative and monetary terms. In other words the output also commonly referred as yield is a broad term which includes yield estimation and management as much as the financial returns from it. Mouron & Carint (2001)''^ identified yield as the third most important success factor for apple farming, after price and quality of the apples (i.e., graded results). Yield directly influenced earned income. Bravin, Kilchenmann, & Leutnann (2009)''* proposed six hypotheses for profitable apple production based on the economic work-package and concluded that 'Yield is a variable of complex of interacting factors which are governed by environmental conditions and intrinsic potential of the plant. It shows a cause and effect relationship which can be measured in numerical terms'. The important factors governing yield are flower density, per cent of flowers yielding mature fruit and rate of fruit growth. Generally the yield is expressed as weight or volume of fruit per tree or per unit of land surface. Awasthi & Sharma (2005)''^ claim that an effort has been made to illustrate the yield forecasting models on the basis of meteorological, morphological, nutritional and anatomical parameters. Awasthi & Sharma (2000)''^ made a very usefiil observation from a manager's point of view. They stated that yield is a function of interacting factors which are governed by environmental conditions and intrinsic potential of the plant and exhibits a cause and effect relationship which can be measured and quantified. The important factors listed by them are bearing area of the crop, climate, soil, cultivars, rootstocks, spacing and cultural management practices. They go even further and declare that it is possible to scientifically predict the yield of a tree in a particular area. They have derived regression equations based on meteorological parameters (including temperature ranges at crucial stages and accumulated chilling units), morphological parameters (physical characteristics of tree) like trunk girth, tree volume, number of primary and secondary scaffolds, and spur count etc., nutritional parameters especially nutritional content of tissue, leaf in particular, and bud examination. 43

15 The significance of studies like the above is that the farmer knows in advance what to expect and can improve the efficiency of his cultural operations especially post harvest operations which may have a positive impact on his profitability. It is the basis for working out the economics of cultivation of any crop and therefore to make apple cultivation a sustainable venture, the cost of its cultivation has been studied by various workers in the past. According to Singh R. (2007)'*^, the cost of production of apple per hectare in Himachal Pradesh has been found to be Rs. 41,288, Gross returns Rs. 70,004 and thus having net rerun of Rs. 28,475 and the number of days for employment is 267 per annum. Output -input ratio is Singh et al (2007) ^^ studied the cost of production of apples in Himachal Pradesh which was based on the data collected from 360 orchardists located in Shimla, Kullu and Mandi districts. The analysis revealed that initial cost of apple plantations was Rs. 20,749 per hectare whereas annual maintenance cost ranged from Rs.34, 962 in the T' year to Rs. 67,444 per hectare during 7"" year. Per hectare cost increased from Rs. 51,325 (8"' year) to Rs. 58,924 per hectare (21-30 years). Productivity of plants ranged from 7307 kg/ha in 8* year to 15,985 kg/ha in age group and declined to 12, 318 kg/ha in 31 and above age group. Average cost of apple production was Rs per kg whereas the bulk line cost of the production of apple was Rs per kg. While discussing the steps for sustainable apple orchard management Thakur L. (2000) " has pointed out that management input is of utmost importance in fruit farming in the State. Also both the fruit growers and the scientists engaged in use and research on various aspects of fruit farming and marketing would need to wok hand-in-glove to fiilly harness the agro-climatic potential of fruit farming in the State HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT SKILLS It needs to be mentioned here that very little literature is available on the human resource aspect of apple farming in Himachal Pradesh. Thakur L. (2000)'^ opines that the contribution of female labor to the total income from the horticultural crops is not accounted though they help in many of the operations connected with the apple cultivation in Himachal Pradesh. Digging of pits, preparation of basins, application of Farm Yard Manure and fertilizers, irrigation, watch and ward, hoeing and weeding, picking and collection of fruits and taking them to godowns were the female dominated tasks and about per cent of the labor required for these operations was supplied by women which comprised of family as well as hired for cash or kind. On the other hand the operations like lay out, purchase of nursery plants, planting, training, pruning, plant protection and marketing were the male dominant jobs and female labor provided about per cent of the labor input required. It 44

16 was observed that women participation was more (45 per cent) in cultural and physical control of insect pests as compared to chemical control (31 per cent). Grading and packing of fruits is an important operation in fruit cultivation and was generally carried out by specially trained males. In post harvest management of fruits also women contributed significantly through home scale preservation of different products like jams, jellies, pickles, chutney, brewing wines, etc., but for technical decisions like selection of varieties, root-stocks and planting material, plant protection measures, time and place to market the produce, etc. females were totally dependent on their male counterparts. The results of the Eularis theorem showed that the share of female labor to total income was higher than their male counterparts AGRONOMIC SKILLS Most of the field activities for apple, production are generally termed as cultural operations. Trees are properly looked after with the aim of having a good vegetative and reproductive growth to ensure a good crop every year. These activities start from land preparation, basin preparation, planting of trees to harvesting of fruits from the trees and include many activities such as weeding, hoeing, training and pruning of trees, addition of manures and fertilizers, soil moisture conservation, plant protection activities, picking of fruits, etc PLANT MANAGEMENT SKILLS The apple plant needless to say is at the core of the whole story of apple farming. Five basic sub skills related to the apple plant/plants are being studied under the plant management skills as mentioned earlier. Literature regarding the same is presented below. Layout or planting system which also relates to plants has already been discussed in the 'general operations management' section Variety Management A large number of apple varieties have been identified for cultivation in India. Almost 849 cultivars have been introduced and grown in India Yadav (1988)". Only Ambri variety is indigenous to India and all other cultivars have been introduced from foreign countries. A number of studies point to the fact that the Himachal Pradesh apple orchards are dominated by a small number of apple varieties. It may be mentioned here that apple varieties may be classified as commercial or pollinizer varieties. Commercial varieties are those which are in great demand in the market and fetch the grower a good price. However, most of the commercial varieties are self un-fruitfiil and require cross fertilization for fruit set. The pollinizer varieties produce fruit which mainly on account of its color and appearance does not warrant a great demand and good 45

17 price in the market. The pollinizer varieties are grown for the primary purpose of providing cross polhnation for the commercial varieties. A number of varieties hke Royal Delicious, Red Delicious, Rich-a-Red, Golden delicious, Red June, etc., are being grown in the state and their varietal distribution in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and Uttarakhand is given in Table 33 Singh H. (1993)^'' attached in the appendices. All the three major apple producing states of India have their own peculiar varietal mix. Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand are totally cultivating imported varieties. Himachal Pradesh stands out distinct because of the complete domination of the Delicious strains of apple where it commands 94 per cent of the total area under apple. According to Awasthi & Kamal (2005)^^ in Himachal Pradesh the variety mix is absolutely skewed in favor of the Delicious group of cultivars (varieties) with 44, 25, 14 and 11 per cent area under Starking Delicious, Red Delicious, Rich-a-Red and Golden Delicious respectively. They further observe that cultivars such as Topred, Vance Delicious, Hardeman and spur types namely Red Spur, Golden Spur, Red Chief, Oregon Spur, Starkrimson, Silver Spur and many other types introduced between at the Regional Horticultural Research Station Mashobra are fast replacing the Delicious varieties. Hartman & Hewlett (1954)^^ reported that Delicious had created considerable concern because of unreliable fruit set. [n Himachal Pradesh cultivars Red June, Red Gold, King of Pippin (Yellow Newton) and Jonathan are being grown besides Delicious cultivars. Pippin and Red Gold on account of higher yield potential and Tydeman's Early Worcester and Lord Lamboume being better pouinizers and early maturing have been recommended Chadha & Thakur (1980)", Anonymous (1978)^^. The cultivars like Rus Pippin, Granny Smith, Allington Pippin, Cox's orange Pippin and Lord Lamboume are very good pollinizers. Chauhan A. (2005)^' reported that Red Gold is ideal pollinizer in respect to synchronization of flowering and fruit set of Royal Delicious apple. According to him provision of bouquet to supplement the pollination in the orchards where pollinizers proportion is less than 10 per cent are effective. The author asserted that enhanced fruit set can be achieved in the orchards, where bouquets of different pollinizers are placed in the periphery of the trees, revealing that the orchards should be provided with more than one type of pollinizers varieties. 46

18 According to Karkara B. K. (1998)^ varieties introduced at the Progeny-cum-Demonstration Orchard, Anu in Shimla district at an elevation of 4500ft AMSL have shown good promise and have been reconunended by experts. The spur range of varieties includes Red Chief, Oregon Spur II, Well Spur, Bright-n-early and Silver Spur. These provide better color and higher yields than the existing Delicious cultivars in valley areas where orchardists resort to ethereal sprays for color development. V.K.Sharma (2004)^' reveals that during the nineties, spur type varieties were introduced. These are mostly strains of the Delicious group which yield a better quantity and quality than the standard types. These trees come into bearing in the second year of their transplanting in the field and need better manuring and irrigation. Under dry farming conditions, they do not perform well. Main spur cultivars are Top Red, Red Chief, Red Spur, Well Spur, Oregon Spur, Gold Spur, Silver Spur, Gala, etc. Their varieties have specific requirements so far as soil and manures are concerned and also require staking. The total life span of these varieties is less in comparison to the standard cultivars but their yield per unit area is much higher and so they are profitable to manage. However he observes that growers are still using old varieties, seedling rootstocks and traditional cultural practices to produce apples. He opines that the developments made as a result of various research trials and experiences from research workers and extension persons have not reached the grass roots. In India during , Scab in epidemic spread affecting 90 per cent apple fruit crop area in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh of which 10 per cent fruits were completely damaged Thakur & Gupta (1990)" Age-Mix Management According to Azad, Swamp, & Sikka (198 8)^^after planting the traditional varieties take about 8 years to come to bearing stage. Intercropping during the first 3 to 4 years offsets some investment expenses. Intercropping if carried on beyond this stage is counter effective due to competition for nutrients, space for root growth etc. So from 4 to 8 years there is no return from an apple farm. From the 8* year onward the situation changes drastically as the farm reaches the commercial bearing stage. The productivity goes on increasing till about 30 years of age after which there is a decline. Since the age of apple plants plays a very crucial role in determining the cost and returns from it, orchards are classified according to the age group of plants in it. In case of non bearing orchards, all the individual years have to be considered whereas for bearing orchards generally 8 age groups are considered which are; 8, 9, 10, 11-12, 13-15, 16-20, and beyond 30. Management of age mix in a farm becomes crucial when replacement of old trees starts. A careful balance has to be maintained between the new plantation and existing bearing plants. 47

19 Pollination Management Without adequate fruit set, all cultural, biological and orchard management activities are worthless. According to ( A & T State University Cooperative Extension)^'*, of the many factors that enter into apple production, none is regarded more important than fruit set. It is stated that many growers do not give enough attention to pollination management. It is asserted that most apple varieties are self-incompatible and there-fore require cross-pollination with a suitable pouinizer variety to obtain good fruit set. From practical standpoint it is urged that all apple varieties should be considered self-unfruitful, meaning that they cannot effectively pollinate themselves. Even the so-called self-fruitful varieties such as Golden Delicious as per the source must have apple trees of another variety located nearby guarantee consistent crop production. Chadha T. R. (2000)^' states that there are differences in pollination efficiency among apple varieties. For example, the red strains of apple cultivars generally do not serve as effective pollinizers for the parent variety or other strains from the parent variety. In general, two strains of the same variety do not pollinate each other as effectively as do two different varieties. ( A & T State University Cooperative Extension)^^ states further that for effective pollination to occur, the bloom dates of the main variety and the pollinizer(s) must largely overlap. The ideal arrangement is for the pollinizer to begin its bloom shortly before the main variety blossoms so that pollen will be available for the king blooms on the main variety. One way to help ensure that the bloom periods overlap is to plant both an early-blooming and a later-blooming pollinizer that are compatible with the main variety. The bloom dates for apple varieties vary from one area to another. Commercial fruit tree catalogs normally list pollination charts that can be used to select varieties with compatible pollination viability and timing. Pollinizers may also be selected from other than the traditional apple varieties. Flowering crabs or crab apples should be considered as possible pollination sources for commercial apple varieties. Regarding the correct proportion of pollinizers, V.K.Sharma (2004)*^ and Chadha T. R. (2000)*^ advise that provision of at least per cent pollinizing trees in the orchard must be made. Ghosh (Ghosh)*' recommends inter-planting pollinizer cultivars (Golden Delicious, Jonathan, Red Gold, Lord Lamboume etc.) in the proportion of 25 to 33 percent for good fruit set, and warns that the choice of wrong pollinizers and their inadequacy in number often result s in low productivity. Like soil, water and nutrients, pollination is also a limiting factor in crop productivity. The declining agricultural productivity can be attributed to a number of factors but pollination plays a crucial role. Moreover the pollination problem is a relatively new one and needs due attention at this early stage according to Partap (Partap U.). 48

20 Supplementary Pollination Methods It is widely stated that even if an ample number of compatible apple pollinizers are planted and bee pollination is adequate, supplemental pollination may be necessary in some years. This will occur primarily when freezing temperatures kill or delay the blooms on pollinizer varieties or the weather conditions reduce honey bee activity. The grower may use any of several "emergency" methods. These strategies involve providing a compatible pollen source on or near the main apple varieties. Bouquets - According to Ambrose (1914)^', one way to deal with weather conditions that limit bee flight or pollinizer availability is to cut bouquets the pollinizer blossoms and place them near each tree requiring pollination. However they state that it is a laborious task that requires advance planning and destruction of the pollinizer trees. They suggest that providing enough pollinizers (pollen sources) and pollinating insects (honey bees) will eliminate most pollination and related fruit-set problems. Honey bees- Verma & Dulta (1987)^^ investigated the role of honey bees as pollinizers and their impact on fruit set and fruit drop. They observed that in self in-compatible varieties like Red- Delicious and Royal Delicious, there was no fruit set in the absence of insect pollinators. They also found that fruit drop was significantly less in honey bee pollinated plants as compared to un pollinated ones, hi self compatible varieties like Golden Delicious, there wasn't a significant difference in either fruit set or fruit drop. According to Pandey (2011)^^, there are two well known methods for improving crop productivity. The first method is making use of agronomic inputs, including plant husbandry techniques such as the use of good quality seeds and planting material, and practices to improve yields. The second method includes the use of biotechnological techniques, such as manipulating rate of photosynthesis and biological nitrogen fixation, etc. He declares that these conventional techniques ensure healthy growth of crop plants, but work up to a limit. The third and relatively less known (particularly in the countries of the Himalayan region) method of enhancing crop productivity is through managing pollination of crops using friendly insects, which according to Partap & Partap (1997)^'* in the process of searching for food perform this useful service to farmers. Presently the pouinizing cultivars planted in existing orchards are limited to mainly Golden Delicious and Red Gold only and moreover, Golden Delicious has biennial bearing tendency and its bloom rarely coincides with the Delicious cultivars. The most important practice to regulate flowering of pollinizing cultivars world over is the thinning carried by hand or by use of chemicals Looney (1986)^^ However, this practice is almost rarely followed in Himachal 49

21 Pradesh and as it is a costly enterprise to pollinize cultivars and regulate flowering of traditional pouinizing varieties to counter the problem of inadequate pollination. During mid 80's, pouinizers like Golden Delicious and Red Gold were found ideal for Starking Delicious Bhartiya, Thakur, & Kar (1986)^^ Bisht & Sharma (1986)" also recommended Tydeman's Early Worcester for low chilling cultivars. Free (1964)^^ reported that honey bees are the most efficient pollinators amongst insects. Insect Pollination As has been mentioned a little earlier, the Delicious and other commercial varieties of apple are self- incompatible and require cross pollination by honey bees. According to a conservative estimate by Verma L. R. (1993)^' the number of beehives required for pollination of the apple crop exclusively in the entire region of the Hindu Kush Himalayas is more than one million. At present, there are only few colonies of Apiscerana in modem hives kept by farmers and orchardists. A major problem, therefore, is that the large scale expansion of the horticultural industry in the region has not been accompanied by a corresponding increase in pollination resources and technology through the availability of appropriately managed beehives. It has been noticed that many apple orchards do not bear sufficient fruit because they lack bees. This makes domesticated hive bees essential for pollination, and beekeeping a crucial part of fruit production. India has already taken the lead in South and South East Asia by utilizing the potential of honeybees for pollination purposes to boost both fruit yield and quality. Verma & Chauhan (1985) found that the insects visiting apple blossom comprised 44 species belonging to fourteen families and five orders. Observing the relative abundance in the Kullu valley revealed that four types of pollinators were found visiting apple bloom. Apiscerana was dominant among all the visitors (38.07 per cent). The population oi Apismellifera, Lepidoptera and Syrphids was almost the same (16.91 to per cent. Comparative abundance of pollinators at different distances indicated that A. cerana activity was significantly greater at all distances in comparison to A. mellifera, the activity of which has a decreasing trend with distance from bee colonies. A. cerana activity was higher (8.14 bees/m2/10 min) at 25 m distance and its activity at all other distances was almost identical. The activity of other pollinators bears no specific trend at different distances. Pollination indices of hive bees have been worked out on the basis of bee activity by Sharma H. K. (1990)*'. Sharma, Gupta, & Rana (2000)*^ have found that Apiscerana was more active on Malusdomestica (9.91 bee/m /5 min) than A. mellifera (2.82 bee/m^/5 min). The maximum pollination index was found in A. cerana with a score of whereas A. mellifera scored only 6.96 on it. 50

22 The effect of intensive honeybee pollination on fruit set in apples was studied by Rana, Gautam, Sharma, & Goyal (1995)^'* in apple orchards at Kotkhai, District Shimla. Their observations revealed that orchards with two, four or eight colonies of ^. mellifera had 4.9, 5.8 and 25.8 per cent fruit set, respectively, at fifty m from the site of the colony placement. A similar trend in fruit set was evident at a hundred m as well. An increase in radius beyond fifty m resulted in low fruit set. Rana, Gautam, Sharma, & Goyal (1995)**" conducted another experiment in apple orchards at Kotkhai, where the effect of honeybee pollination on yield parameters of apples in relation to polliruzer proportion was studied. They found a significant increase in fruit set from to per cent with an increase in A. mellifera colonies (zero, two and four colonies) in apple orchards with adequate pollinizer proportions. Similar increasing trends in fruit set were observed by placing two, four and eight colonies/ha in orchards with low pollinizer proportion. Fruit set was also significantly higher on the plants closer to the hives (placement at 25 m or 50 m) than when placed at 75 m distance. Verma L. R (1993)*^ has reported that in self incompatible varieties like Royal Delicious and Red Delicious, there was no fruit set at all in the absence of insect pollinators. The fruit set was significantly higher in honeybee pollinated flowers of Royal Delicious (23.33 per cent) and Red Delicious (19.69 per cent than in open pollinated flowers of Royal Delicious (13.21 per cent) and Red Delicious (11.42 per cent). Rana B., Gautam, Sharma, & Goyal, (1998)^* have also found significant low fruit dropping and fioiit retention in apple orchards with more bee colonies. Effect of different modes of pollination on fruit quality has been studied in Kullu. The results showed the maximum number of seeds ( ) was found in the fruit obtained by bee pollination, followed by ( ) hand pollination. The open pollinated fruits had the least seeds ( ). There was increase in weight, length, and width of fruits which were exclusively pollinated by bees, over pollinated and hand pollinated fruits. Verma L. R. (1993)^'' has also reported 33, 15, 10, 51 and 49 per cent increase in weight, length, breadth, volume and number of seeds per fruit in Royal Delicious fruit pollinated only by insects. Similarly, in Red Delicious, the increase in weight, length, breadth, and volume and number seeds per fruit from flowers exclusively pollinated by honey bees was 19, 9, 10, 16 and 30 per cent, respectively. The increase in weight and volume of fruit from honey bee pollinated flowers might be due to the gained number of seeds per fruit. The better pollinating efficiency of the honeybee helps to fertilize the maximum number of ovules and thereby more seeds formed. In this way, maximum amount of auxin, which is a growth hormone is produced which results in larger fruits. The requirement of honeybee colonies for optimum pollination in apples has been assessed on the basis of the abundance of bees on marked bloom at different distances from the hive(s) and 51

23 fruit set at these distances. On this basis, Dashad (1989)**^ found that two colonies of A. mellifera L. with seven to eight frames bee strength were sufficient to pollinate one hectare under the mid hill conditions of Solan. Rana B., Gautam, Sharma, & Goyal (1998)^' have suggested that, in order to ensure a good commercial crop, at least eight A. mellifera colonies are needed per hectare of apples for pollen distributing where the pollinizer proportion is low. In general, two to three colonies/ha are recommended in apple orchards with optimum pouinizers Goyal (1993)''". Awasthi (2005) recommended that an adequate number of pollinizing cultivars be planted at the time of planting the orchard and more than one variety of pollinizers be chosen with a typical orchard having a total of thirty three per cent pollinizing plants. Partap and Partap (2001)'^ noted that swayed by market demand, farmers were beginning to ignore the appropriate ratios of pollinizing varieties of apple trees I planting. They state that almost all commercial varieties in themselves were incompatible. They observed that some farmers did not have even a single pollinizer plant in their orchards. They felt that lack of pollinizer varieties in the orchards was the key cause of inadequate pollination. Insecticides in their opinion had contributed to the extermination of both the diversity and abundance of pollinating insects. Farmers observed that in the past there used to be a lot of insects such as wild bees, butterflies and moths during the apple flowering season but now they have all disappeared. According to ( A & T State University Cooperative Extension)^', two strains of the same apple variety were not as productive in cross-pollination as were different varieties. Even compatible varieties did not effectively cross-pollinate if their bloom periods do not overlap. Such factors as unfruitfiilness, sterile pollen, and non overlapping bloom dates all limit the selection of compatible varieties, but a number of viable combinations may be found in commercial fruit tree catalogs Using honey bees was claimed to be the only practical way to ensure that pollination was not a limiting factor in apple production. Therefore it can be inferred that the chosen varieties determine the type and quality of fruit while its quantity to a large extent is influenced by the fruit set which in turn depends upon extent of pollination. Extent of pollination is related to the type and proportion of the pollinizers grown. In addition to the provision of pollinizers, it is observed that honey bees are natural physical carriers of pollens and where the percentage of pollinizer plants is low, it is recommended that pollination be supplemented by various means, and honey bee colonies are recommended by experts as supplementary aid to pollination Canopy Management Canopy management involves the management of tree canopy through various cultural practices like training and pruning which starts soon after the transplanting of saplings in the field. Major 52

24 aim is to provide proper aeration and sunlight to all the inner parts of canopy to have good crop. Canopy management basically deals with two types of skills; training and pruning of the trees. Training and pruning are followed to expose tree canopy to desirable light conditions. The canopy configuration largely depends upon the productive system which is a combination of four variables, variety, rootstock, spacing and training system. The changes in form are devised to develop more efficient orchard system which can intercept maximum amount of light. According to Awasthi & Mehta (2005)^'', approximately 30 per cent of fiill sun light exposure is required to maximize photosynthesis and initiate flower buds. Nearly per cent of full sunlight is used to develop maximum red color. Pruning of selective branches and changing their orientation with training opens the canopy for light penetration, improving yield and fruit quality. Training Training is the potential tool to manage the canopy architecture so that maximum possible solar radiation can be harnessed which is a limiting factor in the hilly region. Generally the apple trees are trained to Central Leader System, Open Centre System or Modified Central Leader System but each method has its advantages and disadvantages. Adoption of a good system of training a tree depends on the kind of the tree, its vigor, crop load and the climatic conditions under which it is growing. However, it is general practices in Himachal Pradesh to follow the Modified central leader system in which the height of the apple tree is not allowed to go beyond a specified limit. With the development of dwarfing rootstocks and spur cultivars in apple, several training systems are in practice. Sharma & Chauhan (1992)^' found best quality fruits of Starking Delicious apple when grown on M7 rootstock with spindle bush canopy form, than modified central leader system. Weirtheim (1968)'^ suggested that slender spindle tree forms which has narrow canopy with dwarf tree to allow very high tree density in single, double, triple or multi-row beds to improve early yields in apple orchards. Carbonneau & Lespinasse (1989)'^ found double vertical axis, MIA 30 (1 or 2 inclined axis) and double inclined axis similar to the Tatura trellis and A, V, were found best for total exposed leaf area and potential photosynthesis point of view. Lakso, Robinson, & Carpenter (1989)^* described a modification of the central leader tree from named the palmette leader designed to improve light penetration. This type of canopy permits maximum exposure of branches to sunlight. 53

25 Awasthi & Mehta (2005)^'* assert that limb positioning is the key factor of training, and in development and maintenance of fruiting branches. It is done by using spreaders or branches by tying the limb down. Limb positioning is done just before growth begins during the dormant season when the limbs are more flexible. Pruning Pruning is the process of removal of unproductive and unwanted wood from the tree to get productive wood to have good growth that may yield quality fruits in the years to come. Pruning may be carried out in winter or summer season but generally it is done in winter as the trees are in dormant season when the trees are less liable to be damaged by insects, pests and diseases. Moreover, during winter there is less chance of getting the cuts and wounds infected. Palmer (1988)' has shown that bed system can intercept up to 80 per cent of photosynthetic active radiation from the end of June until October and yield 78 t/ha in the 3rd year. Orientation of apple shoots and seedlings towards horizontal position has been reported to reduce terminal shoot growth by Myers & Ferree (1983)' ' while Tromp (1986)' ^ assert that it enhances spur formation. Baritt, Rom, Konishi and Dilley (1991)' ^ found that tree density was more important than training system or rootstock for improving light interception and yield of Granny Smith apple in 3rd year. Therefore, the bed system planting was standardized to achieve high interception, with more even distribution of foliage. High leaf area early in the life of the orchard is achieved by planting at high tree densities by planting large, well branched (feathered trees) and by minimum pruning. Sharma «& Jindal (1992) reported that horizontal plantation retarded linear shoot growth, intemode length and radial growth of shoot and trunk. Retardation in growth was proportional to the degree of tree bending from vertical position and thus 300 plantations registered maximum reduction in canopy volume. Production of maximum fruit spur was found in 450 and 300 plantation in Royal Delicious apple. Forshey (1978) is of the opinion that at low elevation where the vegetative growth is more due to warm conditions, excessive pruning promotes vegetative growth and reduces fruitfiilness in addition to promoting infections. Poor fruit set has been attributed in some cases to overly vigorous growth of shoots, particularly in young trees. 54

26 spreading limbs reduces shoot growth according to Greene & Lord (1978)' ^. However, Roberts ( ) ' ^ reported an almost linear relationship between the length of the terminal growth of mature Delicious trees and percentage of spurs fruiting. Quinian & Preston, (1971)' ^ have observed an increased fruit set of apple by removal of shoot tips in early summer. Summer pruning has been found effective to increase light intensity and red coloration of fruits. Marini & Barden (1982)' '' observed that summer pruning had influence on slowing the rate of starch disappearance from fruit flesh, pre-harvest drop, severity of water core and bitter pit were suppressed in Golden Delicious and Stayman apple cultivars. Light interception by the orchard is directly affected by planting density. Maximum light interception by planting trees to closure may reduce fruit quality Pest and Disease management Chemical control still remains the main component of pest management. Stress is laid on need based, harmonious, judicious and timely application of selective and broad spectrum insecticides in a specific way at a proper dose so as to minimize the disruption of agro-ecosystem. Emphasis has shifted to IPM (integrated pest management) which refers to the use of pest control techniques and methods in an economically and ecologically sound manner so as to maintain the pests below the economic mjury level Chadha T. R., 2000 (2000)". Azad (2000) advocates that more emphasis be given to develop control strategies involving both chemical and non chemical agents if effective long-term control of insects and pests is to be achieved. Disease control needs to focus on prevention more than cure. The global concern regarding the overuse and misuse of chemical pesticides has resulted in adoption of integrated pest/disease management (IPM) for containing the pest and disease problems. IPM is an eco-friendly approach encompassing cultural, mechanical, and biological and need based use of chemical pesticides. Proper maintenance of orchard health by resorting to timely application of horticultural practices, especially balanced and need based fertilizer application is the key rule for good fruit production. Various studies on pests and diseases have revealed that in Himachal Pradesh, SanJose scale, Wolly Apple Aphid, Root borer. Leaf borer and Fruit scraper and Thrips act as key pests. Routine inspection of the orchard and mechanical destruction (hand packing, use of trays and sticky material etc.) of pests feeding in groups like tent hairy caterpillars and gypsy moth larvae also helps in reducing the pest incidence according to Gupta (2008)"^. 55

27 Several pests have been recorded attacking apple crop since its introduction and commercialization. Bharadwaj & Bharadwaj (2000)"^ were the first to determine the status of insect and mite pests infesting apple in Himachal Pradesh. They conducted the survey in 580 apple growing localities in the state and reported that Woolly apple aphid, Red spider mites, San Jose scale, Blossom thrips, Apple leaf roller and Root borer infested per cent orchards. While Stem borers, Defoliating beetles. Hairy caterpillars and bugs infested 5-9 per cent orchards. According to Thakur V. S (2004)"'' insects and pests account for nearly 35 per cent of the total damage at the pre and post harvest stages. He opines that the damage of pests varies from region to region and orchard to orchard, 24 insects-pests have been rated economically important out of which 12 account for a major share of damage. Among these Woolly apple aphid. Red spider mites are the most dominant and important insect-pests affecting 82 per cent orchards each followed by San Jose scale (71 per cent), Blossom thrips (70 per cent) and Apple leaf roller (43 per cent) respectively. He states that insect-pests are being managed through high potency insecticides every year to maintain economic threshold level. In fact he attributes the spread of pests in apple to excessive and indiscriminate use of insecticides resulting in killing of predators, use of toxic chemicals to achieve quick pest mortality, poor monitoring and inadequate knowledge about pests etc. He has categorically held the practice of indiscriminate use of strong chemicals responsible for adverse effects on human and plant health, soil fertility and decline in quality and quantity of apple production. He advocates need based use of pesticides aided by an effective system of forecasting through monitoring weather parameters for predicting outbreaks of diseases and pests as well as production. In short, he recommends integrated orchard and pest management. Bharadwaj & Bharadwaj (2000)"' made serious efforts to evaluate and include the latest pesticides introduced for controlling apple pests in various parts of the world and evaluated them against major pests and their predatory complex. Inclusion of world's latest summer/mineral oils to manage San Jose scale, red mite and eggs of caterpillars has resulted in reducing pressure on application of toxic pesticides followed earlier. Spray of fenzaquin, propergite, abamectin has yielded tangible results in controlling mite pests SOIL MANAGEMENT It is an accepted fact that next to climate, physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil and their interaction are extremely important to determine yield levels of the crop. Soil requirements for apple pertain mainly to the physical characteristics such as texture, drainage, moisture, temperature and aeration. Chemical and biological properties like soil reaction, electrical conductivity, organic matter content, microbial activity and nutrient availability are 56

28 other soil parameters. The work done so far is mainly on physico-chemical characteristics Awasthi & Sharma (2005)"^ Thakur L. (2000) states that soil and water management are crucial factors in orchard management. Efficient soil and judicious water management is a prerequisite in sustaining the orchard productivity in this rain fed region of the State. Laxity on the part of the orchardists in planning the soil and water use has led to the deterioration in fruit yields Nutrition Management Management of plant nutrition basically means to provide the correct and required quantity and quality of plant nutrients at the right time to the plants. The plant nutrients can be broadly divided into two categories; Manures and Fertilizers. Since the function of both categories of nutrients is the same i.e. to improve the health, vigor and fertility of the plant and to prevent and overcome deficiencies, plant nutrition management is also known as fertility management. Nutrient management of temperate fruits in India is difficult and complicated as most orchards are located on hills. Another reason is that there are heavy rains during monsoons which cause leaching of nutrients and severe soil erosion while drought periods in May-June and September- October check the availability of nutrients to plants Awasthi R. P. (2005)"^. Singh (1993) demonstrated with the help of a number of studies that balanced nutrition and scientific orchard management improves the quality of fruit and the returns from it. An attempt has been made to quantify the impact of these two factors along with disease control. Categorizing the harvested fruit into size grades he states that maximum income (65 per cent) comes from large and medium sized fruits. 10 per cent earning come from super and extra large as they are difficult to handle and more prone to damage and injury. He advocates that the third category of small, extra small and pittoo fruits should receive special attention and their proportion should be decreased. He further reiterates that this is possible through better orchard management, canopy management, thinning and application of fertilizers related to load crop. He claims that at least 50 per cent of this category can be upgraded bringing the total yield of the highest income earning category to 77 per cent as against 65 per cent. Mamgain (1990)'^ found significant positive correlation between foliar N, P, K and Zn (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium and Zinc) contents with fruit yield during 1988 but no such correlation in Kumar (1991)'"' found that leaf N, Mn and Fe concentrations showed significant correlation with fruit yield. Kaith (1992)'^^ also found that leaf N, K and Fe concentrations showed significant positive correlation with fruit yield. 57

29 Therefore it appears to be clear that to determine fertihzer and nutritive requirements of crop, the amount supphed by the soil and the atmosphere and the portion of nutrients lost or made unavailable must be ascertained. Awasthi (2005)'^'' declares that soil and plant analysis helps ascertain the nutrient requirements of plants. He opines that soil analysis alone is not always a satisfactory guide to manuring of apple trees and both soil and leaf analysis are complimentary to each other and help in a proper diagnosis of nutritional disorders and help make proper fertilizer recommendations. In addition to this, he further suggests that visual symptomology is a cheap and quick method of mineral diagnosis of fruit trees which can be used with soil and leaf analysis for precise judgment on nutrient requirements of trees. Bhandari & Randhawa (1978)'^'' studied the distribution of available micronutrients in apple orchards in Shimla hills and reported that the available Cu, Mn and Fe contents were above the critical limits whereas Zn and B were deficient to optimum ranges. Awasthi et al (1977)'^^ (1979)'^* reported widespread deficiencies of N, P, K, Ca, Zn, Mg and B whereas Fe and Mg were not deficient in any of the orchards. Awasthi and Singh (1979)''^'' made foliar diagnosis of mineral nutrition of healthy and deficient trees of Royal Delicious apples in Himachal Pradesh. They observed a higher percentage of orchards showing leaf N and Zn below the optimum range in deficient than normal category of trees. A report on nutrient status of different apple orchards was also published by Rana et al (1984) who also reported widespread deficiencies of essential elements. Many other surveys of apple orchards of Shimla, KuUu, Kinnaur and Sirmaur districts were carried out in which deficiencies and excesses of nutrient elements was pointed out. It may be safely concluded by the above observations that nutrient status variesfi-om place to place and orchard to orchard deserving alertness and adequate attention of growers towards the maintenance of optimum nutrition of trees. A look at the history of manuring apple orchards in Himachal Pradesh reveals that FarmYard Manure was being applied to the apple orchards since the very beginning. Scientific work on apple nutrition in Himachal Pradesh has received little attention in the past and some preliminary research work was started in 1957 at the Regional Fruit Research Station, Mashobra, and Shimla. However, it was in 1967 that a manuring schedule was recommended which had conjoint use of FYM and chemical fertilizers as per Singh (1967)'^'. Later on the same schedule was recommended by Azad & Sbarma (1987)'^ for medium soils, which reads as 100 kg of FYM, 700 g of Nitrogen, 350 g of Phosphorus and 700 g of potassium for bearing trees annually. A study on the standardization of NPK level in Golden Delicious apple was carried out at Regional 58

30 Horticultural Research Station, Mashobra revealed that phosphorus should be applied in the alternate years after getting soil and apple leaves tested. To get a good crop from a tree, leaf analysis is quoted to be a basic tool to recommend the addition of essential nutrients to the soil. Many workers have found deficient, critical and normal status of these nutrients in leaves of apple tree although the soil did not have any such imbalance. In this context Shear & Faust (1980)'^' have given nutrient ranges (deficient and normal) for deciduous fruits and nuts. Table 2.4 presents the same. Table 2.4 CRITICAL RANGES OF NUTRIENT ELEMENTS FOR APPLE Element Deficient Normal Nitrogen <1.5% % Phosphorus <0.13% % Potassium <1.00% % Magnesium <0.25 % % Calcium <0.70 % % Sulphur <0.01% % Manganese <25 ppm ppm Zinc <14 ppm ppm Iron ppm Boron <20 ppm ppm Copper <4ppm 5-12 ppm Source: Shear and Faust, i/orricwz/mra//?ev/ew, The presence of various mineral nutrients in the soil have a specific and positive bearing on the performance of apple trees in terms of vegetative growth and yield. As reported by Awasthi R. P. (2005)'^'^, the nutrient status of orchard soils in different districts of Himachal Pradesh has been assessed by different workers and is presented in the following Table

31 Table 2,5 AVAILABLE MINERAL NUTRIENTS IN APPLE ORCHARD SURFACE SOIL (PPM) District N P K Ca Mg S Zn Cu Mn Fe B Reference Shimla Bhandari & Randhawa (1985) Shimla Verma (1987) Kinnaur Singh (1987) Sirmaur Sharma (1988) Table 2.4 and 2.5 highlights the fact that there exist clear cut references as far as recommended quantity of nutrients and techniques of assessment of nutrient status are concerned. The fertilizer recommendations to fruit crops are generally made on the basis of leaf and soil analysis. However, these recommendations do not take into account the expected crop load of the trees which besides other factors is influenced by the fertility level of the soil. Delicious group of varieties of apple are prone to irregular bearing especially in the later years and therefore, fertilizer recommendations to such varieties should be governed by the expected crop load of the trees which varies during 'on' and 'off years, whereas, no systematic studies on nutrient removal in apple have so far been conducted in India. It is estimated that 0.31 kg N per tree was recycled to the soil aimually. The amounts of N per tree permanently removed from the soil annually were estimated at 0.15 kg in the fruit, 0.05 kg in the wood growth, 0.04 kg in bark growth and 0.14 kg in root growth, giving total net N uptake 0.38 kg and a gross uptake of 0.69 kg. The amount of nutrients remobilized, besides other factors, also depends upon the nutrient status of plant. 60

32 Awasthi and Kaith (1989)'" have shown that crop load largely determine the nutrient uptake of the trees and may be used as a guide for the fertilization of apple trees. They concluded that the major amount of mineral nutrients was removed by the harvested fruits followed by pruning wood, whereas abscised flowers, fruitlets and senescent leaves contributed little amount to the total uptake and thus crop load largely determines the nutrients uptake of the trees and should be used as a guide for the fertilization of apple trees. Karkara (1987)'"''' in a solution culture experiment observed a significant effect of N level on leaf P content in apple seedling. For a particular nutrient, there is a relationship between its concentration in plant tissue and fruit yield. This serves as a guide to get maximum productivity of a crop. There is a general agreement that a certain level of vigor must be maintained to maximize fruit set in Delicious apples. Although Roberts (1947) used the term nutritional dropping to explain the tendency of Delicious apples to bear only one fruit per spur, he reported that a good set of fruit was sometimes obtained in neglected orchards while poor fruit set often occurred in vigorous orchards. He suggested that the application of Nitrogen may be more important for fruit size than fruit set. The response in yield to leaf nutrient contents in apple has been established by many workers and a strong positive correlation between nutrients and yield have been obtained C. Bould and R.I.Parfitt (1973)'^*, Javanovic and Dzymic (1977)'", and Verma (1987)"^ Thus leaf nutrient status can serve as a guide for yield estimation. According to Sharma (1997)'^ yield was significantly affected by N,P,K, Ca and Mg contents of apple leaves at lower elevations( m above MSL) whereas at higher elevation (> 2000 m above MSP), only NPK were significant. As the age of tree advanced, the deposits of concentration of secondary elements usually increases and becomes sufficient to support the yield. There appears to be a general agreement that analysis of leaves serves as a fairly accurate diagnostic technique for anticipating the deficiencies of the nutrients and must be employed every year to formulate an accurate fertilizer schedule for each block of trees. Azad (2000) feels that the present system of soil testing although not very reliable or correct has great value in conjunction with foliar (leaf) analysis. 61

33 He observed that many orchards in Himachal Pradesh were found to be suffering from micronutrient deficiencies, particularly of Boron and Zinc. Therefore, nutrition management needs to be streamlined urgently. He reiterates that although it is not possible to achieve 100 per cent efficiency in applied fertilizers and in general plants are able to utilize only40 per cent of the applied nutrient under ideal conditions because ideal conditions are rare as plants face constant stress in terms of variation in temperature, rainfall, disease and soil factors. Azad (2000)''" suggests that application of fertilizers in split doses at peak periods of requirement, foliar application of nutrients, use of slow release fertilizers, use of proper soil and water management system and use of growth regulating chemicals to improve the mobilization of the nutrients are some of the factors which may help in increasing the efficiency of applied fertilizers. It can be verified that the use of synthetic growth substances in controlling various growth processes has assumed importance equal to that of fungicides and pesticides in commercial horticulture in the developed countries. As against this, in Himachal Pradesh, their use is limited mainly due to high cost, nonavailability of commercial grade, uncertain weather conditions and inadequate knowledge. Currently they are being used for rooting of cuttings, advancement of ripening, development of fruit color and control of fruit drop (Azad, 2000)'''^. The sample has confessed to using them only for advancement of ripening and development of fruit color. Thakur L. (2000)'''^ states that it is important for the orchardists to resort to soil and leaf analysis for determining the nutrient status of their orchard. Plant health clinics are suggested for this. This would help replace the symptomatic treatment with diagnostic system. Verma & Kumar (2000)'''^ warn that the use of an excess of fertilizers may not only be wasteful but also actually be harmful to the crop often by adversely affecting quality. A number of studies have been conducted to assess the present status and requirements of orchards. Results from experiments under controlled conditions, field trials, soil analysis, plant analysis and visual symptomology can be used as tools for formulating a nutrition plan for orchards of specific areas. Nutrient status of orchard soils in different districts of Himachal Pradesh has been assessed by different workers. The foliar sampling technique as suggested by Chapman (1964)'^' for

34 temperate fruits has reportedly been widely adopted for fertilizer guidance. Verma & Kumar (2000)'''^ observed that soil analysis in conjunction with plant analysis provides a sound basis for fertilization of an orchard. Sufficiency ranges of essential nutrients given by Shear & Faust, vl47 (1980)'^'is given in table 2.6. Table 2.6 SUFFICIENCY RANGES OF ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS FOR APPLE ELEMENTS DEFICIENT NORMAL ELEMENTS DEFICIENT NORMAL N < Mn < P < Zn < K < Fe Mg < B < Ca < Cu < S 0.01 O.OI-.OIO Source: Shear and Faust (1980) According to Rowe (1980)'''*, the use of fruit analysis for nutrients three weeks before harvest serves as an excellent indicator of storage behavior. Pant, Singh, & Divakar (1976)'''' and Sharma and Awasthi (1984)'^ reported deficiency symptoms on apple seedlings in sand culture. Karkara B. K (1987)'^' suggested nutrient ranges through solution culture studies in apple seedlings. From the above quoted excerpts it seems obvious that a trained and experienced person is needed to distinguish the symptoms of deficiencies and excesses of various elements. Visual symptomology is a very cheap and quick method of diagnosis of fertilizer needs of fruit trees. It should however be supplemented with leaf and soil analysis for precise information and exact diagnosis of nutrient need. Therefore it can be safely concluded that the decision to fertigate must be taken carefully and the decision about the quantity, timing, and procedure of application has to be one that makes economic, ecological and practical sense. 63

35 Moisture Management It is no secret that Himachal Pradesh farmers depend almost completely on the weather Gods for their irrigational needs. The moisture requirements of the crop are met by natural precipitation and therefore prone to extreme conditions like drought and excess of moisture in addition to uncertainty regarding time of moisture availability. Azad, (2004)"^ states categorically that options available to farmers for optimizing irrigation requirements are: 1. Collection of water from the nearby perennial sources and storing the same for subsequent use. 2. Harvesting the run-off water available from the natural precipitation and storing the same in water storage tanks for use the periods of scarcity and 3. Lifting of water from the downstream sources and its storage in the orchard. He is of the opinion that farmers require financial assistance for the creation of on farm water harvesting and storage facilities to ensure availability of water at crucial stages of the annual orchard cycle. Furthermore he makes a pertinent point that although "the govenmaent of India provides ftinds for the creation of community water storage tanks in the rural areas under the Jawahar RozgarYojana, yet this scheme is of little relevance to the apple growers of H.P. where due to the fragmented and scattered plantations, the requirement is of tanks located in particular orchards". It follows that a sound water management strategy would have a three pronged strategy: Water harvesting, water conservation and a high efficiency irrigation system states Azad, (2000)'". Harvesting rain water and using the same with a high efficiency irrigation system during the lean period being the most simple and cost effective method and other sophisticated systems like drip or trickle system of daily flow are some practical suggestions. Poor cultural practices in orchard and soil management are other major hurdles in ensuring good and quality production. In rain fed areas, soil moisture regulation is extremely important. Effective irrigation system is now the need of the hour states Thakur L. (2000)'^''. Moisture loss can be minimized by spreading suitable mulches on the ground. After a drought period, field capacity is attained sooner under mulches than natural sod, probably due to the increased infiltration of mulched soils state Verma & Bhandari (2000)'^^ 64

36 In agriculture, drought is commonly related to the deficiency of soil moisture supply for economic crop production. This deficiency may be during any critical period of plant growth that influences the final crop yields according to Verma & Bhandari (2000)'^* Floor Management The primary aim of orchard floor management is to control weeds along with conservation of moisture and fertility in an economic way. Most widely reported methods of floor management practiced in India are sod, mulching, use of herbicides, clean cultivation, intercropping or growing orchard cover crops. Having mentioned that agriculture and especially apple farming is reportedly almost exclusively rain fed with periods of drought during critical growth periods any technique which can mitigate the impact of drought would be a logical intervention. Mulching is one such technique. Literature regarding mulching is plenty and is presented below. That regarding the other common methods practiced in Himachal Pradesh is somewhat scanty and some of it is included in the fifth chapter on 'Agronomic Skills management'. Mulching Mulch is a material of organic or inorganic nature which is applied to the floor of orchards for the purpose of conserving moisture, nutrition and temperature to an extent. Mulches improve growing conditions for apple plants as far as moisture and nutrient level are concerned. Mulches provide several advantages like conservation of soil moisture, lowering of soil temperature, suppression of weed growth maintenance of soil fertility, increase in plant growth, etc. So it is quite probable that growth and productivity of the plants grown under this system of orchard floor management are definitely improved. Guleria (1986)'" and Chand (1987)'^^ found that hay and black plastic mulch resulted in more trunk girth and total shoot length than clean cultivation and unweeded control in apple orchards. Mulches in conjunction with herbicides resulted in more increase in growth of fruit trees. Raina (1991)'^' obtained more vigor in mulch plus herbicides plots than with hand weeded or mulched apple trees. Boynton and Anderson (1956)'^ concluded fhat increased tree growth in hay mulched Mcintosh apple was possibly a consequence of nitrogen release from mulch material. Use of 15 cm thick mulch induced an increase in extension and radial growth of apple trees Schuiz (1963)'*'. Baxter (1970)'*^ observed that apple tree exhibited more vegetative growth under 1.5 cm wide mulch strip as compared to clean basin. Mulching significantly influenced the yields of fruit crops, indirectly through their effect on soil moisture, soil temperature, organic matter and improvement in physico-chemical properties of orchard soil. Baxter (1970)'*^ fiirther observed that apple trees grown in 1.5 m wide mulch strips yielded twice the weight of the fruits than the trees under the clean basin. Funke (1983)'^ 65

37 reported that plastic mulch increased soil temperature, which improved the nutrient release and uptake and resulted in per cent higher yield of large sized apples. Bhutani et al. (1995)'*' reported higher yields of Starking Delicious/M7 trees with grass mulch, but fruit size and TSS/Acid ratio was high under polythene mulch treatment. Among the various moisture conservation practices, black polythene mulch was the best for soil moisture conservation in apple basin Srivastava, Misra, Pandey, & Pathak (1973)'*'*. They studied five orchard floor management systems in apple and reported that mulches increased the growth significantly in terms of plant height, diameter, leaf number and leaf area as compared to un-weeded control. Rana M. R. (1998)'*^ reported that pine needle mulch maintained the optimum soil moisture content throughout the growing season in apple orchards. Schuiz (1963)'** reported increase in extension and radial growth in apple tree with the use of 15 cm thick grass mulch. Neilsen, Hogue, Forge, & Neilsen, (2003)'*', observed that in high density fertigated apple plantations, vigor and yield was increased over the first five fruiting seasons by soil management treatments involving the application of bio solids various surface mulches or both. Shribbs and Skroch (1986)' reported the best growth of Golden Delicious trees with straw mulch in non-irrigated plots. Chand (1987)''" reported significant increase in fruit yield of Red Delicious apple under black polythene mulch. The yield of Starking Delicious apple on M7 rootstock was recorded highest under grass mulch, but Suit size and TSS/acid ratio was high under polythene mulch Bhutani et al(1995)"l Buban, et al. (1997)'^^ studied the effect of organic and synthetic mulches on growth of apple trees and found that mulches exhibited significantly more growth than clean basin. Effect of mulching in combination with herbicides increases vigor and growth of fruit trees. Bhutani et al (1995)'^'' reported significant increase in trunk girth with grass mulch plus glyphosate in apple cultivar Starking Delicious. The yield of Starking Delicious apple on M7 rootstock was recorded highest under grass mulch, but Suit size and TSS/acid ratio was high under polythene mulch. Effect of mulches on soil moisture Mulching is frequently used for moisture conservation to avoid the adverse effect of water stress on fruit growth and development. Goode and White (1958)'^' reported that application of wheat straw tended to maintain the soil moisture in the vicinity of field capacity during the entire summer season, whereas, a deficiency of moisture was experienced under clean basin. Srivastava, Misra, Pandey, & Pathak (1973)'^* reported that among various moisture conservation practices, black polythene mulch was the best for soil moisture conservation. 66

38 Stamatove (1977)'" reported the use of herbicides in combination with mulches for weed control in zero tillage system in apple orchards had recorded higher soil water permeability as compared to clean basin. Haynes (1980)'^^ observed that herbicidal treatments of orchard soils with strong chemicals resulted in lower soil moisture deficit than unweeded control. Raina (1991) observed high moisture content in apple orchards with the use of grass mulches. Further, he found that in apple orchards treated with herbicides, higher soil moisture retention was observed due to the killing of above and underground parts of weeds and formation of mulch layer beneath and on the soil surface. Darbellay & Fournier (1996)'^ reported large fluctuations in soil moisture content of apple orchards with the use of herbicides, which were greatly reduced with the use of polythene and organic mulches. Reddy & Khan (1998)'*' reported that the soil moisture status at 0-30, and cm soil depths after 12 and 18 months was significantly increased by black polythene mulches as compared to clean basin. Rana M. R. (1998)'*^ reported that pine needle mulch maintain the optimum soil moisture content throughout the growing in apple orchards. He also observed maximum growth of apple trees in terms of height, diameter and leaf number and size under pine needle mulch. Khokhar & Sharma (2000)'*"' observed that highest soil moisture content under grass mulch treatments (11.92 cm and per cent, at 0-15 and cm depth, respectively) in almond orchards. They also observed significant increase in fruit yield of Red Delicious apple under black polythene mulch. Xue, Li, Wang, Ou, «& Zhang (1983)'*"* recorded per cent increase in shoot length of apple trees under black polythene mulch, followed by grass mulch over control. Atkinson et al (1979)'*^ demonstrated that the pattern of N uptake was affected by the interaction between soil water status, periodicity of root growth and total N demand. Thus the effect of managing soil moisture on better plant health is indicated. Herbicide treated bare soil systems in which surface vegetation is eliminated throughout the orchards have provided the greatest long-term fruit yields in several studies Hipps et al. (1990)'** and may be advantageous for irrigation or harvesting of tree fi^its Robinson & 'Kennedy (1978)'*^ reported that herbicides gave higher yields than any other soil management systems in apple orchards. However, Stintchcombe & Stolt (1983) and Welker and Glenn (1989)'*'^ found that during early years herbicide applications resulted in higher tree yield, but in later year these differences became less pronounced. Robinson in a study verified that mulches can give excellent results when used in the right circumstances, but the outcome will be disappointing if conditions are unsuitable. With the growing emphasis on reducing the use of pesticides, mulches provide a usefiil non-chemical 67

39 means of weed control. Because of their attractive appearance, bark chips are useful for ornamental plantings but plastic is more practical where aesthetics are not of great importance (Robinson M., 2009)'''. Niggli, Potter, «& Niederhouser (1985)''^' observed that orchard management with organic mulches followed by 2 per cent glyphosate application increased yield of apple cultivars Boskoop, Gloster and Golden Delicious. Bhutaniet al. (1995)''^ obtained highest yield with grass mulch plus glyphosate in Starking Delicious apple. 2,1.23 WEATHER MANAGEMENT The effect of temperature was considered most important because the flowering period is brief and the ovules remains fertile for only a few days. High temperature immediately after fertilization results in rapid completion of pollen tube growth and was found to increase the yield quoted Jackson & Hammer (1980)'''l The prevailing temperature (low) at the time of flowering and fruit set adversely affects production of fruits. The areas most vulnerable to the influence of low temperature are located between the elevations of 1500 to 2000 m above mean seas level where a good spring season with adequate sunshine promotes apple flowering during mid March to mid April. But in fluctuating temperature during this period particularly rains, accompanied by low temperature inhibits the transfer of pollen. Flowers are killed below C and bee activity is completely stopped below 4A C. Low temperature (-4 C to 2 C) during flowering may kill the pistil. Bee activity is greater in warm conditions, whereas, pollen tubes take 216 hours to reach the ovaries at 8 C where fertilization is achieved in 48 hours at IS^C (Wilhams R. R., 1970)''^ Awasthi & Sharma (2005)"' categorically state that climate is the most important factor which determines the success or failure of apple cultivation at a particular place. It affects growth, flowering, fruit set, yield and quality of fruits. The climate comprises of various factors such as temperature, frost, rainfall, humidity, hail, sunshine and wind. All these factors influence the growth, productivity and quality of apples. Vedwan & Rhoades (2001)"* express their opinion that most studies on the impact of weather change on agriculture confine their inquiries to biological and physical domains, concentrating mainly on representing the responses of crops to changes in climate. They feel that studies focusing on the socio-economic aspects of global climatic change are sparse and have almost exclusively restricted their analyses to the impact of environmental modifications on agricultural production. Studies conducted by Parry (1978)'", Lamb (1985)''^^ Post (1985)"^ Parry, Carter, & Konijin (1989)^", Scott, Rosenberg, Edmonds, Cushman, & others (1990)^"', 68

40 Chmielewski (1992)^ ^ are quoted to support their point. They further state that micro-level studies on the impact of climatic variability on people's livelihoods at the farm level and their consequent responses are relatively few. With respect to the apple industry in district KuUu, they observe that given the area's dependence on apple, and the lack of other options, climatic conditions have become more critical for people's livelihood strategies in the Kullu valley with time. They also observe that the emphasis has shifted from subsistence to commercial farming in the district. They have made an interesting observation that these system changes in production have penetrated all spheres of life, from the food people consume to the way people dress and relate to each other. On the other hand, the declining apple economy in the last decade has resulted in the orchardists suffering a great deal in socio economic terms. With the rise in income from apple and other fruit crops, the education from orchard family children had assumed a new priority. However, with education came a general reluctance of young people to work in the fields and orchards, preferring instead to take more prestigious urban-oriented occupations. Moreover when apple production declined, it was not possible for farmers to easily shift over to other crops because of the massive startup investment. Vedwan & Rhoades (2001)^ ^ discovered on interviewing key government agricultural scientists engaged in research and extension in the Kullu area, that they acknowledged the changed climate or at least the increasing variability of weather but for the declining apple production, emphasized technical solutions. They iterated time and again that one of the driving forces behind the present crisis was the lack of pouinizers. The official recommendation is that pollinizers should cover about 20 percent of any orchard but scientists stated that most pollinizer trees had been chopped down and replaced by commercially lucrative varieties like Red Golden. The farmers however counter argued that the apple decline started much later than the decline in the pollinizers. Rainfall was predominantly perceived in terms of its temporal distribution- the attribute on which the color of an apple mostly depends and more importantly, the survival of the plant itself depends by its regulation of moisture stress according to Vedwan & Rhoades (2001)^ ^. In addition, actual fluctuations in the amount of actual rainfall were not very significant compared to the actual amount of annual snowfall. Snowfall has fluctuated wider in its amount as well as its distribution. The amount of snow is understood to strongly influence soil moisture, especially in the case of early snow. Late snow besides having a negative impact in several other aspects, also fails to replenish soil moisture to the desired degree. In addition, late snow affects pollination indirectly; a relative immobilization of bees is triggered due to low temperatures brought about by late snow. 69

41 Knowledge of Apple Climate Interactions Vedwan & Rhoades (2001) observe that the perception of chmate change is shaped mainly by the associated impact of changed climatic conditions on the apple crop. Firstly climatic changes alter the pattern of blossoming, bearing and therefore fruit yield. The lack of early cold in December and January is understood to adversely affect the chilling requirements which range from 700 to 1200 hours per year. An April late cold can delay blossoming and reduce the pollinating activities of bees. Also if it rains in this period, there is a risk of pollen being washed away. Secondly, climate changes affect apple quality. Moreover, the degradation of quality is not uniform throughout the valley; there are distinct patterns. Due to a gradual reduction in quality, many apple orchards are no longer viable. Lastly, there are ecological ramifications of changes in climatic conditions. There is a widely held perception that the increasing incidence of pest and disease comprises a shift in disease ecology and that climate change has played a vital role. Canker, a disease that causes a tree to decay has become more rampant. The rate of infection is now 5-10 percent and an increasing number of sprays are needed for the routine control of pests. Climate variability and changes have rendered the role of planning and research in agriculture more crucial than ever before and the climate factor thus needs to be included in any program aimed at maintaining and enhancing the agricultural sustainability of the northwestern Himalayan region opine Ives, Bruno, & Rhoades (1997)^"*. Vedwan & Rhoades (2001) conclude that since it forms the basis of decision making, local knowledge of climate should be incorporated into any strategy meant to mitigate the impact of climate change. The framework for making agricultural decisions and climate cannot thus be isolatedfi-om culturally constituted ways of seeing, knowing and valuing the world. Glantz (1998)^ ^ affirms that the impact of climatic change on agriculture has recently become a subject of increasing importance. Glantz (1994)^ ' has had some success in linking macro change with micro effects by researching institutional mechanisms that respond to environmental perturbations. In light of the uncertainties involved in diachronically modeling climatic events, as well as the general paucity of long term climatic data in developing countries, it has been suggested by a number of studies like Crumley & Marquardt (I987f^, Gunn (1994)^", OrJove, Chiang, & Cane (2000) that research on cultural adaptations and climate would yield useful insights. 70

42 Chilling Requirement Generally, years receiving less snowfall experience relative warm winters consequently chilling requirement of the plant (below 7 C for 90 days) is not met. As a result bud break and the per cent flowering is reduced and the production is considerably reduced. Such types of effects are prominently observed at low elevation where apple cultivation has never been a profitable venture. Kronenberg (1979)^'^ suggested a chilling requirement of 1000 h at below TC and extreme cold temperature caused freezing injury. Jackson & Hammer (1980)^''' found a close correlation between high temperature in the pre-blossom period and low yield in Cox apples. Flowers developed under high temperature conditions are usually smaller and the flower buds are sensible to frost at the green cluster stage. Death of trees follows freezing injury is a major factor limiting apple production/cultivation. Czynezyk & Holubowicz (1984)^'^ reported that with a soil temperature of -11 C at the depth of 5 cm nearly 75 per cent of trees on M9 rootstocks were killed. Chand R (2005) reported that 1100 chilling units are required for completion of rest in Starking Delicious apple. According to North Carolina Model, 1250 chilling units are required. Under insufficient chilling, application of a combination of potassium nitrate (2 per cent) and Thiourea (1 or 2 per cent) at silver tip resulted in better flowering, fruit set, and yield in Starking Delicious apple. At high altitude (Mashobra) pre-bloom application of Paras (0.6 ml/litre), 0.1 per cent of boric acid per cent zinc sulphate per cent urea improved fruit set and yields. Mulching treatments exerted significant effect on soil moisture content, yield and fruit quality. Mankotia (1987)^'^ calculated the chilling requirement of Starking Delicious apple using UTAH chill unit model and reported 1208 chilling units. The average apple productivity of Himachal Pradesh was 6.94 tons/ha ( to ) which increased to 7.19 tons/ha ( to ). This revealed that apple productivity increased fi-om period I to period II by 3.6 per cent, but declined drastically by 42 per cent in period III in comparison to period II. This was due to the decline in the accumulation of effective chill units (ECU) during winters. Effective chill unit accumulation declined from 1229 CV (period I) to only 870 CV (Period II) signify that the chilling requirement of apple kinds (1208 CV) was not ftilly met during winters. Hail Protection Hails affect the flowers; fruit lets and leaves as it is the intensity and size that affects the yield of the apple crop as reported by Anonymous (1992)^'^, whereas Singh H. (1967)^" reported that the absence of hails during March and April favored higher fruit set in Red Delicious apples but 71

43 higher frequency of hails resulted in poor fruit set. Hailstorm of mild intensity produced scars and slightly disfigured fruits but had no adverse effect of total yield Frost Protection Apple trees flower during early to mid April when there is danger of frost and it is of common occurrence in many areas that the temperature during this period goes below freezing point which kills the blossoms. Frost spells during flowering and fruit set in April were observed to be detrimental to fruit set in apple and caused reduction in yield of Starking Delicious apple Singh H.(1967)^^ PROBLEMS IN APPLE PRODUCTION A large number of problems are there while cultivating apple crop in the state which affect the quality and quantity of apple fruits. These problems are generally classified under two heads, pre-harvest and post-harvest problems. These have been dealt with by many workers. Some of them are being discussed here. According to Chadha T. R. (2000)^^' there are a number of problems with the apple industry in the State. He has discussed the problems in cultivation and marketing of apple crop. Problems related to cultivation are unfruitfulness, lack of pollination, irregular or alternate bearing, long pre-bearing age, lack of proper and balanced nutrition of macro and micro nutrients and poor orchard soil management practices.pre-harvest drop, pest and diseases management while related to post-harvest are lack of packing cases, lack of on-farm storage conditions, transport of fruits, marketing and processing of fruits. He suggested the factors responsible for low production and approaches for optimizing productivity of apple in the following manner, Delicious group and other varieties of apple are sensitive to adverse climatic conditions and are susceptible to insects, pest and diseases, lack of scientific orchard management in respect of orchard soil management, nutrition, training and pruning and integrated pest and disease management, planting of some orchards in unfavorable sites, unfavorable weather conditions at the time of flowering and other stages of fruit development and lack of irrigation facilities. Awasthi R. P. (2000)^^^ has suggested thrust areas for integrated development of apple in Himachal Pradesh by laying stress on varietal up gradation, adoption of high density plantings, availability of clonal rootstocks for high density plantings, nursery up gradation, canopy management, soil, water and nutrients management, integrated insect, pest and disease management, resolving replant problems and by rejuvenation of senile orchards. According to him, the post-harvest management can be strengthened through paying attention on some points. They are - post-harvest plant protection, development of maturity standards for each commercial 72

44 variety, standardization of harvesting techniques, standardization of primary processing and post-harvest treatment strategies, evolvement of cost-effective packaging, standardization of precooung, development of palletization techniques, development of low-cost, environment-friendly cool chambers, standardization of containerization of transportation, creation of cool-chain network, standardization of variety-specific processing based upon minimal processing, standardization of carbonated processing and solar drying, and development of value-addition techniques for commercial utilization of under-utilized fruits and wastes. Sharma V. K. (2004)^^^ while discussing various problems of apple industry like use of rootstocks, selection of cultivars, use of balanced fertilizers, scattered plantations, age-old planting material, costly affair, lack of technical input, etc. has given a number of suggestions to meet the challenge of apple cultivation and these are - 1 Apple production should be regarded as an avocation rather than a supplementary job. 2. Scattered plantations should be avoided. 3. Plantations should be made in suitable agro-climatic areas. 4. Prolific bearing varieties should be planted in their best place of planting. 5. Provision of at least per cent pollinating trees of compatible varieties. 6. Provision of at least five bee-hives per hectare should be during flowering season. 7. Integrated pest management schedules should be followed with minimum use of chemicals. 8. Use of artificial fertilizers may be reduced and well rotten farm yard manure etc. should be applied as the basal dose. 9. Trees should be supplemented with nutrients as per its requirement and this should be at the right time with requisite method. 10. Fruits after harvest should be cared for properly, graded and packed in attractive packages. 11. Dessert type cultivars should be used for table purposes while others may be used for processing. 12. To enhance the keeping quality of fresh fioiits, fruits that have lost their field heat may be washed, cleaned and waxed properly and kept in cold store after packing. 13. Transportation of packed boxes/packages should be done with utmost care. 14. If possible use refrigerated vans for transportation to long distance. 15. Growers should not be forced to market and transport their produce but separate agencies should work for marketing and transporting. 16. High density plantations should be preferred. These trees are raised on rootstocks that yield dwarf or semi-vigorous trees. 17. Extension personnel may have to change their outlook and need to be trained and provided with refresher or reorientation programs so as to get them adjusted to the needs of growers and research workers. 72

45 According to Singh R., 2007 (2007)^^"*, major constraints for the production and marketing of apple are low support prices, poor road infrastructure, irrigation, poor quality rootstocks, high transportation cost, high prices of insecticides and pesticides, shortage of skilled labor and marketing infrastructure. Efforts have been made by the state government to sustain the productivity of apple at the institutional level. But the ground reality is that the productivity of Himachal apples is nearly half of that of Jammu and Kashmir and is nowhere near the global productivity figures. The immediate need is to have an integrated program, which covers the crucial areas that affect productivity and equip farmers with specific skills and dexterity through training so that they improve the productivity of their orchards by making the best use of available resources. The focus needs to be on the role of the farmers who need to be more pro-active in their approach to this house-hold industry. In spite of a large area under apple cultivation, production figures in India are almost 3-4 times lesser than other leading countries opines V.K.Sharma (2004)^^^ The present system of monoculture of fruits in an orchard has put the horticultural industry more subject to the hazards of nature, pests and diseases. Increasing the harvest and lengthening the marketing period to avoid a glut in the market would be a logical strategy as per Azad (2000)^^^. V.K.Sharma (2004)^^^ Almost all the apples grown in India come from its three mountainous states i.e. Himachal Pradesh, J&K and Uttarakhand. The supply chain of apples which is one of the main temperate fruit crops of Himachal Pradesh is laden with inefficiencies across the entire value chain leading to poor price realization of growers on one hand and exorbitant prices paid by the consumer on the other. A major share of the consumer rupee goes to a miniscule number of market intermediaries who exploit the farmers due to poor marketing linkages, virtually nonexistent cold chain infrastructure and processing facilities. The growers still follow the age old cultivation practices and have no idea of consumer needs and preferences, market prices, various government schemes, scientific agronomical practices especially agri-inputs, sources of timely and adequate credit availability and market linkages. The apple farmers of Himachal Pradesh suffer due to inadequate infrastructure especially cold chains, absence of demand forecasting and meager value addition. They also lack information on scientific cultivation practices, market prices, consumer preferences and market linkages. V.K.Sharma (2004)^^^ points out that apple is a temperate crop but in India it is grown in subtropical regions having temperate climate. 74

46 In Himachal Pradesh, almost 90 per cent of the area under horticulture is rain fed and does not have irrigation facilities. Water is one of the most important factors for improving the productivity and it has been observed that during almost six months in a year (April-June and October-December), the state experiences insufficient natural precipitation putting the plants under water stress conditions. The natural water sources are in the form of perennial streams, which generally are at considerable distance or at lower elevations making the water unavailable. The availability of the underground water is negligible and that too is there is only in the valley areas opines Azad (2004)^^'. Looking to the economics of apple production it is definitely better and advantageous to have spur type varieties in future, rather than the traditional varieties, if cared for properly argues V.K.Sharma (2004)". Azad (2000)^" suggests that about 50 per cent of the area under fruit cultivation need to be devoted to the production of early and late maturing varieties so that the span of the marketing is expanded from the present two months to about six months. He suggests the following objectives desirable in a sound production plan for the future: 1. High productivity per unit land 2. High productivity per unit investment 3. Higher value of produce per unit of land and investment (better quality of produce) 4. Reduction in cost of production He suggests utilizing and standardizing higher levels of technology in production and management. He further elaborates that productivity in fruit industry can be increased with the introduction of suitable root stocks and exemplifies the trend followed by horticulturally advanced countries, of using dwarfing root stocks. While stating that in Himachal Pradesh, 99 per cent of apple plants are being raised on seedling root stock which has the disadvantage of non uniformity and a long gestation period of about 10 years to start commercial production consistently, he suggests that clonal root stocks like M9, M26, MM 106, MMl 11 etc. should be tried. Low Productivity Issues According to V.K.Sharma (2004)"^ the declining trend in productivity can be attributed to various factors like expansion of apple cultivation to mid hills and valley areas which have become marginal in chilling with respect to change in climate, monoculture of Delicious varieties, inadequate pollination, poor standards of orchard management, prevalence of disease and pests. Among the various factors, inappropriate selection of pouinizers, their inadequate 75

47 proportion and insufficient pollination populations seems to be some of the major causes of poor fruit set, which directly or indirectly affected apple productivity. Another fact which according to him sets a constraint is that apple is a temperate crop but in India it is grown in sub-tropical regions having temperate climate. He also states that due to neglect of orchard management practices, the Delicious cultivars have acquired alternate bearing habit which means that they bear heavily in one year and markedly low for the next year or two. Sardana (Sardana) opines that productivity in apples has been on the decline despite the State having huge extension machinery and good schemes in place. Implementing emerging technologies requires complex protocols he argues. He suggests that the grower may need hand holding at all stages of cultivation. Encouraging trained graduates in agricultural sciences to practice as Krishi doctors in rural areas would not only according to him open avenues for their employment but would also assist the growers at their door step like a medical practitioner encouraging them to adopt practices conducive to productivity and growth. According to Azad (2004)^^"^ in Himachal Pradesh, almost 90 per cent of the area under horticulture is rain fed and does not have irrigation facilities. Water is one of the most important factors for improving the productivity and it has been observed that during almost six months in a year (April-June and October-December), the State experiences insufficient natural precipitation putting the plants under water stress conditions. The natural water sources are in the form of perennial streams, which generally are at considerable distance or at lower elevations making the water unavailable. The availability of the underground water is negligible and that too is there only in the valley areas CONTROLLABLE FACTORS IDENTIFIED BY EXPERTS A number of studies resuued in identifying controllable factors which had a significant bearing on the economic success of an orchard. Mentioned next are a few of those. Bravin, Kilchenmann, & Leumann (2009)^", in a study identified six factors that can be influenced by apple producers that might impact the economic success of their orchard. The critical factors identified were: yield, quality of apples (graded results), orchard size; number of cultivars; production costs; and specialization in organic production and/ or farm gate sales. Yield and graded results were the most important factors for the economic success of an orchard. Orchard size and production costs only affected the economics of an orchard under different conditions such as the size of the apple surface or poor yield. The number of cultivars did influence the economic success of an orchard. Apple farms under organic production regimes and farm gate sales benefited from higher prices and therefore had a higher chance of economic success. The main condition for success was to maintain high product prices. 76

48 Mouron & Carint (2001)^^^ identified yield as the third most important success factor after the price and quahty of the apples (i.e. graded results) and stated that yield directly influenced earned income. Mouron P. (2005)^" demonstrated with the help of a study that the economic and ecological success of apple producers relied on high and stable yields. Mouron «& Scholz (2007)^^* succeeded in verifying that farms that invested time in pre-harvest work had higher yields and better quality apples. Gorgens & Bokelmann (2000)^^^ also identified the critical success factors on fruit growing farms in Germany. The results were that price and yield were the decisive starting points for success. According to the department of agriculture, (DOA, 2009)^"", there were large gaps between the actual and recommended levels of distance between the plant to plant and row to row in all types of plants. The range varied between 32 to 110 plants per hectare in different types of fruit crops. The gap in yield was to the extent of 0.4 to 34 q/ ha. The reasons for gap in fruit plants may be undulating topography and lack of technical knowhow about the spacing of plants in different types of fruit plants. The varietal and technological problems in important fruit crops, flower and fodder pointed out by the respondents have been presented in Table The table shows that lack of irrigation facilities, lack of training and pruning, attack of insect pests and diseases, damage of fruit crops by hail storm, lack of color development in royal delicious variety, imbaianced use of fertilizers and soil problems, poor fruit setting, non- availability of quality planting material, untimely and non-availability of critical inputs and attack of bats, birds and monkeys, marketing problems and cold storage, etc., were the most important varietal and technological problems in main fruit crops, which included apple, citrus, mango, litchi, cherry, pear and stone fruit. To tackle these problems, the main intervention like research, training and awareness program facilities to install anti hail gun and quality planting material at right time were suggested INFERENCES FROM THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE The review of literature presented above is by no means exhaustive, although care has been taken to include all crucial aspects especially from a manager's angle and in a way comprehensible to a layman. After going through this vast body of research, a few inferences can be drawn. The first one is that apple cultivation has contributed immensely to the socio-economic profile of Himachal Pradesh. It has reached a turning point now and if it is allowed to carry on status quo, it is likely to face a decline sooner than later. 77

49 The second is that the success of apple industry depends upon a large number of factors many of which are controllable to varying extents. The third is that apple cultivation demands skillful management of the various dynamic factors involved to ensure profitability and thereby sustainability. The fourth one is that a lot of research addressing all aspects of apple cultivation has been done and has resulted in many different strategies to address various problems of the industry. It is hinted that apple farmers of Himachal Pradesh with possibly a few exceptions continue to have the traditional system of sjonptomatic approach of farming and to a large extent are not deriving benefit from new solutions. Last but not the least, experts are of the opinion that if different areas of apple farming are managed more skillfully at the farm level with the aim to optimize each area of operation, it will have a great impact on the production, productivity and sustainability of the apple industry of Himachal Pradesh. 2.2 GAPS IN EXISTING LITERATURE It is evident from the extensive review of literature that research in the domain of the role of management of various areas of operation which are segregated enough to be labeled as independent skills is not only incomprehensive but altogether inadequate. Although there is an enormous amount of body of knowledge on the agronomic aspect of the area, there is very little literature which focuses on management of skills as a key to improve the productivity of apple orchards in Himachal Pradesh at the farm level. A lot has been written about how and what should be done but the ground reality regarding what the orchardists are actually doing in Himachal Pradesh by way of managing these crucial areas/ skills is largely lacking. Although there is plenty of literature regarding apple being the most important horticultural produce of Himachal Pradesh, there is a gap as regards the consequences of its absence from the horticultural scene on the State economy. It is a universally accepted fact that the climate is continuously changing and the effects of global warming have become a grave reality for everyone regardless of the region of the earth one inhabits. The body of existing literature is largely silent or at best incomprehensive about whether apple orchardists of Himachal Pradesh, for whom chilling hours forms a critical input, are adequately anned with strategies to deal with the phenomenon. 78

50 There is an enormous amount written about the increase of area under apple plantation in Himachal Pradesh, but nothing about the impact of the progressive decline of production to the point that possibly, the existing orchardists find the whole exercise a losing proposition if not now then in the near future. Literature is missing on the gloomy scenario of the impact of apples disappearing from the horticultural platter of Himachal Pradesh and what that would mean for the majority of the orchardists for whom this has come to be their way of life. The impact of such an eventuality on the socio - cultural and economic fabric of Himachal Pradesh is yet a virgin territory from the point of view of the existing literature. As regards the training imparted to the orchardists or the avenues for training for the orchardists, there is a lot of literature and well documented information but precious little from the orchardists' point of view. What they need to know regarding different operational skills and possible strategies they need to adopt in the face of new challenges every now and then is an area which does not seem to have been sufficiently explored. In order to prolong the life cycle of the Himachal Pradesh apple industry, it is imperative to first regard each area of operation as a specialized skill which by regular up gradation of knowledge can be learnt systematically, bettered and mastered with the target of improving the productivity of existing and new orchards from all possible angles to an optimum level. Since the most important factors affecting the productivity of apples being the required number of chilling hours (weather) and topography happen to be largely uncontrollable in nature, it also emerges from the survey of literature that apple orchardists in Himachal Pradesh are almost totally dependent upon natural precipitation as a source of irrigation, the onus of improving the productivity falls on the successful identification and management of controllable factors which demand that they be treated as skills, hi the present study, after the extensive review of literature the following factors have been identified as crucial and controllable. The survey will focus on these factors which may be termed as 'skills' to explore the extent to which these factors are being optimized. For the purpose of the present study, the following definition of skill is found most appropriate: 'Skill' may be defined as the " Ability and capacity acquired through deliberate, systematic and sustained effort to smoothly and adaptively carry out complex activities or job functions involving ideas (cognitive skills), things (technical skills), and / or people (interpersonal skills). This definition highlights two aspects of skill. One, that it is the ability and capacity which is acquired and second that it is acquired through deliberate, systematic and sustained effort which is used to smoothly and adaptively carry out complex activities. Thus, in the light of the main 79

51 operational activities of an apple orchard, having gone through the vast body of literature available on all aspects, operational activities may henceforth be divided into two broad categories or skills; General Operational skills (non-agronomic nature) and Agronomic skills. The sub categorization of these two broad skills has been done into thirteen sub-skills and provided at the end of the introductory chapter and also at the beginning of the present chapter. The present study will endeavor to assess how skillftilly the sample farmers are managing the outlined areas. 2.3 NEED AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY V.K.Sharma (2004)^'"opines that although the capability and technology to produce good quality apples is not lacking but the technology has not reached the growers at the grass root level. The ultimate users aren't aware about the programs and technologies associated with quality production. This is one observation which this study would seek to verify. The present study aims to assess whether there exists a gap as far as management of skills under the categories of general operational and agronomic areas are concerned. It will also reveal which skills are better managed as compared to others. Which skills affect productivity and profitability of farms significantly and consequently need to be addressed at a higher priority and whether a common or customized approach would be suitable for fiarther training up-gradation. Review of literature indicates that the thirteen sub-skills listed under the previously mentioned two basic skills (general operational and agronomic) more or less cover those areas which can be considered as controllable and hence can be manipulated or handled more skillfully at the farm level to influence profitability and productivity of farms as a business enterprise. The study will try and reveal which of these areas are avenues for further training of farmers. The scope of the study is limited to studying how the listed skills/ factors are being managed by the growers, judging them on the cultural farming practices vis a vis those considered ideal and thus recommended by government agencies and experts. This would indicate the need for training in the above outlined areas of operation and reflect the adaptation gap which has arisen due to changes outside the control of growers. The skillful management of these areas will contribute towards narrowing this adaptation gap and thus improve the productivity and sustainability of the apple orchards of Himachal Pradesh. How successfully this adaptation gap is narrowed will depend upon how well these core skills are managed. The aim of the study is to specify and to an extent quantify the areas which currently demand better skill management to ensure improved productivity and sustainability of apple cultivation in Himachal Pradesh. 80

52 2.4 CATEGORIZATION OF SKILLS Factors related with apple farming are many and the ones studied are categorized as skills under two groups. 1. General Operational Skills Figure 2.1 LAND irrilization PATTERN r PLANTING SYSTEM [ GENERAL OPERATIONAL SKILLS ^ HARVEST AND POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT INPUT- OUTPUT ANALYSIS HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT SIZE OF HOLDING ( UTIUZATION OF LAND 2. Agronomic Skills Figure 2.2 VARIETY MANAGEMENT AGE-MIX MANAGEMENT PLANT MANAGEMENT SKILLS POLLINATION MANAGEMENT CANOPY MANAGEMENT j AGRONOMIC SKILLS SOIL MANAGEMENT SKILLS WEATHER MANAGEMENT SKILLS PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT NUTRITION MANAGEMENT MOISTURE MANAGEMENT FLOOR MANAGEMENT Figures 2.1 and 2.2 graphically represent of the categorization of skills for the present thesis. 81