Unintended consequences of arable crop technology within farming systems in Oyo state, Nigeria

Transcription

1 Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol. 7(3), July 2008, pp Unintended consequences of arable crop technology within farming systems in Oyo state, Nigeria 1 Oladele* OI, 1 Oladipo OA & 2 Ogunlade I 1 Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; 2 Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ilorin, Nigeria iogunlade@yahoo.com Received 22 March 2006; revised 27 November 2007 To improve farmers production, researchers have developed some agricultural technology, which however produces several consequences, in the usage by farmers. Hence, an attempt was made to study the farmer s perception of the consequences of arable crops technology in Oyo state. This was achieved through multistage random sampling (using questionnaire). PPMC was used to test the relationship between unintended consequences and some independent variables. It was discovered that benefits, adoption, social participation and contact with extension agents are significant while age and farm size are not significant. Multiple regression analysis of unintended consequences and independent variables shows that there is significant relationship between unintended consequences and independent variables. The most important predictor is adoption, frequency of meetings and cassava productivity. Keywords: IPC Int. Cl. 8 : A01 Agricultural technology, Arable crop technology, Farming systems, Nigeria In Nigeria, agricultural production is largely in the hand of peasants farmers and the characteristics of these peasant farmers predispose them to low productivity. The problem of low productivity and inadequate food and raw materials supply led to the invention of agricultural technologies to increase production and improved the living standard of farm families. Technological change has been the basis for agricultural development. Therefore, the adoption of agricultural technology has made much differences in the farming activities of subsistence farmers as most of these technologies have provided job opportunities to some people in the social system, increase the standard of living, reduce labour, provide income and have control a lot of diseases infestation in both crops and animal. Agricultural technology adopted by farmers were supposed to increase agricultural growth with a higher standard of living for farm households or at a minimum provide higher food security, ensure timeliness of operation and also reduce drudgery. Some of these technical packages have negative effects or unintended consequences. The introduction of technology has brought opportunities for every substantial member of people, but it has also created Corresponding author new inequalities or reinforced existing ones 1. The water-harvesting project in Kenya introduced expensive construction work to trap surface water. After severe drought, diversion bounds were required to be built by those receiving food aids. However, the construction has no relation on the way to their own farming (goat and rearing and planting of sorghum). Rainstorms in the area created flows of water, which was enough to breach the unconsolidated structures and these lead them to catastrophic failure 2. The project of USAID in Tanzania was to modernise the traditional semi nomadic production of Massai pastoralists. Their objective was to stimulate beef off take to pay for range improvements, provide modern veterinary services, water development and livestock marketing. However, there was no demonstrable improvement in the rotational grazing over the existing practice under bimodal rainfall regime. The project technical goal was on the assumption that Maasai people produce beef and willing to sell cattle commercially whereas they are not, they are milk producers that has small livestock. Also, the improved breeding bull required more water and forage, they were not able to trek alongside with their cows and show no interest in them, may also be affected by endemic coast fever, which might result into death 3.

2 430 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 7, No. 3, JULY 2008 The Mwea rice irrigation scheme in Kenya provides commercial rice to an area that did not produce rice traditionally. The problem faced by women, gender relations and peasant farming was exempted. The women workload was substantially increased over traditional agricultural production especially during harvest. The role governing the project was not to adhere to as the women sold their rice on black market to cater for their customary needs 4. Unintended consequences of agricultural policies in Nigeria have been reviewed 5. The intended beneficiaries are the small-scale farmers in the country. Several problems which farmers encounter in the adoption of new agricultural technology disseminated through the linkage system has made some farm families worse-off than if they have been left alone. From the foregoing the following research questions emanate from the study. What are the personal characteristics of arable crop farmer? What are the perceived positive consequences of the arable technology? What are the perceived unintended consequences of arable crop technology? The general objective of the study was to analyse the farmers perception of the consequences of arable crop technology in Oyo State. The specific objectives are to examine the use of arable crop technology, and the positive and negative consequences of arable crop technology in Oyo State. Relationships between unintended consequences and other variables were explored. Methodology The area of study is Oyo State in Nigeria. It is situated at Latitude 7 N and 9 30 N and Longitude 2 E and 4 E. The area is bounded by Osun State from the east, Benin Republic by the West, Ogun State by the south and Kwara State by the north. The area has a total land size 48,862 sq km. Food crops grown are maize, yam, cassava, pepper while cocoa, plantain, oil palm and kolanut forms the bulk of the cash crops. They also engage in other occupation such as trading, crafts, weaving, processing of agricultural products and selling of food and snacks. The population of study comprises of all farmers adopting various arable crop technologies in Oyo State. This was done through the use of multistage sampling technique. There are four agricultural zones in Oyo State, Ibadan/Ibarapa, Saki, Ogbomoso. From Ibadan/ Ibarapa and Saki zones, 36 farmers were selected while 24 farmers were selected from sampled cells of Ogbomoso and Oyo zones. Questionnaire was introduced to the sampled farmers on the variables of the study, which included perception of farmers of the positive and negative consequences of agricultural technology, age, marital status, income, educational level and adoption of agricultural technology. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the analysis of the data generated. Descriptive statistics involved the use of the frequency counts and percentages while inferential statistics involved the use of multiple regression and Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC). Results and discussion Table 1 shows the percentage age distribution of respondents; farmers below the age of 30 yrs are 1.7%. Farmers between yrs (20%) are migrants, who had gone to large towns for greener pastures. Those who fall between yrs (44.1%) are the ones engaged in farming activities. The population of old is the most predominant in farming communities in Nigeria 6. Singles (3.3%) are rarely involved in farming activities. Married people (82.5%) are responsible and produce more due to family labour used in agricultural production. Also from the table, most farmers have secondary education (19.2%) and adult education (26.7%) while few people has primary school certificate (21.7%) Table 1 Demographic characteristics of respondent (n = 120) Variables Frequency Percentag e Age Below Above Non response Marital Status Educational Level Gender Single Married Divorced Widowed Non response Adult Education Primary School/ Leaving Certificate WASC/GCE Grade II NCE/OND HND/BSc MSc and above Non response Male Female Non response 6 5.0

3 OLADELE et al.: ARABLE CROP TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIA 431 reflecting of low literacy level in the people. Agricultural graduate farmers (13.3%) with no job opportunities/employment went back to farm for sustainability of their livelihood. Conclusively, the educational level of farmers does not determine their level of perception of agricultural technology. The females (74.22%) are more prominent in farming activities in the area and only (20.8%) of the farmers are male. The rural-urban migration is common among male and also due to poor response of male. The high percentage of women may be due to their responsibility as the head of their household to provide food security. Table 2 shows the adoption of arable crop technology among respondents. The adoption of cereal/legume intercropping and use of Jelu-dye for seed treatment has the highest percentage (88.3% each), which may be as a result of wide range of usage of these agricultural technology among farmers and because they both reduce risk of incurring losses on the farm. On the other hand, crop rotation and use of compost organic manure have the least percentages (11.7% each), which may be as a result of low contact with extension agents and low level of education. Fertilizer application adoption (68.3%) recorded among the farmers increases growth rate and farm produce rapidly. cassava recorded 51.7% of adoption followed by improved cowpea (36.7%), tomato (35.9%), okra (31.7%), maize and eggplant (12.5% each). Use of herbicides and insecticides had 23.3% and 24.2% adoption rate, respectively. Table 3 shows the Table 2 Respondents adoption of arable crop technology List of Technologies Adoption Yes F (%) No F (%) 1. Cereal/legume intercropping 106 (88.3) 14 (11.7) 2. maize 15 (12.5) 105 (87.5) 3. cowpea 44 (36.7) 76 (63.3) 4. cassava 62 (51.7) 58 (48.3) 5. tomato 43 (35.9) 77 (64.2) 6. eggplant 15 (12.5) 105 (87.5) 7. Okro 38 (31.7) 82 (68.3) 8. Crop rotation 14 (11.7) 106 (88.3) 9. Fertilizer application 82 (68.3) 38 (31.7) 10. Use of herbicides 28 (23.3) 92 (76.7) 11. Use of insecticides 29 (24.2) 91 (75.8) 12. Use of Jelu-dye for seed 106 (88.3) 14 (11.7) treatment 13. Use of compost organic manure 14 (11.7) 106 (88.3) Table 3 Respondents perceived benefits on arable crop technology List of Perceived benefits Frequency/ Technologies Percentages Cereal/legume (i) soil nutrients 84 (70) intercropping (ii) Prevent erosion 69.6 (58) (iii) Fix nitrogen in soil 42 (35) (iv) Increase yield 72 (60) (i) Mature early 72 (60) (ii) Cost-effective 50.4 (42) maize (iii) High yield 85.2 (71) (iv) High turnover 73.2 (61) (i) Affordable 70.8 (59) varieties (ii) High yield 60 (50) of cowpea (iii) High income 78 (65) (i) Early maturing 90 (75) (ii) Low input cost 74.4 (62) cassava (iii) Affordable 96 (80) (iv) Household food secured 102 (85) (i) Early maturing 73.2 (61) (ii) High yield 56.4 (47) tomato (i) High produce 57.6 (48) (ii) Early maturing 60.4 (52) eggplant (iii) Less labour 44.4 (39) (i) Mature early 90 (75) Okro (ii) High yield 61.2 (51) (iii) Palatable 49.2 (41) Crop rotation (i) Replenish soil 92.4 (77) (ii) Increase output 70.8 (59) (iii) Prevent disease 52.8 (44) Fertilizer (i) Increase yield 94.8 (79) application (ii) Increase nutrients 96 (80) (iii) Replenish soil 93.6 (78) Use of (i) Destroy insect/pests 96 (80) herbicides (ii) Protect crop value 98.4 (82) Use of (i) Destroy insects/pests 97.2 (89) insecticides (ii) Protect crop value 78 (65) Use of Jelu-dye (i) Prevent seed infection 96 (80) for seed (ii) Prevent from destruction 78 (65) treatment (iii) Allow total germination 58.8 (49) Use of compost (i) Increase growth rate 60 (50) organic manure (ii) Increase organic matter 72 (60) (iii) High yield 74.4 (62)

4 432 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 7, No. 3, JULY 2008 perceived benefits of arable crop technology among respondents. For cereal/legume intercropping technology, improving the soil nutrients is the prominent benefit (70%) as soil nutrient is of major importance to crop production. High turnover and income rates were the peculiar reasons for maize (61%) and cowpea (65%). Household food security has the highest percentage in the benefits perceived for improved cassava (85%). For improved tomato, eggplant and Okra, their ability to mature early has the highest percentage (61%), (52%) and (75%), respectively among others benefits stated. Crop rotation has highest percentage (77%) for its ability to replenish the soil is the most important benefits perceived among respondents as it increases growth rate of the crops and yield. For fertilizer application technology, increasing the soil nutrients has the highest percentage (80%) among others stated perceived benefits. The use of herbicides and insecticides show protection of crop value and ability to destroy insects/pests has the highest percentage (82% and 81%) This as they affect crops both on the field and storage and in the process reduces the crop yield and value. Prevention of seed infection has the highest percentage (80%) of perceived benefits among respondents for the use of Jelu-dye for seed treatment as the infection of seeds leads to destruction of seeds, which eventually leads to low germination and low productivity. For the use of compost organic manure, high yield has the highest percentage (62%) as the perceived benefits among respondents as high yield is the main purpose for the adoption of any agricultural technology. Cereal/legume intercropping has the inability to allow the practice of mechanization (55%) among others stated unintended consequences (Table 4). This is because on large acres of land, where this technology is practiced, the attendant high cost of human labour is heavy. For maize, the unintended consequences are time taken for cooking (52%). Unpalatable nature of the cowpea has the highest percentage (47%) among others stated as unintended consequences as it hinders the sales of the produce. The unintended consequence for improved varieties of cassava is time taken for processing (60%) as it takes more time than required for processing the local varieties and high processing cost. The unintended consequences of improved tomato and okra, have very short shelf-life span (65% and 40%), Table 4 Respondent s unintended consequences on arable crop technology List of Technologies Cereal/legume intercropping maize cowpea cassava tomato eggplant Okro Crop rotation Fertilizer application Use of herbicides Use of insecticides Use of Jelu-dye for seed treatment Use of compost organic manure Unintended consequences Freq. (%) (i) Disallowed mechanization (i) Takes time when cooking (ii) Easy to spoil (i) Not palatable (ii) Difficult to sell (i) Too much water (ii) Takes time for processing (i) Difficult production (ii) Easy to spoil (i) Not palatable (ii) Difficult to market (iii) Difficult production 66 (55) 62.4 (52) 56.4 (47) 56.4 (47) 49.2 (41) 64.8 (54) 72 (60) 52,8 (44) 78 (65) 58.8 (49) 48 (40) 60 (50) (i) Easily spoilt 48 (40) (i) Destroy crops (ii) Hinders germination (i) Health hazards (ii) Pollution (iii) Residues on plant 54 (45) 50.4 (42) 84 (70) 48 (40) 72 (60) (i) Heavy to transport 54 (45) (i) Heavy to transport 48 (40) respectively among respondents. For improved eggplant, there is difficulty in production (50%). No unintended consequences were stated for crop rotation and fertilizer application. The unintended consequences with high percentages stated for use of herbicides (45%) is that it destroys crops and for use of insecticides (70%) are health hazards as use of insecticides, despite it is cost, affect human health and the use of herbicides likewise affects the crop. For the unintended consequences stated for use of Jelu-dye for seed treatment, delays germination (45%). Also, the use of compost organic manure has difficulty in transportation (40%).

5 OLADELE et al.: ARABLE CROP TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIA 433 The relationship between unintended consequences and independent variables was established using Pearson Product Moment of Correlation. Some independent variable were selected and tested against unintended consequences. At a significance level of 0.05, age and farm size showed no significant relationship with unintended consequences suggesting that the age of the respondent and the size of the farm do not reflect perceived negative consequences of technology adopted. Social participation and contact with extension agent shows positive significant relationship between them and the unintended conesquences as this activity shows the respondent s contact or relationship with the linkage system through which the technology are being disseminated. Social participation and contact with extension agent influence adoption of agricultural technology disseminated. Therefore, social participation and contact with extension agent are important activities in determine the unintended consequences of technology. There is a significant inverse relationship between the benefits of an adopted technology and the unintended consequences produced (Table 5). The technology with benefits (economic, social, cultural, etc.) will likely produce negative consequences, which may lead to rejection of such technology and the resulting benefits of a technology is cogent to any technological innovation that any innovation without benefits may be rejected or discontinued. There is a relationship between adoption and unintended consequences; some agricultural technology adopted produces some unintended consequences, which makes some farm families worse-off than if they had been left alone. The adoption of various agricultural technologies, which demonstrate some negative consequences, negates the fulfillment of the characteristics or elements of innovation. The null Table 5 Correlation analysis of unintended consequences and some independent variables Variables r P Remarks Benefits Significant Adoption Significant Social Participation Significant Contact with Significant extension agent Age Not Significant Farm Size Not Significant P < 0.05 = significant; p > 0.05 = not significant hypothesis, that there is no significant relationship between respondent age and farm size and their perception of unintended consequences is accepted because age and farm size cannot determine their perception of unintended consequences. The null hypothesis that social participation and contact with extension agent and their perception unintended consequences is rejected because the social participation and contact with extension agent determine the perception of unintended of the respondent. This relationship was established using Pearson Product Moment of Correlation. Six independent variables were selected and tested against perceived benefits (Table 6). There is a significant relationship between perceived benefits and adoption. This suggests that most agricultural technology adopted benefits the various adopter categories. The income is significantly related to the perceived benefits that is, the amount/income earnings generated from agricultural technology is as a result of the benefits involved in the technology. If agricultural technology has no benefit it will not be accepted, if accepted it will be discontinued when realized. Therefore, this suggests that to ensure adoption for agricultural technology it has to be profitable. Age, contact with extension agent, social participation and farm size are not significantly related to the perceived benefits. The relationship shows that the age of a farmer does not influence the benefit of an agricultural technology. Likewise, the farm size may not show the benefits perceived by the farmer. This applies to the social participation and the contact with extension agent and might only facilitate adoption process but will not reflect or demonstrate the perceived benefit. Table 6 Correlation analysis of perceived benefits and some independent variables Variables r P Remarks Unintended Consequences Significant Adoption Significant Income Significant Age Not Significant Contact with extension agent Not Significant Social Participation Not Significant Farm Size Not Significant P < 0.05 = significant; p > 0.05 = not significant

6 434 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 7, No. 3, JULY 2008 Table 7 Multiple Regression Analysis of unintended consequences and independent variable Model R R 2 Adjusted R 2 Standard error of the estimate ANOVA Model Sum of squares df Mean Square F Significant 1 Regression Residual Total Model Un-standardised coefficient Standard ed Coefficient S Beta Std-Error Beta t Sig 1 (Constant) Adoption Benefits E Age 1.128E Marital Status 8.333E Educational level 2.015E Gender Religion E Membership of farmers Association Membership of Cooperative E Membership of religious organization Membership of past executive E Farm Size 1.554E Maize (output) 5.867E Yam (output) E Cassava (output) 8.203E Others (output) E Maize (income) E Yam (income) E Cassava (income) 4.160E Others(income) 2.992E Social participation Frequency of contact with ext. agent Frequency of meetings Payment of dues E The null hypothesis states that there is no significant relationship between the age and farm sizes of respondent and their perception of positive consequences of technology is accepted. This is because the age and farm size of farmers do not determine their perception of positive consequences of technology. The null statement that income is not significant to perception of positive consequences of technology is rejected because, farmer s income determine the perceived benefits of technology. Also, the null statement that the contact with extension agent and social participation and their perception of positive consequences of technology is accepted. This is because the social participation of farmers and their contact with extension agent do not determine the perception of positive consequences of technology. The null hypothesis (H o ) that stated that there is no significant relationship between farmer gender religion and their perception of unintended consequences of technology is accepted. This is because their level of significance is greater than 0.05 while the statement is rejected for marital status since they are lower than the significant level. This shows that the marital status determines their perception of unintended consequences of technology while gender and religion do not. Also, the null hypothesis that

7 OLADELE et al.: ARABLE CROP TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIA 435 there is no significant relationship between farmer s membership of an association and membership of religious organization and their perception of unintended consequences of technology is accepted. This is because their level of significance is lower than 0.05 while the statement is rejected for membership of cooperative and past executive because their significant level is greater than The result of the regression analysis (Table 7) shows that R=0.76, which means that there is a strong correlation between unintended consequences and all the independent variable in the equation. The standardised partial regression weight that is, Beta values shows that adoption of arable crop technology is the most important predictor of the unintended consequences. This is followed by frequencies of meetings with extension agent (Beta=0.59) and contact with extension agent (Beta=-0.317). The negative sign shows an inverse relationship. Conclusion It was observed that perception of farmers on consequences of arable crop technology is affected by the inherent characteristics of agricultural technologies. There is a significant relationship between independent variable (F=5.561, p=000) and unintended consequences, while perceived benefits and some independent variables shows no significant relationship age (r=0.074, p=0.025), contact with extension agent (r= 0.08, p=0.41), social participation (r=0.01, p=0.87), farm size (r=0.03, p=0.73). Research-extension agent-farmers linkages should be strengthen more in the area of study to reduce the unintended consequences produces by various agricultural technology disseminated to farmers. Most farmers adopt various agricultural technology disseminated through the linkage system however, most of these technologies have unintended consequences. References 1 Heyzer N, Gender, Economic Growth and Poverty Development, 1 (1992) Hogg, Richard, Water Harvesting and Agriculture Production in Semi-arid Kenya, Development and Change, 19 (1988) Moris J, Extension alternative in tropical agriculture, Overseas Development Institute, Reagents College Inner Circle, Regents Park, London NW14 NS, Jackson C, The Kano River Irrigation Project in Women s Roles and Gender Differences in Development Case Study Series, (West Hartford, Kumarian Press), Idachaba FS, Topical issues in Nigeria Agriculture, Agricultural Economic Departmental lecture University of Ibadan, Nigeria, Ekong EE, An introduction to Rural Sociology: Ibadan Ile- Ife, Lagos: Jumah Publishers Limited, 1988, 439.