1 C.M. Wijayaratna, Team Leader, ADB-TA: Water User Empowerment, Chhattisgarh Irrigation Project, CIDP, India.

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1 Legal Reforms and Multi-functional Water Users Associations (WUAs) to manage water and agriculture support services Chhattisgarh (India) experience 1 Abstract The paper submits the strategy, process, results and the lessons learned from a WUA strengthening effort that combined legal reforms with efforts towards developing WUAs as multi-functional business organizations managing Water and agriculture support services including input-output marketing. In 2006 ADB-TA programme of Chhattisgarh Irrigation Development Project (CIDP) assisted the State Government in developing a New PIM Act through a participatory consultative process involving a cross section of stakeholders ranging from farmers, WUAs and local governance up to senior policy makers. The novel features of the Act included: a) management of minor irrigation systems and lower parts of medium and major systems by WUAs, b) Water fee collection by WUAs and sharing with the Government, c) nested and federated WUAs, d) extending WUA membership to spouse to ensure nearly 50% women representation in WUA, e) representation of head, middle and tail of irrigation systems, and f) reserved seats for women and underprivileged, including scheduled castes. This was followed (in 2007) by Intensive Interventions employing catalysts at WUA level, guided by TA consultants to motivate and organize farmers for collective action, including planning for year-round water use, improved crop practices and input-output services aimed at irrigation system-wide impact. WUAs involve in managing water allocation and distribution and organizing complementary inputs and matching with water on-farm. The intervention strategy did not separate WUA strengthening from agricultural and associated water management interventions. It followed experiential capacity building instead of relying much on formal class-room training. A substantial amount of Rabi produce has been marketed by WUAs through collective action, mainly through WUA-private sector partnerships. The results demonstrated the strength of CIDP strategy that focused on legal reforms followed by integrated water and agric support services-managed by WUAs. WUAs strengthened themselves while managing agriculture and water management interventions. Kharif (wet season) paddy yield, Rabi (dry season) diversified cropping and overall cropping intensity increased substantially. In pilot irrigation systems Kharif paddy yield increased steadily; by 29.3% over pre-project yield (2.8t/ha) in 2007; 43.2% in 2008 and 75% in 2009 (5.1t/ha). In 2010 the intervention area increased to 100,000ha (over 120,000 families). Kharif-2011 crop is being harvested and the average yield is expected to exceed 5t/ha. At present the ADB-assisted programme is facilitating the formation of Farmers Companies. However, the irrigation department has not adequately reformed and it may take more time to develop an institutional home and sustainable partnership between the department and WUAs. Nevertheless, many WUAs may become self-sustained before the end of the programme in March It would be beneficial if other relevant Government agencies utilize WUA-network for services provision, including agricultural inputs and extension services. This will also help strengthen WUA-network so that irrigation systems would be managed as profitable agricultural production systems. 1 C.M. Wijayaratna, Team Leader, ADB-TA: Water User Empowerment, Chhattisgarh Irrigation Project, CIDP, India. Paper presented to GOI/ADB/OECD International workshop: Sustainable Water Management for Food Security: An international policy dialogue on progressing water policy reform in agriculture, with focus on Indonesia, Bogor, Indonesia, December 2011 i

2 BACKGROUND Chhattisgarh was formed in 2000 by separating the 16 Chhattisgarhi-speaking South- Eastern districts of Madhya Pradesh. It is rich in mineral resources (which is producing 15% of steel made in India) and the total annually renewable freshwater resources are estimated to be 54 billon m 3 (42 billion m 3 of surface water and 12 billion m 3 of groundwater). Out of its 137,360km 2 total area, 43% covered with forest. Out of the annual average rainfall of 1400mm, about 90% is confined to monsoon (mid June to Sept). Irrigated area (about 1.7million ha) is nearly 29% of the gross sown area. Only about 20% of groundwater potential is exploited. Chhattisgarh Irrigation Development Project, CIDP: The overall goal of CIDP is to improve rural livelihood and reduce rural poverty through improved irrigation service delivery, enhanced agricultural practices, and strengthened water resources management to increase the productivity of irrigated agriculture in the State. In addition to R&U, CIDP aims at institutionalizing PIM and strengthening WUAs in Chhattisgarh, enhancing farm incomes through improved Kharif (wet season) production and Rabi (dry season) diversified cropping in CIDP systems and promoting WRD-WUA partnerships. The seven year Project has four components: 1. Strengthening the Water Resources Department; 2. Participatory Irrigation Management; 3. Rehabilitation and upgrading of irrigation systems; and 4. Agricultural support services. The total command area of irrigation systems covered by CIDP is 177,000ha (over 200,000 farm families) and the Rehabilitation and upgrading (R&U) work has been already completed in about one third of this area. CIDP also includes a Technical Assistance (TA) programme financed by an ADB-DFID grant. TA contributes directly to two components; participatory irrigation management (PIM) and agriculture support services. Further, developing guidelines for the overall monitoring and evaluation (M&E) and management information systems (MIS) of CIDP is also assigned to the TA. CIDP contracted Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) to provide field staff and other services. ADB-supported CIDP is the first attempt in strengthening PIM in Chhattisgarh. As the irrigation department is in the process of developing in-house PIM skills, PIM component of CIDP including these NGO services is being managed and guided by TA consultants to strengthen WUAs, agricultural support services and Information, Education and Awareness (IEA) building. THE OBJECTIVES, STRATEGY AND APPROACH FOR WUA EMPOWERMENT The primary objective of CIDP s WUA empowerment efforts is to introduce and internalise ways and means through which Chhattisgarh farmers and their Water Users 1

3 Associations (WUAs) could manage the limited supply of irrigation water equitably (between upstream and downstream users in irrigation systems) and judiciously to improve agricultural incomes and reduce poverty with due regard to environment. The strategy strengthens the roles, responsibilities and authority of WUAs for irrigation management and O&M that would improve irrigation sector performance, generates social capital and mutually beneficial collective action and promotes partnerships between WUAs and government agencies like the WRD and the Department of Agriculture (DA) as well as with the private sector. It is expected that the resulting benefits from improved water management and increased agricultural productivity coupled with sense of ownership would provide a stimulus for farmers to participate and contribute to the sustainability of the WUAs. The participatory strategy and enhanced WUA involvement in agricultural support services, including marketing would ensure that farmer incomes are enhanced and poverty reduced. To support this strategy and process, CIDP has been assigned to assist in the development of appropriate legal framework, PIM strategy and WUA mobilization process. LEGAL FRAMEWORK-CHHATTISGARH NEW PIM ACT The interventions commenced with the development of Chhattisgarh s new Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) Act. This process followed a participatory consultation process involving a cross section of stake holders including a large number of farmers, leaders of their WUAs, irrigation and other service providing as well as governance agencies of Government including policy makers in the sector as well as the private sector. The consultation process and the initial awareness building exercise were successful as the Team (TA and WRD) established a good rapport at all levels. PIM Act, Rules and Regulations have been approved by State Assembly. The Act introduced novel provisions including the following: sharing water fee, State-level farmers Organization etc. For the first time in India, a pre-election Awareness Campaign launched State-wide to prepare and educate farmers on WUA election. The election was held State-wide. One third of elected leaders are women. Membership to the wife/spouse of the record holder ensuring 50% women membership in the General Body of WUA. Representation of head, mid and tail end farmers in the WUA. Reservation for women: One third of the total number of seats in managing committees and sub committees is reserved for women candidates and the reservation shall be at each level of the FOs. Reservation for scheduled casts (SC), scheduled tribes (ST) and other backward classes (OBC): There is reservation for SCs/STs/OBCs up to a maximum of 50% provided for the Managing Committee of all WUA. The extent of reservation is proportionate to the population of SCs/STs/OBCs in the area of WUA. 2

4 Rotational reservation: The reservation for different categories of seats in the TCs will be rotational. Power of collecting of water rates is given to the WUA: A minimum of 25% of the collected water charges will be given back to the WUA (this is being increased to 50%. In some Intervention systems WUAs have collected 100%. However, even the O&M payments are usually delayed and WUAs are frustrated. It is proposed that WUAs collect Water Fee / Tax, retain WUA s portion and deposit the balance with WRD. It need not go to Revenue Department. This will give the WUA a sense of ownership and belongingness. And the amount will be utilised by the WUA for maintenance of the canals and distribution systems. Power to remove encroachment from canal given to WUAs: The WUA has been provided with the power to remove encroachments from property attached to the canal system (within its area of operation). Separate WUA for lift irrigation systems (LIS) and tube wells (TWs): For LIS and TW irrigation systems separate WUA shall form. They will not be attached to any flow irrigation system WUAs. State level Farmers Federation: This is a provision made first in the PIM Act in any state of India. State level Policy Committee. Recall of the President: The President of a FO may be removed by a resolution passed by two thirds of members of its Managing Committee (MC). It was assumed that the strengthened legal and institutional framework coupled with capacity development would ensure the foundation for effective WUAs. LEVELS OF EFFORTS TOWARDS WUA CAPACITY BUILDING In addition to the irrigation infrastructure improvement through its R&U programme, CIDP is providing technical assistance and managing three levels of efforts in WUA capacity building: 1. Intensive intervention Programme, IIP: In 57 CIDP R&U systems, including 16 out of 20 CIDP Medium systems covering about 100,000ha and about 150,000 farm families, a holistic approach is being adopted focusing on integrating agricultural interventions with PIM and Command Area Development, CAD {all components of CAD including field channels and drainage network, on-farm water management (OFWM)}. This is an intensive hand-holding approach employing Community Organizers, COs, to mobilise and motivating farmers and their WUAs and internalising the improved practices introduced. During the implementation process, capacity building including training come mainly through working with 3

5 WUAs and farmers; formal training is limited to a few specific topics. This is managed directly by the TA. This paper focuses on PIM Act and IIP. 2. The CIDP irrigation systems which are not covered by the intensive hand-holding process: About 120 irrigation systems (covering an area of about 75,000ha, mostly under Minor systems) are included in this category of CIDP systems where intensive interventions with COs and Senior COs (SCOs) would not be conducted. In these systems, Package B NGO specialists, under the guidance of TA Consultants, are expected to enhance WUA and farmer knowledge, not only on PIM and the PIM Act but also motivate them to adopt the agriculture and water management interventions adopted in the IIP area and launch a well planned spread effect (unfortunately the NGO has not started the programme yet and it may not be possible to achieve targets). 3. Non-CIDP irrigation systems: CIDP covers only about 11% of the irrigated area of Chhattisgarh. The number of WUAs outside CIDP would be approximately Therefore, a very effective low cost training programme is being implemented. Under the guidance of TA Consultants, the Package A (CARD) NGO specialists are successfully completed the first round of Training State-wide. CIDP S INTENSIVE INTERVENTION PROGRAMME, IIP INTRODUCTION CIDP s Intensive Intervention Programme, IIP is covering 100,000ha in Rabi (As some field staffs had left the programme the area has been reduced to 90,000ha temporarily in 2011 Kharif). The IIP was launched in 2007 on pilot basis in 7 few irrigation systems (about 11000ha) and increased to 25 systems (about 25,000ha) in the following year. The main objective was to test and refine the strategy and process developed by the ADB-TA programme. Initial results motivated the CIDP Team to expand the IIP area in 2010-Kharif to cover 69 systems covering little over 100,000ha (or about 60% of CIDP area). As the Water Resources Department (WRD) didn t have the capacity to manage the programme, TA consultants continued to manage the programme. NGOs provided COs at WUA level, SCOs at Cluster level (7-12 WUAs per Cluster) and Specialists at Regional level. Due to delays in salaries, some facilitators left the programme and in 2011 (current) Kharif the programme was confined to 90,835ha. However, the number of minor irrigation systems has been reduced (41) and out of CIDP s 20 medium systems 16 are included in the programme. The density of facilitators would be reduced and it is planned to expand the area to about 100,000ha in Planning for Rabi has been initiated during Kharif. Results to date are encouraging: Kharif paddy yield increased steadily; by 29.3% over pre-project yield (2.8t/ha) in 2007; 43.2% in 2008 and 75% in 2009 (5.01t/ha). In 2010 the 4

6 intervention area increased to 100,000ha (over 150,000 farm families) and the average paddy yield dropped to 4.32t/ha., mainly because that was the first season of intervention in most of the IIP irrigation systems. Kharif-2011 crop is being harvested and the average yield is expected to exceed 5t/ha (Figure-1) 2. Crop cuts are being done collaboratively with the Department of Agriculture (DA) and also witnessed by the field staffs of WRD (Figure-2) Summary Progress of CIDP Intensive Intervention Programme is given in Table-1. Figure-1: Average Paddy Yield in Intensive Intervention Programme IIP demonstrated the strength of CIDP strategy which follows experiential capacity building 3 and an Integrated approach. THE STRATEGY: WUA-MANAGED COLLECTIVE ACTION WUA-managed Collective Action is the pivotal mechanism adopted in almost all the activities. Moreover, IIP follows an integrated approach; the strategy does not separate WUA strengthening from agricultural and associated water management interventions. PIM is not considered as an end by itself; CIDP is aimed at poverty reduction and therefore, the IIP strategy is matching with CIDP goal. Community Organizers (COs), 2 About one third of the crop-cuts have been completed (as at 02 December 2012) and the average yield is 5.4t/ha. 3 WUAs are being strengthened while implementing agriculture and water management interventions. Formal training is minimized. 5

7 guided by the Senior COs (SCOs), NGO Specialists and TA Consultants, motivate farmers and organized them for collective action, including planning and input-output services. In Rabi, a substantial amount of Rabi produce in about 50 Irrigation Systems has been marketed by WUAs through collective action. In many systems WUA-private sector marketing deals have been facilitated. Managing agriculture marketing as well as developing partnerships with the Private Sector are unique experiences in Chhattisgarh. Figure-2: Kharif Crop Cut 2011 Samples in Kranti Minor Irrigation System (District Kabirdham) Collaboratively done and certified by Department of Agriculture, Department of Water Resources and Water Users Association: Yield : 5.32 Ton/ha. ALL crop cuts (over 850) are being done collaboratively with Department of Agriculture and witnessed by Water Resources Department Field Staffs and this type of certification is being done The major characteristics of the strategy and process are listed below: Year-round-management of water: WUAs are organized for year-roundmanagement of water; e.g. manage Kharif for Rabi was the major Theme : Maximize the utilization of Kharif rains and save reservoir water for Rabi. This is more beneficial for reservoir (tank) based systems. However, in run-of-the river systems too, this strategy can save time and therefore increase the cropping intensity {see section on Managing Kharif (wet season) for Rabi (dry season) below for detailed methodology and process}. 6

8 PIM is not Separated from Agriculture and agriculture is not confined to knowledge building through demonstrations and formal training of selected farmers: Ultimate objective is to develop Multi-functional WUAs managing water and agriculture support services including input supply and output marketing through collective action. Water Management (including Command Area Development (CAD), Agriculture and input-output Interventions are integrated. This is beyond PIM (or PIM may be re-defined this way). Irrigation system-wide improvements: Interventions focus on ALL members and the total area (of irrigation n system) with the aim of improving the Total and Average Production, Cropping Intensity etc., and NOT focused on selected individuals or few demonstrations. WUA-managed Collective Action and the integrated approach are helpful in achieving irrigation system-wide improvements. Chak 4 -based (modified) Farmers Field School (FFS) is adopted as the major method of agricultural extension. Many WUAs are now involved in managing water at all levels (Table-1): (i) WUAs are organized to manage water allocation from source (sluice gate of the reservoir) on their own (in Minor irrigation systems) or jointly with WRD (in medium systems) (ii) WUAs distribute water within Minor systems and joint WRD in water distribution in Medium systems (iii) WUAs manage water within the Base Units (Chaks), and (iv) WUAs organize agriculture support services including inputs (and output marketing) and therefore help match water with complementary inputs and thereby enhancing water and land productivity. Participatory Methods and Experiential Capacity Building ( Learn-by-doing ) of WUAs: Instead of relying on formal training, WUAs develop their capacity through learn-by-doing or experiential method. Very little formal training (e.g. Finance Mgt, Accounting and Book Keeping). As mentioned earlier, WUAs are strengthened through WUA-managed Collective Action supported by technical assistance and facilitation. Hand-holding and Catalysing: Considering the socio-economic status of farmers and the gap between the potential and what is actually achieved in irrigation systems, it has been decided to employ a handholding approach. In the IIP irrigation systems covering about 100,000ha, farmers and WUAs have been mobilised, motivated and strengthened by providing technical assistance (by TA Consultants, NGO Specialists and Senior Community Organizers, SCOs) and employing Community Organizers, COs. The COs and SCOs were selected from market in a transparent way and promotions and incentives are based on participatory performance assessment. 4 As Chak is the lowest level hydraulic unit, CIDP agriculture strategy considers Chak Group, comprised of all the farmers farming within the same Chak, as the Base Unit or the building block for WUA strengthening and developing irrigated agriculture production system. 7

9 Multi-disciplinary Technical Assistance: CO, usually is a generalist and one CO serves about 1000 farmers. There is a Team of two SCOs for a cluster of 7-12 WUAs; one with social science background with coordinating and organising skills and the other with agriculture and water management background with extension experience 5. Participatory Performance Assessment and Target Setting by Farmer Groups: Participatory assessments are conducted by farmers at Chak and WUA levels and also by the TA Team (with field staff). WUA self assessment is not fully developed and internalized yet. However, participatory assessments are conducted by farmers at Chak Group level. They get together and examine the results of the just completed season ; e.g. assess the levels of inputs, understand the reasons for the differences in yield among farmers and think how they should do things differently in the coming seasons to maximize the profits and reduce the variation in yield within Chaks and within WUA / irrigation system. Programme Management-Consultants as Implementers: It is believed that the mode of programme management helped achieve quick results especially during the expansion phase (June 2010 to date). NGO provides staff, COs, SCO, and Specialists; and support but not the strategy. TA is managing the entire programme and provides Technical Guidance. TA consultants of CIDP undertook the responsibility for demonstrating what they advise (advocate). The SCOs and COs are been trained through continuous interactions and demonstrating how to do major capacity builders/trainers. Consultants do not function as Advisers. For example, Agriculture Consultant demonstrates the role of SCO (Agriculture) to enable her/him to learn and develop skills. The Agriculture Consultant conducts/acts as resource person in several Farmers Field Schools (FFSs), involves SCO (Agriculture) and assist her/him develop similar skills. After few such demonstrations SCO (Ag) start conducting FFS Sessions by her/himself. This way a very large number of farmers are covered by FFS. Similarly, the PIM consultant, in addition to supervising and monitoring, demonstrates PIM-related activities such as settling disputes at WUA General Body meetings, interacting with leaders or conducting a training session on record keeping and the SCO (PIM) participate and learn skills. Consultants are involved in participatory reviews and target setting as well. District-level participatory assessments are held on a monthly basis and at the end of each quarter all the SCOs (and occasionally all the COs), NGO agriculture specialists and consultants look back at the last quarter, assess and learn lessons jointly and set 5 As the salary approved by WRD is low (about US$300) it was difficult to attract agriculture extension candidates with good experience. Therefore, some of the SCO (Agriculture) do not have adequate experience. In the case of COs too, it is difficult to attract organizers/social workers with the level of experience required for the Intervention. Nine NGO agriculture specialists (6 extension and 3 marketing) are supposed to assist TA consultants. However, only one marketing specialist has been mobilized months back and agric. specialists too are in short supply. The programme suffered in 2010, especially in the second half of the year, mainly due to delays in CO-SCO salaries. Many of the good SCOs and COs had left the programme. 8

10 S. No. targets for next Quarter. The performance of Collective Activities are measured on the basis of outputs or what actually happening in the field (and not just based on the inputs like the number of formal trainings conducted). WUAs and COs are ranked on the basis of the scores of a set of indicators. Scores of all the WUAs within a SCO Cluster/district are aggregated to rank the SCOs and higher level farmers organization/irrigation systems/ district. Moreover, the performance of consultants and NGO agriculture specialists is also exposed. Weak and strong WUAs / staffs are compared and this participatory methodology provides opportunities for learning from each other. Table 1 show few indicators used in participatory assessments. RESULTS In IIP irrigation systems, the ADB supported Technical Assistance Programme of CIDP has strengthened the roles, responsibilities and authority of WUAs (and Chak Groups) for managing irrigation systems as profitable agriculture production systems. This strategy and process produced significant results: (i) In the Pilot irrigation systems, Kharif cropping intensity reached 100% and crop yield (Kharif Paddy) increased over 75% (from 2.8 t/ha to 5.01t/ha) within three years (Table 1 below and Figure-1 on page 6) (ii) The programme extended to cover 100,000ha in 2010 (and reduced to 90,835 in 2011 wet season). The yield dropped to 4.32t/ha mainly because of area expansion. Based on the crop-cuts completed to date (02 Dec 2011) average yield exceeds 5t/ha. This is a significant improvement in the expanded area. The tested approach took only two crop seasons to achieve the target (Table 1 below and Figure-1 on page 6) (iii) These systems would be used as learning laboratories and demonstrations for improving other irrigation systems State-wide. Summary Progress of CIDP Intensive Intervention Programme is given below in Table-1. Figures illustrate the progress of few activities. Tble-1: Progress of CIDP Intensive Intervention Programme (Selected Indicators) No. of No. of Systems WUAs Major Indicators 9 Area in (ha.) No. of Farmers 1 IIP - Kharif Medium Systems Minor Systems Chak Formation in Irrigation Systems (as a %) 90% 5 Sub Committee Formation, % completed 96%

11 S. No Tble-1: Progress of CIDP Intensive Intervention Programme (Selected Indicators) No. of No. of Systems WUAs Major Indicators WUA-organized Seed Production (Kharif 2011) WUA-organized Seed Production (Kharif 2010) System of Rice Intensification, SRI (Kharif 2011) System of Rice Intensification, SRI (Kharif 2010) % of irrigation systems/wuas where WUA is managing/arranging fertilizer (Collective Action) Checking Tank Water Level by WUA and CO in Minor systems: as a % Sluice Gate Control in Minor systems by WUA as % out of Total Minors Sluice Gate Control in Minor systems jointly by WUA and WRD - - % out of Total Minors Irrigation distribution managed jointly by WRD-WUA in Medium systems - % out of Total Medium Planned Rabi as a % of Total command (That is: Expected Cropping Intensity) Planned Rabi as a % of Post R&U Designed Rabi Area Rabi cropping intensity in previous Rabi ( ) Kharif Average Yield (through crop cuts) in 2009, t/ha (Pilot Irrigation Systems covering 25,000ha where Interventions continued since 2007) Kharif Average Yield through crop cut -2010, t/ha (69 Systems) Expected Average Kharif Yield this season - Kharif 2011 (in ton/ha). Note: Based on 30% of crop-cuts already taken the average yield is 5.4t/ha Area in (ha.) No. of Farmers % 100% NA NA 100% 100% NA NA 27% 73% 100% 50% NA NA 158% NA 25% 5.01 ton/ha 4.32 ton/ha 5.00 ton/ha 10

12 S. No Tble-1: Progress of CIDP Intensive Intervention Programme (Selected Indicators) No. of No. of Area Systems WUAs in Major Indicators Kharif Crop Cut Target (2011 (crop-cut plot area - 25 m 2 ) Crop Cuts done in Kharif 2010 (Sample plot area - 1m 2. (Note: 2011 Kharif crop-cut plot area is 25m 2 ) Participatory Reviews conducted at Chak level (Rabi ) 11 No. of Farmers (ha.) 829 Samples (already exceeded-02 Dec 2011) Over Work Done by Sub Committees Please see the Note-1 below 26 No of WUAs where CIDP Grant fund have been distributed (First Instalment) 33 No of WUAs where Grant fund have been distributed (First and second Instalments) 34 Progress of WUA GB meetings as a % of Target in Kharif Progress of WUA MC meetings as a % of Target in Kharif 2011 (May 2011 to Sep 2011) 36 Progress of Chak Representatives meetings (May 2011 to End of Aug 2011) 37 Progress of Chak Group meetings (May 2011 to End of August 2011) NA - Not Applicable out of out of 82 89% 89% Note-1: Important work done by sub committees Recommendations to managing committee regarding the use and deployment of resources, budget and approval of payments for the works. Maintenance of records related to financial matters. Supervise works and ensure the completion of works in time with quality control. Carry out the decisions of the managing committee and general body on water regulation & schedule of water release. Organize patrolling of canal and regulate the use of water. Organizing O&M. Checking of irrigation and drainage system regularly. Recording tank water level and water deliveries. Organize and conduct training (PIM & agriculture) for the WUA members. Work with Facilitators on information, education and awareness IEA). Monitor and evaluate all activities of the farmers organization as authorized by the managing committee (Self-evaluation).

13 The strategy was to plan water use in a more efficient manner; WUAs involve in allocation, distribution and on-farm management, including matching water with complementary inputs. At present many WUAs plan for the entire year and not just for one season. In Kharif, through WUA and Chak managed collective action, farmers are motivated to utilize rainfall to the maximum extent possible. Saving the maximum possible amount of water in the tank at the end of Kharif, while maximizing crop yield, is the target 6. Once this target is achieved, farmers are organized and assisted to plant follow-up crops soon after Kharif harvest. Hence, residual moisture is utilized at the initial stage of the follow-up crop. This strategy is reinforced with a package of crop practices. In the past, the focus was on managing a crop season. And, within the season, the focus of extension has been on the adoption of technology by the individual farmer and not on collective action by the WUA/Chak Groups and higher level Farmers Organizations. With TAassisted intervention process the COs and SCOs educate, motivate and facilitate the WUAs and Chak Groups to consider year-round demand and year-round utilization of tank water in WUA-managed irrigated agriculture production systems. In the intervention programme the following are organized through collective action by the WUA and Chak Group: Reducing staggered cultivation: Planting the same age group, preferably avoiding varieties above 130 days and organize all the farmers to plant within a period of 7-10 days. The average length of Kharif, measured by the date of first farmer s planting to last farmer s harvest, has been reduced from about 6-7 months to about months. This will be reduced further in the coming seasons. The next few items are also related to this effort. Use of short duration varieties and certified seed. A significant progress has been achieved in a short time. Availability of quality seeds is the major constraint. Government can supply only about 15-20% of the requirement. Therefore, IIP facilitating WUA-organized seed production (Figures 3). Plan is for WUAs in IIP to be self-sufficient in seeds within the next two years. At the request of TA consultants, ADB suggested and the Government agreed to permit WUAs to register as seed producers Organizing group / WUA-managed / advanced nurseries using few tube wells. With this strategy, group nurseries may be established in early June so that farmers can prepare lands with initial rains and plant early. Even if rain delays by 1-2 weeks (like it happened in 2009 Kharif) farmers would not be affected as the seedlings are in the nurseries and irrigated by wells. 6 If this is achieved, then it would be possible to motivate farmers to plant a short-age cash crop just after (or before) harvesting rice to utilize the residual moisture. Such efforts would significantly increase cropping intensity. WUA, with maturity, could assist farmers in organizing group nurseries, organizing the production of quality seeds, providing inputs like machinery and equipment etc. 12

14 Figure-3: WUA-organized seed production: Area under seed production AREA UNDER PADDY SEED PRODUCTIONN (in ha.) 1200 Area (in ha.) Kharif Kharif Target for 2012 Year Area unde r This way, farmers can maximize the use of rainfall. This has just begun; adoption is still low. Most probably this would become the most influencing strategy in reducing staggered cultivation. Dry Season Diversified Cropping: Farmers are motivated to use residual moisture at the end of Kharif for a follow-up crop, thereby maximizing the use of rainfall. For example, at present (02 December 2011) nearly half of IIP command area is planned for Rabi (almost all for diversified crops). This exceeds the CIDP post R&U target even before Rehabilitation and Upgrading (R&U). Figure 4. WUAs are handling input services so that farmers get inputs in time and at a reduced cost. This helps reduce staggered cultivation and save water (further improvement in this is required. So far, WUAs were not supported in terms of credit, seed money etc. It is recommended that CIDP initiate such action). WUAs and Chak Committees undertaking more responsibility in managing water within WUA and Chak, respectively: The rate of adoption is satisfactory but further improvements are necessary. Chak leaders and WUA Management Committee (MC) should join together in preparing and executing a WUA-managed water distribution plan system-wide. WUA leaders / water management committees / Apex Body (Project Committee) need to manage water allocation jointly with WRD. 13

15 Figure-4: Planned Rabi (dry season) Cropping Command Area (ha.) Designed Rabi area after R&U (CIDP) (in ha.) Planned Rabi by tank Water and conjunctive use (Residual Moisture and/or wells) Command Area (ha.) Designed Rabi area after R&U (CIDP) (in ha.) Planned Rabi by tank Water and conjunctive use (Residual Moisture and/or wells) Field Channel construction (mainly for avoiding farm-to-farm irrigation and for efficient OFWM): This is a major component of CIDP and WUAs are expected to manage field channel construction. However, CIDP is still lagged behind and not mobilized adequate resources for this activity. Farm-to-farm irrigation is wasteful. In few IIP systems, CIDP and other funds have been mobilized for WUA-managed field channel construction. WUA-WRD relations for this activity is improving but at a slower rate. Without field channels it would be difficult to achieve crop diversification target. Package of crop practices: i. Adopting the recommended package of practices. Collective Action, especially WUA-managed input services and modified FFSs contributed significantly to quick results. Soil testing organized by WUAs with the help of NGO specialists, SCOs, COs and TA consultants helped timely and balance fertilizer applications. ii. Seed treatment with fungicides before sowing (adoption is very high and quick). iii. Introduction of SRI method of crop cultivation to demonstrate use of less water and better yield: A positive trend is noted (Figures 5 and 6). Exposure visits have been organized in all SRI areas and many farmers are convinced. iv. Use of Hybrids to increase yields: Many WUAs are linked with private-sector. With maturity some WUAs / Farmers Companies may take up seed production as a business (including Hybrids). v. Shallow irrigation to save water in Kharif for Rabi and to get more tillers. Progress is encouraging, especially with SRI farmers (Figure 7). Farm-to-farm irrigation is a constraint for managing water including OFWM. 14

16 vi. vii. Introduction of seedling treatment before transplanting to reduce pest attack. Follow Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Figure-5: WUAs Organizing SRI: 2010, 2011 and Target for No. of System Kharif Kharif Target for Kharif Kharif Target for 2012 Figure-6: Farmers adopting SRI-2010 and No. of farmers Kharif Kharif Kharif Kharif

17 Figure-7: Average number of tillers in SRI area, classified by SCO Clusters No. of Tillers Average no. of Tillers in SRI 0 CIDP has not fully achieved targets of motivating all the actors simultaneously. Further efforts are required to motivate WRD to work collaboratively with the WUAs to consider agriculture strategies that could be integrated with system operation and irrigation management to optimize year-round use of irrigation water. TA assisted in defining contractual relations between WUA and WRD related to Command Area Development (CAD), including Field Channel Construction and post CAD / post R&U O&M between WRD and WUAs to improve irrigation sector performance. Partnerships with government agencies and the private sector: Partnerships are being developed between WUAs and government agencies like the Department of Agriculture (DA) and (slowly) with WRD as well as with the private sector. WUAs in many IIP systems have already developed WUA-private sector partnerships in agricultural input marketing as well as in output marketing 7. TA Consultants, with the support of ADB and WRD, initiated and assisted Government to take a policy decision to allow WUAs to involve in agriculture services. This is a major achievement and, as the WUAs in IIP areas are already mobilized for input-output marketing, farmers enhance their incomes and profits. This helps expand Rabi diversification, which is a major objective of CIDP. 7 Few WUAs planned to engage in agro-processing in 2009/10 Rabi season but this has been postponed to 2011/12 Rabi season, mainly because some SCOs and COs left the programme due to delays in SCO-CO salaries. 16

18 In the balance period of CIDP (until 31 st March 2011), the focus of IIP would be mainly on: a. Intensifying IIP in the expanded area (covering about 100,000ha), and b. Focus on the sustainability of the WUAs. WUAs would be sustainable if WUA-managed collective action in agriculture and Irrigation O&M and associated Interventions are internalized. At present the ADB-assisted programme has entered into a process of facilitating the formation of Farmers Companies. If the matured WUAs / Farmers Companies are allowed to take over the governance of irrigation and agriculture production, it is expected that the WUA members will pay water rates as per the PIM Act and the contractual agreement between WUA and WRD. This participatory strategy in implementing the PIM Act and enhanced involvement of WUA in agricultural support services, including marketing will ensure that farmer incomes are enhanced and poverty is reduced. The PIM Act ensures that the weaker sections of the society would not be excluded. The Intensive Intervention Programme (IIP) has shown that; resulting benefits from improved water management and increased agricultural productivity coupled with sense of ownership provide a natural stimulus for farmers to participate. ISSUES AND LESSONS This achievement of CIDP-IIP was possible mainly because in CIDP s PIM strategy where WUA strengthening has been integrated with agriculture and water management interventions. Year-round-management of water (including managing the source) has been promoted (in place of traditional season focus). Maximizing the annual productivity of limited irrigation supply and enhancing overall production of irrigation system and farm incomes through WUA-managed package of agriculture and water management practises. This included early start and shortening Kharif and the full utilization of rainfall to save reservoir water for a follow-up crop (which also uses residual moisture). Farmers and WUAs have being mobilised, motivated and strengthened by providing technical assistance and employing trained Community Organizations, COs, to adopt a handholding approach. WUAs developed their capacity through learn-by-doing or experiential method. They managed interventions in IIP irrigation systems and the results were encouraging. The Need for Structural Reforms and a Proper Institutional Home for WUAs WRD is the executing Agency (EA) of CIDP. It is questionable whether one should expect a construction-oriented bureaucratic agency to successfully execute a participatory, integrated / holistic and poverty reduction project at once. A structural or institutional reform would be a pre-requisite. Other alternative would be to involve an external agency at the initial stages (like in the Philippines, Sri Lanka) or to have an autonomous project implementing unit with a multidisciplinary Team. 17

19 Most of WRD staffs are unfamiliar with subjects beyond conventional design and construction. Skills are highly limited therefore, with respect to participatory approaches and accountable service delivery. The latter is furthermore constrained by inadequate O&M resources. Furthermore, the Chhattisgarh Irrigation Development Project (CIDP), financed through ADB loan 2159-IND is predicated on a more participatory, demand driven approach consistent with the requirements of the 2006 PIM Act. Little attempt is made to monitor returns on the investments and in general, performance is measured only in terms of the water service charge collections. However, given (i) that the vast majority of the investments are in irrigation; (ii) that irrigated crops are predominantly low value; (iii) that the yields achieved are very sub-optimal; and, (iv) that all the water is used on half the area, then it is reasonable to assume that returns to investment could be improved (Chhattisgarh Water Sector Review and Analysis, Executive Summary, p iv by TA, 2008). The IIP faced difficulties mainly due to above condition. Over the years, the WRD response and involvement in the IIP has improved mainly due to interactions between facilitating staff (including consultants) and WRD staff. However, so far the project has failed to develop an institutional home within the irrigation department and sustainable partnership between the department and WUAs. Nevertheless, many WUAs may become self-sustained before the end of the programme in March WRD PIM Unit has been established and it was expected that the staff attached to this Unit would work closely with TA consultants and develop in-house capacity during the CIDP period. CIDP irrigation systems include only about 15% of the WUAs in the State (about 200 out of 1324). Therefore, the primary task of WRD PIM Unit is to extend CIDP experience to non-cidp systems and introduce and internalize PIM in all the systems in the State. For this, it is necessary for PIM Unit staff to learn during the TA period. As the TA is adopting a participatory learning-process approach, it provides an ideal environment for the WRD-PIM staff to actively collaborate with the TA, in the IIP area and with NGO specialists (under TA guidance) in the PIM Training programme in non-cidp area. Only very few motivated individuals participate in such programmes. There was active participation at the beginning of CIDP, especially during the preparation of PIM Act, Rules, By-laws and regulations. Such collaborations, however, could not be continued due to frequent transfer of PIM staff. Utilizing WUA-Network for Agriculture Support Services by Government Agencies The WUA Network is water-based (Chak as the base hydraulic unit). This is required for irrigation O&M in irrigation systems. It is proposed that, instead of selecting individual farmers, the Department of Agriculture (DA) and other agencies utilize this Network for inputs /services including agricultural extension, supplying inputs. This will also help strengthen WUA Network and PIM-based agriculture in irrigation systems. Focusing services on selected individuals contradicts with the participatory approach promoted within irrigation systems. The advantages of WUA-Network include the feasibility of organizing services / collective action at different levels (Chak, WUA and higher level organizations) and achieving: a) economies of scale (e.g. input-output services by WUA to 18

20 member farmers), and b) improve efficiency (e.g. irrigation) 8. WUAs as Multifunctional Organizations for Behavioural Changes and Productivity Gains The overall performance of typical irrigation systems depends on a large number of nonwater factors as well. There are on-farm and above farm levels of activity; crosscutting water and non-water factors. For example, at farm level the combined effects of water, high-yielding varieties, fertilizer and other inputs influence the crop yields. However, the availability and access to these complementary inputs is a serious problem for many farmers. WUA-managed Collective Action will handle this constraint. Collective action will strengthen WUAs and higher-level Farmers Organizations continuously. In the IIP, Collective Action developed a sense of ownership and resulted in behavioural changes. In all the irrigation systems included in IIP, WUAs are now involved in input supply (and in most of the systems they handle output marketing too). This reduces transaction costs, avoid low-quality inputs, improve timeliness of supply and, as water is also managed collectively, farmers were motivated to match water with these complementary inputs (in terms of quantity and timing) to improve productivity of land, water and complementary inputs 9. Matching water with other inputs (tapping complementary relationships to improve water productivity and famer profits) is a major contributing factor to reduce poverty, which is the goal of CIDP. In this context, it is proposed that PIM may not be considered as an end itself. The intervention methodology The intervention methodology played a key role in CIDP. It focused on WUA-managed Collective Action, promoted association, interaction and cooperation of WUA members with each other; developed their perception of problems and needs as well as vision; and then began a process of exploring how these needs / goals could be met. In effect, it was a 8 For example, WUA Network with 1500 farmers cultivating 1000ha may approach the efficiency of farmer having 1000ha in a developed economy. 9 Improved water availability to crops, through efficient irrigation, may result in an upward shift in the fertilizer production function and vice-versa. In other words, returns to water would be more when it is properly combined with adequate levels of fertilizer. Also, improved water availability and more reliable distribution may lead to increased application of fertilizer by farmers. Thus, the influence of irrigation management on the application of other complementary inputs is not merely technical, but also behavioural. These inter-relations between factors involved in the irrigation process suggest the need for making a distinction between means and ends of system performance. The performance of irrigation need to be evaluated against the ends or the ultimate goals of improved well-being of farmers and increased food production. Therefore, the performance of activities such as O&M, or other physical and organizational aspects should be viewed as "means" rather than "ends" of productivity and distribution, which constitute major criteria that can be reasonably well measured and interpreted (Wijayaratna, 1986). 19

21 planned intervention. Carefully selected and well-trained catalysts or change agents (COs and SCOs) were the key change agents. The intervention methodology is not new. Such planned interventions have been successful in managing irrigation systems in Asia. For example, in a pioneering experiment of establishing Farmer Organizations in Gal Oya major irrigation project 10, Sri Lanka, the objective of the change agent or the Institutional Organizer (IO)were to initiate a process, encompassing a range of options applicable to different locations and situations. It was expected that during this process, the IO, the farmer and the field level officials would attempt jointly to develop participatory organizations. An IO was expected to respect farmers, their ideas, values and beliefs. An IO was neither an instructor nor an educator in the classic sense. Instead, an IO was a facilitator. She/he promoted interaction among villagers, and between the villagers and the Government officials and helped irrigation groups and the Government agencies interact with each other based on mutual respect. Her/his role was to make villagers self-reliant. In this sense an IO was a catalyst. She/he did not make decisions for people but helped them analyze issues, always leaving the decision making to them (Wijayaratna, 1985). Gal Oya experience has been utilized in developing Institutional Framework for PIM in Sri Lanka. However, in Chhattisgarh, despite the significant results, it may take time for authorities to examine the strategy and process closely, modify if necessary and expand widely to benefit poor farmers. Note: Learning from Gal Oya and many other success cases, CIDP followed a similar approach. One major difference was that, in Gal Oya, IO entered the community with a trained but open mind. She/he did not take with her/him a model organization. In CIDP, COs and SCOs didn t enter the community with an open mind. A new PIM Act has been introduced prior to IIP, WUA election under the new Act was held and the WUAs were in place (even though they were weak). WUA development, as illustrated in Figure-8 is an evolutionary process. The strength of the catalytic process and other factors including policy and willingness of the Government would influence how far WUAs can go. It is up to the WUAs to judge whether CIDP has achieved success under the prevailing obstacles. There are signs that some WUAs will go far The author was the Team Leader ( ) of this action-research program 11 Strong and carefully planned interventions can catalyze farmers to form sustainable organizations. Gal Oya (Sri Lanka is one such case: Almost 15 years after project completion, there is now (1997) additional evidence of what social capital can accomplish in physical and monetary terms: the production of millions of dollars worth of rice during a dry season when engineers and officials had concluded that there was not enough water in the reservoir to try to grow the usual crop. The system of organizational roles and rules created by farmers, with assistance from Sri Lanka's Agrarian Research and Training Institute (ARTI) and Cornell University, was able to distribute a very limited volume of water so sparingly yet effectively that a better-than-normal crop was obtained with only a portion of the water supply considered necessary (Uphoff and Wijayaratna, p.iv, World Development, November 2000, No. 28, Vol. 11). 20