Drought Assessment Northern Eastern Kenya (Wajir East, South and Mandera) April 2011

Transcription

1 Drought Assessment Northern Eastern Kenya (Wajir East, South and Mandera) April

2 Acknowledgements The rapid needs assessment was carried out from the 11 th -24 th of April 2011 with the aim of understanding the current situation and impact of the drought in North Eastern Kenya particularly in Wajir and Mandera districts, after the failure of short rains in mid October up to mid December 2010 and the late arrival of long rains in late March The study also assessed the additional needs of children and their families as a result of the extended drought and the impact of recurrent droughts on different livelihoods zones, food security, health and nutrition with an additional focus on child protection, education and WASH. The purpose of the learning resulting from the assessment is for it to guide a response strategy covering emergency, recovery and long-term programming for resilient communities. The research was made possible through the efforts of Mandera, Wajir East and Habaswein (Wajir South) Multi Sectoral Assessment Team, including the support of Area Managers during the assessment period. I would also like to thank other INGO s, the District Veterinary Officer and District Agriculture Officer who provided us with useful information and were available for interviews during the survey. I would also like to thank SC UK Kenya Program particularly the monitoring and evaluation team and Donnely Mwachi who helped me with data processing and statistical analysis. 2

3 Executive Summary This report summarizes the current situation of the poorest and most vulnerable households in drought affected areas of North Eastern Kenya in relation to seasonality, livelihoods, health, nutrition, WASH, children, households coping strategies and ends with a list of recommendations. The assessment was conducted in the districts of Wajir (East & South) and Mandera located in North Eastern Kenya near the border with Somalia. The tools used were qualitative and were supported by quantifiable indicators of the long and short rain assessment to further understand the impact of drought in different livelihoods zones. The information gathered will help analyze the current situation and inform SC UK emergency, recovery and long term programming in the area. The findings of the assessment suggest that the impact of the drought has severely affected vulnerable households in different livelihoods zones. The failure of short rains in mid October up to mid December 2010 and the late arrival of long rains in mid March 2011 have resulted in negative coping mechanisms, triggered stress and in depth livelihoods shock amongst pastoralist and agro pastoralist households mainly due to water and grazing shortages. The change in weather patterns has caused serious damage to animals such as disease -wasting and malnutrition are evident which undermines the animals capacity to produce. Increases mortality between 40% up to 70% was also observed. The catastrophe has also added more distress to a sector already suffering due to an inexistent marketing system and safety-nets intended for the marginal pastoralists and agro-pastoralists. Reports also show that most water points have dried up and communities are relying on buying water from commercial water truckers. This water is extracted from the few still functioning boreholes and the quality is not always fit for human consumption. There is also an increase in reported incidences of health, nutrition and hygiene related issues due to the absence of basic sanitation facilities and the unavailability of quality meals. Cases of diarrhoea and wasting, skin disease, common cold and respiratory tract infections are increasing amongst children and women. It was also observed that some children are stunted due to micronutrient deficiency during their development stage caused by poverty. The adverse conditions have also lead to a negative trend in children s school attendance. As the scarcity of food at household level is forcing children to contribute to the families income and tasks, children are dropping out. Many are not going to school and are instead either, getting small jobs for income generation to help sustain household needs or are responsible for fetching the ever scarcer water and traveling far, up to 20 km, to get it. During the assessment it has also become clear that food insecurity is high in most households even in a normal year only 6% of the households grow their food, 22% buy half of their food in the market and 30% are dependent on food aid. It also seems that in the next 1-2 months this is likely to be critical as 42 % of Mandera and Wajir East needs food to survive, followed by Wajir South which scores 29% and this will reach up to 6 months (see Annex 6) as losses on productive assets is high and no longer producing leads to hunger and poverty. The situation seems dire for people in the area however-in some of the places where SC UK is already working, the impact of the drought has been mitigated. Therefore scaling up the current programme is highly recommended, especially in an emergency situation, where the hunger safety net program and EC facility food voucher to help stimulate markets, thereby providing income, could have a positive impact. Recovery and long-term programming also has to be addressed. Things like the establishment of marketing systems, alternative livelihoods and post-harvest facilities coupled with capacity building is highly recommended to mitigate these recurring problems. This would empower the community and thus reinforce the sustainability and resilience of households livelihoods. 3

4 List of Acronyms ASAL- Arid and Semi-Arid Lands Deyr- minor rainy season EID- Muslim religious festival GoK- Government of Kenya Gu- Long rainy season Hagaa- Long dry season (Jul-Sept) Jilaal- Short dry season KFSSG- Kenya Food Security Steering Group MT- Metric Ton NFD- New Frontiers District PHAST- Participatory Health and Sanitation Transformation SC- Save the Children UN- United Nations WASH- Water Sanitation and Hygiene WFP- World Food Programme 4

5 Table of Contents 1. Background p 6 2. Methodology p.6 3. Pre-Flood Livelihoods p Geographical Area p Livelihoods Zones: Pastoralists and Agro-Pastoralists p Seasonality p Description of Livelihoods Strategies by Wealth Group p Better-Off p Middle Income p Poor and Very Poor p Impact of the Drought 4.1 How have Households been affected by the Drought? p Food Sources p WASH p Health and Nutrition p Impact of the Drought on Children p How have Livelihoods been affected by the Drought? p Agriculture and Livestock: Pastoralists and Agro-Pastoralists p Sources of Income p Markets p Prices p Coping Strategies Adopted by Different Groups p Conclusion p Recommendations p Annexes p

6 1. Background In North Eastern Kenya the abnormally prolonged lack of rains has triggered stress and livelihoods shock amongst pastoralists and agro-pastoralists due to a shortage of water and grazing. There has been an absence of short rains from October to November 2010, followed by a dry spell that started in December and lasted up to mid March 2011 which was then followed by a delayed outcome of long rains in late March. These changes in weather pattern have caused serious damage to pastoral livelihoods zones causing a rise in disease amongst animals, as well as wasting and malnutrition (which undermines the animals capacity to produce), leading to a high mortality rate of livestock of between 40% and reaching up to 70% in some areas. The lack of a marketing system or safety net for marginal pastoralists and agropastoralists added to the catastrophe has also added more distress to a sector which was already suffering. The disaster has also had a catastrophic impact on agriculture in the area, a sector which was already suffering before due to an unreliable water supply, recurrent pests and diseases, lack of farm inputs and support. The insufficient supply of water has lead to crop failure resulting in a deficient food supply which fails to meet the demands of the greater population. The constant food shortfalls have triggered more problems related to hunger due to food insecurity, especially in Mandera. The districts crop production has been seriously compromised by erratic rainfall and recurrent droughts since 2003, where production fell short by 95%, the food requirement is 43,970 MT. Wajir produces only 3.4% of its estimated annual food demand of 61,227 MT (2003) 1. The failure in food production plus the soaring food prices has lead households to have a low purchasing power due to the lack of income. The inadequate supply of food has lead to a reduction in quantity and quality of food intake, posing a threat to the health and nutritional status of lactating mothers and especially that of children in their development stage. The adverse situation has also lead to an increase in the number of children not attending school. This has occurred because as food scarcity becomes worse, households are forced to make their children get a small job to contribute to the family income to be able to cover and sustain the households basic needs. Aside from food shortage, the unavailability of clean water plus the low number of latrines has worsened the hygiene and sanitation situation, increasing health risks. 2. Methodology The multi-sector rapid assessment was designed to answer a number of questions and to support decision making on the emergency response and recovery stages of the drought affected areas of North Eastern Kenya. The assessment had the following objectives: - To assess the additional needs of children and their families as a result of the extended drought in North Eastern Kenya, so as to provide information for funding and prioritization decision making. - To assess the impact of the recurrent drought using a rapid HEA assessment focusing on food security, nutrition and health. Also with an additional focus on child protection, education and WASH. - To develop a strategy that encompasses the current portfolio of work on chronic drought as well as outlining additional interventions, essential to protect children and their families during the prolonged dry period. 1 Wajir & Mandera Food Security profile by KFSSG 6

7 The assessment was conducted in the Counties of Wajir (East & South) and Mandera located in North Eastern Kenya, near the Somali border. A total of 18 communities were visited over a period of 7 days, these were: Qarsa, Riba, Wajir Bor, Haragal, Majabow, Wargadud, Logbogol, Hara khot khot, Salalma, Kulaaley, Ibrahim Ure (Argani Village) and Hubsoy; Didkuro, Ardahalo, Gither, Lulis, Guba in Mandera West and Elele in Mandera Central. The sample of communities surveyed was selected from within SC operational areas, identified to represent the full range of the context and according to distance from town centers, population size and the scale of the damage due to the drought. The assessment is qualitative in its design but it is supported by a number of quantifiable indicators relating to the pre and post drought situation. Within each community semistructured focus group discussions (FGDs) were held with men, women and children separately totaling 54 groups. Household interviews were conducted randomly in 270 selected households, 52 key informant interviews were held (who were identified as respondents for the survey from local representatives at a community level and also at town level). Market observation was also done and 44 traders (medium and small) were interviewed to understand the economic trends and prices. Finally, this assessment also draws on secondary data from a wide range of sources, on pre-drought situational reports and statistics undertaken by FEWSNET, WFP, GoK, UN, Kenya Food Security Profile and other agencies. 3. Pre-Drought Livelihoods 3.1 Geographical Area Kenya is situated in the eastern part of the African continent. Approximately 80% of the land area of the country is arid or semi-arid, and only 20% is arable 2. The North Eastern province is one of seven administrative provinces in Kenya. Formerly known as the Northern Frontier District (NFD), it is also one of the third largest provinces with an estimated overall population of 2,385,572 (in2010) and a land area of 126,902 km². The region is and has historically been primarily inhabited by Ethnic Somalis. It also has a wide area of land which is viable for nomadic pastoralists. The only exception is a small area along the seasonal rivers and dams with a minimal potential for crop production. The districts are also vulnerable to drought which has caused low vegetation cover, added to this the uncontrolled cutting of trees and expansion of human settlements has left tracts of land bare and exposed to severe soil, water and wind erosion leading to limited capacity for crop production. Therefore, there is little or no possibility of irrigation-based development, though seasonal farming can be done. The estimated livestock population of the North Eastern Province is of approximately two to three million representing about 60-70% of the total livestock supply in Kenya, of which some has been exported to the Middle East 3. In the region approximately 80% of the total population are either pastoralists or agropastoralists who are highly dependent on livestock for their source of food and income, but also agriculture. The very poor households have at least 1 to 5 small animals like goats, sheep and donkeys which are used for milking and carting, to maximize income. However, they experience chronic poverty problems due to a low income and a lack of alternative livelihoods opportunities especially during the dry season. During this period pastoralists rely entirely on boreholes and 2 KENYA DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY conducted by Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). 3 North Eastern Kenya site: Wikipedia.org 7

8 wells for their supply of water which they use for their stock as well as for domestic purposes. Farming is only done during the short and long rainy season when water is abundant in the seasonal river and dams. The absence of rain causes water shortage resulting in crop failure and death to animals which is contributing to create extreme food insecurity amongst households. It has been found that due to the severity of the drought migration is high amongst men. Women seem to be staying at home taking care of their children and the remaining livestock, whilst their husbands migrate to find more pasture and water for the bigger animals. 3.2 Livelihoods Zones: Pastoralist and Agro-Pastoralist Mandera and Wajir districts have similar livelihoods zones, with the majority of households being pastoralist and agro-pastoralist. In Mandera district, 81% of the households derive their sources of food and income from livestock and livestock by-products. Cattle, sheep, goats, camels and donkeys are the most important livestock reared under the pastoralist system with the total stock estimated at about 964,000 animals. However, like its Asal counterparts, the Mandera livestock industry is beset by a number of constraints ranging from inadequate water supply, insecurity, frequent disease, epidemics, a rudimentary marketing system for livestock and its products and a poor quality of livestock produce, mainly due to overstocking. Only 9% of the total population is engaged in small scale farming with just 19% of the 5110 hectares of potential area for agriculture used. Most of these irrigated areas are located in the sub-perennial Daua River in Rhamu, Rhamu Dimtu and Malkamari divisions. The subsistence crops grown are maize, sorghum, cowpeas, groundnuts, onions, bananas, mangoes, pawpaw, tomatoes and kale. No other significant economic activities exist in the district except for petty trade in livestock and handicrafts. The district has recorded a 15.7% unemployment rate 4, though the monthly income of households in the district averages about kshs 9,819, thus the high incidence of poverty alludes to a big income disparity. In Wajir crops and livestock contribute to almost three-quarters of households income and food sources. The animals kept are cattle, camels, goats, sheep and donkeys- the total a population of these is around 1.12 million. The livestock sector accounts for over 60% of incomes earned under the pastoral livelihood zone in the district and employs over 62% of the district s labour force. However, the sector is also experiencing constraints due to the drought that has resulted in perennial water and grass shortages, disease, poor market for livestock and related products, overgrazing and cattle rustling 5. Usually crop production activities are carried out in the Lorian swamp and along the drainage lines in Bute Division. Cash crops planted include Katumani maize, sorghum, beans, fruits and vegetables. The total cultivated land for food production in this area is approximately 3,000 hectares however the agricultural sector is also facing a major challenge due to frequent droughts, poor soil fertility, diseases and pests, inadequate farm inputs and the lack of credit facilities. Due to limited livelihood means, nearly two-thirds of the residents in Wajir now live below the poverty line. 3.3 Seasonality The drought affected area is situated in North Eastern Kenya namely Mandera and Wajir. The districts are generally characterised by plains with scattered rocky hills and lie in the Sahelian climatic region. This region is characterized by a long and a short dry period as well as a long and 4 Mandera Food Security Profile by KFSSG 5 Wajir Food Security profile by KFSSG 8

9 short rainy season. However, the districts have had unreliable rainfall due to low precipitation and it is categorized as an arid area. The North Eastern Province has two rainy seasons, the long rains Gu which usually start in mid - late March to May and short rains Deyr started in late October up to mid December. In this period agro-pastoralist households located near the Tana and Dawa rivers grow maize, vegetables, watermelons, sorghum, bananas, cowpeas, etc Also during this period milk production is high because it is the season for birthing, kidding and calving. This is also the peak period for livestock trading because the prices are good due to an increase in demand, led mainly by many social activities taking place such as weddings and EID, for which feasts are prepared. These are usually practiced during the months of November and December. There are also two short dry seasons a short one Jilaal and a long dry one Hagaa season. The short dry season starts in the last week of December on goes on till February and the long dry season runs from June to Sep. It appears that during this period migration is high amongst pastoralists due to shortage of grazing and water. The hunger period is also high due to the absence of production both in livestock and agriculture. In some cases men are also migrating to town to work as casual labourers and others earn income through the collection and selling of bush by-products like gum and resin or cut trees for firewood and to produce charcoal. The current disturbance of weather conditions due to the failure of the short rains in mid October up to mid December 2010 and the delayed arrival of the long rains in late March 2011 have lead to a prolonged dry spell which has severely affected North Eastern Kenya. The changes in weather patterns cause significant damage to pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihoods zones, especially Wajir and Mandera, due to a shortage of food in households and absence of water and grazing for animals, this is evidenced by a high mortality of livestock in the area. Fig.1 Seasonal Calendar Activity J F M A M J J A S O N D Short very dry and dusty Long Dry Season (Months of June and July are cold while Aug Short rains ends in Weather Season (Jilaal) Long Rain (Gu) to Oct it is dry and windy and humid (Hagaa) Short rain (Deyr) mid Dec Milk production Rain start Mid to late March Migration Period Start MID JUNE Maize Harvest Vegetables Trading Season Planting & Harvesting Kidding, calving, birthing, milk production Planting & Harvesting Planting & Harvesting Rain start late Oct Planting & Harvesting Livestock Trading -Peak Season High Prices Casual Labour Hunger Period High Expenditures Tuition fees/procurem ent of school supplies Up to Mid- April Tuition fees/procurement of school supplies No planting, no harvest, no milk production, absence of fodder Casual labour also available in the months of July to Oct Tuition fees/procurement of school supplies Social activites- wedding, EID etc 3.4 Description of Livelihoods Strategies by Wealth Group Better-Off The better off households have one or more sources of income. They own a big number of large and small animals for example camels (70 or more heads), 100 cattle, goat and sheep (about 70 or more heads). These individuals are also engaged in business being owners of big shops and supply medium sized shop owners in the capital town. They also have money for livestock trading and they provide minimal labour jobs like animal herding, haulers, etc 9

10 3.4.2 Middle Income These are medium sized shop owners who are also livestock raisers in the local community. Some of them work in government or private organizations. Others engage in farming and livestock buying and trading in Nairobi, Mombasa or in other big towns. Middle income families other sources of income are from remittances from family living abroad who have also usually provided capital for their local businesses Poor and Very Poor The poor households own a few headed animals. They rely on these for income and food sources, not only on the livestock but on livestock by products. Some also receive external assistance from relatives, private individuals or INGO s. Others are engaged in farming and some earn a small income from waged labour activities such as construction work, hauling, fetching water etc Some collect wild products like resin and gums earning enough for daily subsistence. The cutting of trees for firewood and charcoal making are the other common sources of income by this group. Fig.2 Wealth Breakdown Indicator Very Poor (40%) Poor (40%) Middle (15%) Better Off (5%) Family Size 8 children 10 children children 12 or more children Kinds of house Sticks & leaves Sticks and grass with polythene Hori (Traditional houses), Mudhouse with sheet Concrete houses with fences Borrowed, food aid, gifts, Livestock by Borrowed, food aid, gifts, Livestock Purchased, gifts, Livestock by Purchased, Livestock by products, Main Sourcesof Food products,credit products, credit products, Credit gift Source of Income Casual labour, gifts, collection of wild products e.g. gum & risen, firewood sale & charcoal making, livestock & livestock by products Casual labour, livestock & livestock by products,gifts, borrowing, Firewood sale & charcoal making, agriuclture, collection of wild products e.g. gum & risen Small shop business, agriculture, salary & wages, remittances, livestock & Business, salary/wages, livestock by products, remittances, Livestock & livestock middlemen to livestock trader by products No. of Livestock 5 goats or sheep, 1 donkey 5 camels, 15 goats or sheep, 1 donkey Access to Credit Small shops with limited amount Small shop owner Informal Education Duksi, 1 child in primary school Duksi, basic primary school for 1-2 children 15 camels, cows, 30 goats or sheep Duksi, Madrasa, basic primary and secondary school for 1-3 children 70 or more camels, 100 or more cows, 70 or more goats or sheep Does not take credit, however extend credit to friends and relatives or customers Duksi, madrasa, primary and secondary school, College and University in Capital City for all children 4. Impact of the Drought 4.1 How have Households been Affected by the Drought? The absence of rain in mid October and mid December 2010 and late arrival of long rains in late March 2011 have severely affected around 66% of households in Wajir and Mandera districts. This figure is based on estimated losses of assets either through wasting, mortality or selling at a very low price (see Fig. 7 below). The long dry spell has also had a damaging impact on food sources and income, particularly amongst the marginal agro-pastoralists and pastoralists who are predominantly reliant on livestock and small agriculture. These households are amongst the most food insecure because of a meager income and a lack of support on credit services and a poor marketing system. These vulnerable groups are families who live below or just above poverty line. The lack of rainfall that has caused crop failure and an increased death to animals creates significant losses in valuable assets so households are now facing an uncertain future as there is no assurance of recovery. The increase in animal losses aggravated by harsh weather conditions 10

11 have resulted in: 93% of the households reporting that they have been affected by death of their animals; 5% of households affected by untimely trading at very low prices, followed by 2% for untimely slaughtering either for food and income. The catastrophe also brought epidemic diseases to the remaining livestock because of starvation, is also high risk on food insecurity that poses threat to children s and lactating mothers health and nutrition condition including problem on hygiene and sanitation due to water shortage. As pressure build up, the distressed households are trying to mitigate the in depth impact of adversity by earning income through collection of gums and resin, casual labor, cutting of trees for wood and charcoal making for survival. Currently, some of this poor households access food using credit and believing this will be paid when livelihoods activities resume during rainy season are now indebted adding that the coming long rainfall is very unreliable. This households are also hoping that the GoK and INGO s will resume the food aid activities (January 2011 last GFD) so at least food would be available anytime especially for their children. As the problems are cyclical it makes the poor even more vulnerable and impoverishes them. This sector needs to be supported with alternative livelihoods options and an increase in capacity to mitigate impact of drought in the coming years Food Sources The prolonged dry spell is causing severe damage to food sources and the income of marginal agro-pastoralists and pastoralists who are predominantly reliant on livestock and small agriculture. These households are amongst the most vulnerable living below or just above the poverty line. The absence of short rain in mid October up to mid December and the late arrival of the long rain in late March have resulted in an extended dry season causing crop failure and an increase in animal deaths. Thus households have lost their most valuable assets, especially in the areas of Wajir and Mandera. The catastrophe has also brought epidemic diseases to the remaining livestock because starvation and malnutrition increases the vulnerability to food insecurity of poor households, and these do not have sufficient fodder for livestock. As the shortage of food is prevalent, a common practice now is to reduce meal intake by individuals especially amongst women, thus increasing their risk of health problems as well as that of children and lactating mothers. Currently, poor households access food using credit in the belief that this will be paid off when livelihoods activities resume during the rainy season. They are also hoping that food aid from the GoK and WFP will continue to mitigate the escalation of health and malnutrition problems amongst children seven years old and below. During the assessment it was captured that the WFPs last food distribution was in January Families are highly dependent on relief food, but as this is the second/ third successive season failure the response is limited due to the governments, WFPs and other donors resource constraints. The GoK said it can provide food for around 800,000 people and WFP 1.6 million people however, these distributions are unreliable due to unclear targeting policy, high food prices and limited financial resources. In the north eastern areas food insecurity is deteriorating for approx. 700,000 people and is probably going to be categorised as an IPC Phase 3 and 4, Crisis & Emergency level, in June. There have been rains during the last week in April through to May in Mandera, which have alleviated severe water shortage but have had little impact on food insecurity. It is estimated that through 2011, across Kenya, around 2.4 million people require food and non-food assistance and activation of contingency planning is being advised. 6 6 FEWSNET: Kenya Food Security Alert/5 May

12 Fig. 3 Access to Food in a Normal Year Access to Food in a Normal Year Mandera Wajir E. Wajir S. 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 12% 28% 27% Buy half of my food at the local market 0% 15% 2% I grow / produce more than half of my food that I consume 25% 12% 18% I buy almost all of my food 39% 30% 24% 22% 23% 23% Food aid Borrowing WASH Wajir and Mandera districts fall in the ASAL category and are characterized by long dry spells with very low and unreliable rain fall, according to the Kenya Food Security Profile. In a normal year only 40% of the residents in Wajir have access to safe water sources and they have to travel for an average of 15 km to access water in a place with poor roads and no transportation network. Around 70% of the roads in the district are unclassified. In Mandera only 11% of the population have access to good quality water points for domestic use and most people have to walk on average about 20km 7 to access water, especially in Mandera West where there is only one borehole serving the whole area. Being 29% below the average, on water sources, compared to other ASAL counterparts makes Mandera district more vulnerable to the impact of water shortage and this is not negligible as observed during the rapid assessment. Approximately 85% of the households in the districts have no latrines and open field defecation is commonly practiced. However, communities have identified places of disposal separately between men and women. Skin problems and other water borne diseases are common amongst children and adults due to the lack of clean water supply for washing. There is no proper waste disposal of carcasses of dead animals, human feces and domestic garbage making people more vulnerable to illness. Illness often prevents people from finding employment and also means that they have to spend a lot of the meagre income they earn on medical treatment, some also resort to traditional medicine. Vulnerability to illness also increases because of unhygienic practices like open field defecation which can also cause health problems such as diarrhoea which can lead to malnutrition and arrested physical growth. Other possible health problems associated to poor sanitation practices are loss of eyesight, typhoid and respiratory tract infection. The lack of good toilets as well as proper sanitation has a big effect on the ability to prevent disease and thus impact poor vulnerable households and individuals. This is especially true for the most vulnerable individuals such as children and women, who can be protected from diseases, malnutrition and death by using safe water and sanitation facilities, including improved hygiene practices. As this problem is chronic, targeted community capacity needs to be strengthened. Thus the programme should go beyond just providing latrines but it should also provide an entire package, which includes designing and building eco-friendly toilets and raising community awareness using the PHAST method. All of this to advocate towards good practices on hygiene and sanitation including proper waste disposal, to prevent disease outbreak that could eventually have a detrimental effect on children. 7 Mandera Food Security Profile by KFSSG 12

13 Fig.4 Water used for drinking & cooking (taken on 13th April 2011 by Jessa Serna ERP-FSL) As conditions worsened most households started accessing water through water trucking, done by private businessmen, which is sold at Ksh /20 litres. This water is intended for drinking and cooking. This water source is also short of supply now so the community is using salty water from a borehole paying Ksh 35-50/20 litres. Some women and children need to walk 20 km to fetch water in borehole wells at a cost of Ksh10/20 liters. Therefore due to income scarcity most households cannot even afford to buy water and some are grouping with other households to share resources. 20 litres of water are used for cooking and drinking for a whole week, this does not meet the minimum standard requirement of 15 liters per person per day based on the Humanitarian Sphere standards. The ratio of water sources per community is approximately, one borehole serving a population of 25,000 within a 20 km distance, particularly in Madera West. Currently, 100% of dams and water pans were all dried up. During the interview the issue came up that water pans can only hold water for two months after the rain, due to evaporation during the dry season. The scarcity of water has a negative impact not only on hygiene and sanitation of humans but also on that of animals. The lack of water is causing severe damage to livestock. This was evident in Wajir and Mandera districts where large numbers of dead animals were visible due to lack of water supply and grazing. Based on statistics on access to water sources, Mandera has a high dependency on water trucking with a 58% score followed by Wajir South and Wajir East with 26% and 8% respectively. In a normal season, water for domestic use is free whilst now most people have to pay for it as mentioned above. A reliable water source is one of the key factors for future development and necessary for any industrial activity. However, in the districts of Mandera and Wajir further exploration is needed to establish more water sources for domestic and livestock use. In a normal year households access water through water catchments, boreholes, shallow wells and water pans situated within the community Health & Nutrition Based on the preliminary findings from the on going nutrition surveys conducted by Save the Children UK in March 2011, global acute malnutrition rates have increased slightly in Mandera Central from 26.3% ( % 95%CI) (SC UK Nutrition Survey 2010) to 27.5% ( %CI) though the difference is not statistically significant (overlapping confidence intervals). 13

14 The survey indicates that the current acute water shortage, high food prices and irregular food aid situation will continue, meaning that the nutrition status of the communities will continue to worsen. This has been further reconfirmed during the drought assessment carried out last April 2011, where a number of malnourished children below 5 years of age were observed. The drought assessment found that Children are already receiving less food (see below figure 5). Inadequate food intake during the growth period and micronutrient deficiency can lead to stunting and wasting amongst children. However in areas where SC has implemented nutrition feeding projects the negative impact is lower according to the feedback during household interview, indicating the importance of maintaining and expanding these nutrition feeding projects. It was also observed during a drought multi-sectoral assessment that a number of pregnant and lactating mothers appear weak due to a reduced number of meals during the lactation period and pregnancy stage coupled with poor hygiene and sanitation because of water shortage and lack of food. Some men are also weak because of low quantities of food intake whilst doing hard labour such as extraction of gums and resin, wood collection etc Fig. 5 Children s Current Diet at HH level Children's Current Diet at HH Level 100% 93% 80% 70% 79% 60% 40% 20% 30% 7% 21% Yes -Eating Normal Diet No - Not Eating the Normal Diet 0% Mandera Wajir East Wajir South Normal Diet: Eating animal products and fresh foods Most household access health service in local clinics, however, the poor rely more on traditional medicine. During the assessment it was found out that some rural areas have a health facility however health were not available. It was also observed further that children are suffering from respiratory tract infection, cold, diarrhea and skin diseases due to lack of water and education on health and hygiene practices (Annex 13 on morbidity) Impact of the Drought on Children Young children who are weak have been severely affected by the drought which has caused water shortage, crop failure and death of animals, leading to an absence of income within households and thus an increased vulnerability to food insecurity by these. The absence of food, clean water and sanitation physically affects children s well being. The lack of food and deficiency of micronutrient intake during the development stage causes abnormalities during their growing stage, stunting and wasting are evident especially in Wajir and Mandera. It was also observed that the reduction in quality of diet to two food groups (no animal products and no fresh food) and meals per day on children is high especially in Mandera. There it will have a detrimental effect on children s physical condition as it increases susceptibility to health and nutrition problems contributing to disease such as respiratory tract infection, diarrhea, skin & eye disease etc In these districts school attendance figures have been dropping due to food scarcity at household level which has meant that children are now having to contribute to the house tasks and traveling 15 to 20 km in search of water. To increase the household income some children 14

15 are also used in herding and some get small jobs in the capital town. In some cases, where putting up a school is a community initiative, these have closed down because most of the parents could no longer afford to pay a salary to their hired teacher. Other reasons for school closure include teachers and children s needs to go places in search for water. The lack of food and clean water for drinking and washing with the absence of latrines undermines children s capability to live a normal life protected from disease and malnutrition. The problem should be addressed appropriately. 4.2 How have Livelihoods been affected by the Drought? Agriculture and Livestock Pastoralists Mandera has an estimated stock of 964,000 animals where approximately 80% of the households food sources and income are derived directly or indirectly from livestock products and by products e.g. camel, cattle, sheep, donkey and goats. Livestock is a major source of income in Wajir with a total animal population of 1.12 million and employs over 62% of the districts labour force, according to the Kenya Food Security profile. The livestock sector accounts for over 60% of incomes earned under the pastoral livelihood zone in the district, however, they are now experiencing constraints due to drought that result in perennial water and grass shortages, diseases, poor marketing system for livestock and related products, overgrazing and cattle rustling. Fig. 6 Wasted Animals (taken on 18th April 2011 by J. Serna-ERP FSL) During the assessment period, it was observed that areas of Mandera and Wajir were severely affected by drought and between 40% of the animals have died due to diseases, wasting, malnutrition and starvation. The average death of animals daily is now about 9-10 heads, as captured during the household random interview conducted in the sample communities, while the other 30% have migrated. The remaining 30% at household level are weak and need to be supported to avoid total loss of livelihood assets. Further, if this remaining stock is not supported it will result in total economic distress amongst pastoralist as the death of animals might increase up to 70% if nothing is done or the situation is not addressed accordingly. Despite of the contribution of these sectors to the local economy it is evident that they are constantly suffering from food insecurity and indebtedness, leading to extreme poverty and a 15

16 lack of alternative income during the dry period. This problem is cyclical and needs to be addressed in long-term planning to alleviate poverty. Agro-Pastoralists Wajir and Mandera have an estimated population of 478,523 and 312,956 respectively 8. The districts climatic conditions are characterized by short and long dry spells and short and long rainy seasons and is mainly classified as arid land. The rains are very erratic and the region experiences recurrent droughts. Traces of sandy and black cotton soils are found at Boji and Lorian Swamps. Although 30% of the district is arable, it is largely rangeland viable for nomadic pastoralism due to low rainfall and scarcity of irrigation water. The vegetation is mostly woody trees and shrubs. Currently 9% of the total population in Mandera are engaged in small scale farming, mostly in irrigated areas located in sub-perennial Daua River in Rhamu, Rhamu Dimtu and Malkamari divisions. The subsistence crops grown are maize, sorghum, cowpeas, groundnuts, onions, bananas, mangoes, pawpaw, tomatoes and kale. No other significant economic activities exist in the district except for petty trade in livestock and handicrafts. Wajir is similar to Mandera in terms of geography, weather patterns and livelihoods zones. Agriculture (crops) and livestock contributes nearly three-quarters of households incomes including food sources e.g. cattle, camel, goats and sheep s. Crop activities are carried out in the Lorian swamp and along the drainage lines in Bute Division that planted cash crops such as Katumani maize, sorghum, beans, fruits and vegetables. The total cultivated land for food production is approximately 3,000 hectares and the major challenge the agricultural sector is facing, are frequent droughts, poor soil fertility, diseases and pests, inadequate farm inputs and lack of credit facilities. Due to limited livelihood means, nearly two-thirds of Wajir residents live below the poverty line 9. At present, Agro-pastoralists were not engaged in agricultural activities because of unreliable rainfall and water sources like dams and rivers being all dried up. The various options of livelihoods income are not helpful at this time as livestock and crops are all failing due to harsh weather conditions. This situation increases vulnerability particularly that of the poorer households whose income is dependent on farming and livestock rising. These households are indebted because most of them result to credit to access food believing that payment will be done when rain comes and livelihoods activities resume. Additionally, the failure of crop production also leads to a high short fall of food supply a contributory factor to high food prices, aside, from high fuel cost, high transport cost due to bad roads including high tax on foods especially maize census Wajir & Mandera Food Security Profile by KFSSG 9 Eastern Province 16

17 Fig. 7 Carcasses of dead animals in Didkuro Mandera West, North Eastern (Kenya 15th April 2011) Sources of Income Livestock and livestock by products, small agriculture, petty trading e.g. milk seller, tea shops, kiosks and casual labour are the main sources of income of most households in a normal year. Additionally, other residents are engaged in rural and urban self-employment and wage employment that contribute 10%, 4% and 1% to household incomes, respectively. However, the changes in weather pattern escalate problems on crop failure both in livestock and agriculture thereby a reduction in income in different livelihoods zones is inevitable. At present, pastoralist and agro-pastoralist sectors survive on casual labour, gathering of wild products like collection of gums and resin, cutting of trees for firewood and charcoal making for income generation. Some receive remittances from relatives working abroad and some trading of healthy animals (with a very low price). The income from traded animals was used to buy food which is usually shared with other households and the remaining sick animals hoping they will recover. The cyclic droughts (Kenya Food Security Profile), insecurity, high illiteracy rate (about 85%), an inefficient livestock marketing system, unemployment rate (7.1%) and diseases (both human and livestock) are identified as the major factors escalating poverty that need to be addressed. Low literacy means limited skills, knowledge and innovativeness, a factor that has inhibited pursuit of alternative livelihoods in the district. The result is that most of the residents are trapped in the low productivity traditional pastoralist economy. Nevertheless, in some areas in Mandera where households are beneficiaries of the Save the Children Hunger safety net program, the impact is minimal due to support and income source. However, alternative livelihoods should be provided and implemented in the target area before the program ends in 2012 to avoid a chronic problem and to alleviate poverty thereby decreasing vulnerability Markets The districts have no traditional markets but there are a few medium sized shops which sell most basic household commodities like wheat flour, maize, rice, sugar, cooking oil, tea etc This is where local entrepreneurs buy stocks in Moyale, Elwak, Habsawein and Wajir town. Currently, 17

18 80% of the businessmen interviewed obtain their stock from relatives, friends or old suppliers through credit or consignment for continuous business to avoid bankruptcy. Most households in the community are taking their stock via credit due to the failure of production which is leading local businessmen (medium) to struggle in sustaining their business. The estimated income loss due to unpaid credit reaches up to 60% up to 70% because of low purchasing power within the community. Though some conflict may arise due to non payment but not escalate because of religious connectivity amongst individual. However, these local entrepreneurs believe that income will be sufficient when rain comes and creditors can pay when production starts during birthing, kidding, calving for good milk harvest and animals fattened as grasses are available and animals can be traded in good prices. But with the current situation where rainfall is erratic recovery of livelihoods is very minimal and looking into consideration that animal to produce it takes one cycle, while body recuperation of the breeder takes around 2-3 months depending on the current physical condition before starting to reproduce again e.g. and a farmer can produce after months after planting depending on crops. On this aspect both the local retailer, pastoralist and agro pastoralist should be supported to stimulate market and post harvest technology should also be supported to mitigate impact and for resilient livelihoods. The lack of infrastructure support in Mandera and Wajir is a hindrance to development since access to information and markets for goods and services are impeded and transportation is costly. Although industrial activities are still low, there are good opportunities for expansion with regard to tanning, leather products and livestock products as alternative income sources. This district can provide high opportunity to pastoralists if a marketing system on livestock were supported by establishing post harvest facilities and an auction market to promote trading and livestock growers can market their stock openly for good prices. Further, if Mandera and Wajir districts had a good source of electricity and water there would be more incentives for industrial investors to invest. This would also promote employment and income to the distressed community Prices Last year prices of Maize were up to double in pastoral areas as compared to markets in cropping areas. High transaction costs remain the key impediment in transmission of lowered prices from the cropping to pastoral areas. Substantial price differentials, up to 30 percent, between markets adjacent to key pastoral urban centres and those in the hinterland are also a common feature in pastoral areas 10. The current trend in commodity prices is of a significant increase compared to last year in North Eastern Kenya covering Wajir and Mandera districts. Prices have soared by 200% particularly on maize as staple food has tripled in price. Previously, the price of maize was only Ksh 800/50kg compared to the current price of 2,400/50kg. Rice has risen by 67% from 60/kg to Ksh 100/kg, sugar from Ksh 80/kg to Ksh 120/kg and beans from 65/kg to 80/kg, respectively. Failure of crop production resulting in a shortfall of supply is one of the contributing factors in price increases of staple food. The other contributing factors include: the increase in fuel prices; high transport costs due to bad roads; high taxes on food and an absence of income within the community which is resorting to credit. Fig. 8 Price Rises of Basic Food Commodities Item Current Price- Ksh Unit Pre-drought prices- Ksh % increase Maize kg % LONG RAINS SEASON ASSESSMENT REPORT by Kenya Food Security Steering Group (KFSSG). 18