Rice technical manual for extension officers

Transcription

1 Rice technical manual for extension officers

2 Rice technical manual for extension officers by Dr. Shahida Sarker Parul International Rice Consultant Subregional Office for the Pacific Islands Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Apia, 2017

3 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO. ISBN FAO, 2017 FAO encourages the use, reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Except where otherwise indicated, material may be copied, downloaded and printed for private study, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non-commercial products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and copyright holder is given and that FAO s endorsement of users views, products or services is not implied in any way. All requests for translation and adaptation rights, and for resale and other commercial use rights should be made via or addressed to copyright@fao.org. FAO information products are available on the FAO website ( and can be purchased through publications-sales@fao.org. Cover photo: FAO / Shahida Sarker Parul

4 Table of Contents PART-1: BACKGROUND AND GENERAL ASPECTS... 1 Knowing the plant: Rice Morphology and growth stages & phases of rice plant... 2 Growth Phases and stages of rice plant Vegetative Phase Reproductive phase Ripening phase... 5 Cultural practices in relation to growth phase... 5 PART-2: RICE CULTIVATION PRACTICE... 6 Selecting right variety and seed rate... 6 Examples of some of available improved rice varieties in Fiji (Table 1):... 6 Seed rate... 7 Germination test... 7 Calculating the germination rate... 8 Land selection and preparation... 8 Select appropriate land (Seed bed/main land)... 8 Prepare the land (Seed bed/main land)... 8 Transplantation of rice seedlings... 9 Nutrient management Fertilizer computation (Table 5) Fertilization application in rice field (Table 3) Urea Application using leaf color chart (LCC) (Table 6) Weed Management: maintain a weed-free rice field up to tillering stage Water management in rice seed production Insect pests management in rice field Rice Insect: Leaf Roller Rice Insect: Brown Plant Hopper (BPH) Rice Insect: Gall midge Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Mechanization in rice cultivation and processing: Benefit of mechanization: Scope of mechanization in rice cultivation: Rice seed production at farmers' level: Mark a seed plot at Farmers field Isolation distance for seed production Rouging for rice production PART-3: RICE PRODUCTION SCHEDULE iii

5 Wet direct seeded rice management timetable (Short duration variety of 110 days) Dry direct seeded rice management timetable (Short duration variety of 110 days) Transplanted management timetable (Short duration variety of 110 days) PART-4: POST HARVEST HANDLING, PRCESSING AND UTILIZATION Calculating rice yield Sorting/Cleaning of rice seed Seed Processing and Storing Manage post-harvest grain loss and dirty panicle complex Rice Utilization PART-5: ECONOMICS OF RICE PRODUCTION Classification of Costs Empirical Results of Costs and Returns Analysis for Rice Production in Fiji (for 1 ha) (Table 10), Considering Mechanized (Govt rate), Star variety, Broadcast, Irrigated rice cultivation References Tables Table 1: Approximate dates of occurrence of some growth stages of rice... 5 Table 2: Approximate duration of the growth phases... 5 Table 3: List of some of the rice varieties that are being cultivated in farmers' fields... 6 Table 4: Recommended time for seeding, transplanting and harvesting of HYV Rice in Fiji... 9 Table 5: Generally used chemical fertilizers and their nutrient element Table 6: Parameters for urea application using LCC in rice Table 7: Economic thresh hold level (ETL) of some common rice pests Table 8: Management of Rice Insect Pest: possible measure to control common insect pests Table 10: Gross Margin: Rice of 1 ha land with machinery for land preparation and harvesting Photos Photo 1: Rice seedling Photo 2: Color, legule and aricle Photo 3: Leaf blade & sheath... 2 Photo 4: Panicle and flag leaf Photo 5: Major parts of rice flower... 2 Photo 6: Different parts of a rice grain... 3 Photo 7: Coleorhiza -covering of radicle/1 0 root... 4 Photo 8: Coleoptile covering of young shoot... 4 Photo 9: Germination test using different germinating media... 8 Photo 10: Rice seed bed and uprooting rice seedlings... 9 Photo 11: Transplanting Photo 12: Top dressing urea in rice field Photo 13: Put the leaf under the shade of body during measurement Photo 14: Weeds and weeding in rice field iv

6 Photo 15: Adult of Rice Leaf Roller Photo 16: Larva and damaged leaf Photo 17: BPH in rice field Photo 18: BPH damage field Photo 19: Adult of Gall midge Photo 20: Spraying insecticide in rice production plot Photo 21: Land preparation by power tiller Photo 22: Seed production within rice production plot Photo 24: Harvesting Sundrying and Storing rice grain Photo 25: Different product of rice v

7 PART-1: BACKGROUND AND GENERAL ASPECTS Republic of Fiji lies between latitude 18 degrees South and longitude 175 degrees east. It comprises 322 islands, 110 of which are inhabited. The total land area is km 2, with two main islands, namely Viti Levu (10429 km 2 ) and Vanua Levu (5556 km 2 ). The total population of the Fiji is (2013 census).forty five percent of the population, living in subsistence affluence, depends on agriculture for their livelihood and main source of income; and 43.9% farms are less than one hectare on communal land. Agriculture is the major economic activity in the rural areas and remains the economic mainstay of the country. It represents 8.3 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employs 50 percent of the workforce. The total agricultural land consists of 4280 km 2, with a forest area of km 2. The country enjoys a tropical climate with two main seasons: cool and dry from April to October; and wet and hot from November to March. Fiji is blessed with rich natural resources (Land & Water) with optimum weather conditions an average temperature ranges between C, solar radiation cal/cm 2 / day, annual rainfall on the main islands is between 2000mm and 3000mm on the coast and low lying areas, and up to 6000mm in the mountains matches with year round rice cultivation. Moreover, the country enjoys average total sunshine hour ranges between 1760 to 2200, maximum in cooler or off season hrs/day; and minimum in warmer or main season hrs/day. This climatic condition of Fiji favors rice growth and development - despite these highly favorable natural conditions, the average rice yield in Fiji is still about 2.5 t/ha. Fiji is facing the major challenges of meeting national and household food and nutritional needs, while decreasing the trade deficit from the importation of rice. Rice, in parallel with root crops, is now a common staple food for all Fijians, with an annual per capita consumption of 75 kg and at the current rate of population growth (0.8 percent) the country s rice demand is expected to grow into an additional requirement of 500 to 600 tons per annum. Reviving the local rice industry requires introduction of new rice crop management practices. Thus, FAO in collaboration of Fiji government arranged rice TOT for extension officials of existing and potential rice growing areas to transmit improved rice production technologies among the farmers. The Government of the Republic of Fiji is aiming through its national policy to enhance import substitution through enhanced local food production systems to feed the growing population (.8% annually) and reduction of rice imports by FJD 35 million (US$ 18.5 million).this has been planned to be achieved through increased acreage under rice production (from 4400 ha to ha) and increased productivity through extension of improved rice cultivation technologies. While paddy yield of major 3 rice growing countries (India, China and Philippines) 1 were considered, it is found that the average paddy yield is 3.51 t/h in India, 3.77 t/h in Philippines but much higher in China (6.67 t/h). The improved techniques while implemented through ToT, could contribute better yield in Fiji too and that is close to India and Philippines average 3.4 t/h in ToT demonstration and 3.6 t/h in FFS demonstration plots). But the average paddy yield in China is much more that India and Philippines. However, improved technology can improve 1 Source: 1

8 the rice scenario in Fiji and other Islands in the Pacific where favorable social and ecological environments are ready to grow more rice. Project is also shared experiences of existing actors working in Fiji rice fields, for instances, Chinese Rice project and Korean Rice Project. Knowing the plant: Rice Morphology and growth stages & phases of rice plant 2 Brief introduction to the physical parts of the rice plant - the morphology provides a basic understanding of the physical characteristics of the rice plant that facilitate a good understanding of the rice growth and useful in many aspects of its cultivation. General Information: Rice (oryza sativa) belongs to the family of cereal grasses that provides the world with over 60% of its caloric intake and over 75% of the protein for developing nations. Rice plant, an annual grass, has round, hollow, jointed culms (stems), flat leaves, and a terminal panicle (flower cluster). The parts of the rice plant may be divided as: (i) Vegetative organs (Roots, Culms and Leaves); and (ii) floral organs (Panicle and Spikelet/grain). Roots: As the underground portion of the plant, the roots serve as support, draw food and water from the soil, and store food. Rice plant has fibrous root system and consist of rootless and root hairs. The embryonic roots live for only a short time after germination. Secondary adventitious roots (i.e. roots appearing in an irregular pattern) emerge from the underground nodes of the young culm and replace the embryonic roots. Stem: The role of the stem (or culm) is to support the leaves and reproductive structures, and to transfer essential nutrients between the roots, the leaves, and the reproductive structures. The stem is made up of a series of nodes and internodes in alternating order. The node ("joint" between two hollow sections of stem) bears a leaf and a bud which, if it is on the lowermost node, may grow into a tiller, or shoot. The mature internode (part between two nodes) is hollow and finely grooved. The lower internodes at the base of the stem are short and thickened into a solid section. IRRI Publication IRRI Publication Photo 1: Rice seedling Photo 2: Color, legule and aricle Photo 3: Leaf blade & sheath Collar IRRI Publication IRRI Publication Photo 4: Panicle and flag leaf IRRI Publication Photo 5: Major parts of rice flower Leaves: The leaves function as the principal organs of photosynthesis (contain chlorophyllcontaining cells which convert sunlight to chemical energy and synthesize organic "fuel" compounds from inorganic compounds) and respiration. The leaves are borne at an angle on 2 Source of all photos of this chapter is from International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) 2

9 the stem in two ranks - one at each node. The blade, or extended part of the leaf, is attached to the node by the leaf sheath. The sheath envelops the internode toward, and in some cases even beyond, the next node. On either side of the base of the blade are pairs of small, earlike appendages known as auricles. Just above the auricles is a tissue-like, triangular structure called the ligule. Rice plants have both auricles and ligules and a ligule at every internode; this characteristic is often helpful in differentiating between rice and grassy weeds, which can have auricles or a ligule but not both. Most varieties develop about leaves and 2 nd or 3 rd leaf from the last is the largest. The uppermost leaf below the panicle, the flag leaf, provides the most important source of photosynthetic energy during reproduction. Panicle: The panicle, or flower cluster, contains the reproductive organs of the rice plant. Borne atop the uppermost node on the stem, the panicle is divided into primary, secondary, and sometimes tertiary branches bearing the spikelets. Spikelet: Each individual spikelet contains a set of floral parts flanked by the lemma and palea. The flower consists of six stamens and a pistil. The stamens (which contain pollen, or "sperm") are composed of two-celled anthers borne on slender filaments. The pistil consists of the ovary (containing the ovule, or "egg"), the style, and the stigma. During reproduction, the stigma catches pollen from the stamens and conducts it down to the ovary, where it comes into contact with the ovule and fertilization occurs. Grain: The grain is the seed of the rice plant, a fertilized and ripened ovule, containing a live embryo capable of germinating to produce a new plant. It is composed of the ripened ovary, the lemma and palea, the rachilla, the sterile lemmas, and the awn (not always present). The lemma and palea and their associated structures constitute the hull or husk. The embryo lies at the ventral side of the spikelet next to the lemma and contains the embryonic root. The rest of the grain consists largely of endosperm (the edible portion), containing starch, proteins, sugar, fats, crude fibre, and inorganic matter. IRRI Publication Photo 6: Different parts of a rice grain Germinating rice seed: In well-drained and aerated soil, the coleorhiza, a covering enclosing the radicle or primary root, appears first; but if the seed germinates in water, the coleoptile, a covering enclosing the young shoot, emerges ahead of the coleorhiza. IRRI Publication IRRI Publication 3

10 Photo 7: Coleorhiza -covering of radicle/1 0 root Photo 8: Coleoptile covering of young shoot Shortly after the coleorhiza appears, the radicle or primary root breaks through the covering. Than two or more branched seminal roots developed. These roots eventually die and replaced by secondary adventitious roots. Heading and anthesis: The rice is a self-pollinated plant and as the flowers open they shed their pollen on each other so that pollination can occur. The anthesis period is in the morning mainly depends on the temperature and sunshine. The time of day when the first spikelets opened and the last spikelets closed varies based on day length and the local time of solar noon. It was observed that tropical climate (Philippines 3 ) the anthesis starts 3 to 4 hours after sun rise and continues around 2 hrs. Flowering can continue for about 7 days. Growth Phases and stages of rice plant The development of the rice plant may be divided into the following three phases: 1. Vegetative phase - from seed germination to panicle initiation. 2. Reproductive phase - from panicle initiation to flowering. 3. Ripening phase - from flowering to maturity. These phases may be subsequently divided into different growth stages or period (Table 1 &Table 2). 1. Vegetative Phase During the vegetative phase, the plant undergoes the following stages: a. Germination stage: The vegetative phase begins with germination of seed. Rice seed germinated by the emergence of radicle or coleoptile from the germinating embryo. b. Seedling stage: This stage follows seed germination and the seedling develops seminal roots. Seedling stage is generally considered from germination until development of the fifth leaf. Transplanting or recovery period: Only in the transplanting method have this stage. It covers the period from uprooting of the seedling to full recovery. c. Tillering stage: This starts with the appearance of the first tiller from the axillary bud. Tiller number increases, at a point more rapidly (active tillering stage), until the maximum tiller number (maximum tillering stage) is reached. Tillering is stopped after tertiary tillers have been produced. d. Inter-node elongation stage: This stage started with elongation of internode. Component phases of the vegetative growth The vegetative phase is markedly affected by the prevailing day length and temperature and can be subdivided into: A. Basic Vegetative Phase (BVP) or Active Vegetative Phase (AVP): the minimum period of vegetative growth required by the plant before it will initiate panicle primordium. The usual variations of day length have little or no effect on its duration. However, in certain varieties, temperature may either shorten or lengthen its duration B. Photoperiod Sensitive Phase (PSP) or Lag Vegetative Phase (LVP): the portion of the vegetative phase starts from the end of the basic vegetative phase and goes up to panicle initiation. Only the photoperiod sensitive varieties have this component phase. 2. Reproductive phase a. Panicle initiation (PI) to booting stage: This phase is marked by the initiation of panicle primordium of microscopic dimension on the growth shoot. Booting is the latter part of the 3 Cécile Juliaa, Michael Dingkuhna. Variation in time of day of anthesis in rice in different climatic environments. Variation in time of day of anthesis in rice in different climatic environments. Article in European Journal of Agronomy 43: November 2012 ( 4

11 panicle development stage. About 16 days after visual panicle initiation, the sheath of the flag leaf swells. This swelling of the flag leaf sheath is called booting. b. Heading stage: This stage is followed by the emergence of panicle out of the flag leaf sheath. Emergence continues until % of the panicles are out of the sheaths. c. Flowering stage: Flowering (blooming) or anthesis begins with the production of the first dehiscing anthers in the terminal spikelets on the panicle branches. Flowering continues successively until all spikelets in the panicles bloom. Pollination and fertilization then follow. 3. Ripening phase The rice grain develops after pollination and fertilization and the grain undergoes distinct changes before it fully matures. a. Milk stage: The contents of the caryopsis are first watery but later turn milky in consistency. b. Dough stage: The milky caryopsis turn into soft dough and subsequently into hard dough. c. Maturity stage: The individual grain is mature when the caryopsis is fully developed in size and is hard, clear and free from greenish tint. This stage is complete when more than 90% of the grains are fully ripened. Table 1: Approximate dates of occurrence of some Growth stages of rice Stage Date of occurrence from seeding Date of occurrence before maturity Panicle initiation. About days after seeding for 130-days non-sensitive varieties and variable in sensitive days from date of maturity regardless of variety Booting. Flowering varieties. About 75 days after seeding for 130-days nonsensitive varieties and variable in sensitive varieties. About 100 days after seeding for 130-days nonsensitive varieties and variable in sensitive varieties. Table 2: Approximate duration of the Growth phases About 55 days from date of maturity regardless of variety days from date of maturity regardless of variety. Phase Basic vegetative phase Lag vegetative phase Reproductive phase Ripening phase Duration days for most varieties. Varies greatly according to day length in seasonal varieties. About 35 days regardless of variety days regardless of variety. Cultural practices in relation to growth phase Fertilizer application: All Nitrogen can be applied as top dress provided it is thoroughly incorporated with the soil % of recommended N may be applied at tillering stage ( 10 DAT) - if no N in basal is applied N application at the active tillering stage will increase the number of panicle/plant (10-15% more N of a split) N application at maximum tillering or panicle initiation stage will increase the number of filled spikelets/panicle and the mean weight of individual rice grains. N application after panicle initiation will not give economically higher yield. b. Weeding: should also be done at the vegetative phase as and when necessary. It is better to do weeding and incorporation of the top-dressed nitrogen fertilizer simultaneously. 5

12 c. Water requirement: Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) 4 throughout the vegetative growth phases favors developing good root system and is sufficient to produce a good harvest of a rice crop and also reduce methane emission. But standing water is helpful in controlling weed, decreasing ineffective tillers and efficient utilization of the nitrogen fertilizer. Standing water is also necessary during PI stage while water should be drained out at hard dough stage to make the field almost dry at maturity to enhance ripening of the crop and also reduce lodging plant at maturity. d. Pesticide application: proper care should be taken at the time of anthesis, when the spikelets remain open. Either the anthesis period should be avoided for pesticide application or it should be done in the afternoon when spikelets close. If the contact poisons hit the floral parts inside the spikelets, severe sterility might occur. PART-2: RICE CULTIVATION PRACTICE Selecting right variety and seed rate In a specific location, varietal choice depends on individual farmer and the existing ecology. Agriculture officer need to suggest an improved variety that is recommended for the location with a preference of following characteristics: Total field duration of days; Deep root system and drought tolerance in case of rainfed cultivation; Long panicles with sufficient field grains capacity, Resistance to pest and diseases, Adequate seed dormancy, Acceptable grain quality and Moderate to high response to fertilizers. It is suggested to go for two seasons of adaptive trial before recommending a variety for the farmers considering local environment (e.g. irrigated, rainfed, saline-prone, etc.). Choose a variety with high yield potential, market demand, and tested in technical demonstration or adaptability trials. Be sure about the variety s characteristics to transfer the message to the farmers. Examples of some of available improved rice varieties in Fiji (Table 3): The improved varieties of rice are: Star, Maleka, Totoka, Uttam, Boldgrain, Nuinui and Deepak Dry Land Rice cultivation Star, Maleka, Totoka, Uttam and Boldgrain Moderate rainfall areas Star, Maleka and Totoka which matures in days. High rainfall areas Boldgrain, Uttam and Nuinui which matures in days Wet Land Rice Cultivation Boldgrain, Uttam, Deepak, Nuinui and Star are recommended. Table 3: List of some of the rice varieties that are being cultivated in farmers' fields Sl# Variety Ecology Remark 1 Star Wetland Dry land Most popular variety Suitable for transplant condition but farmer practice as broadcast rice 4 AWD: A cm long plastic pipe with 10 to 15 cm diameter pushed below 15 cm from soil surface, which have all around holes (perforated); 10 cm of the pipe is to be above ground (with no perforation). When level of water falls below 15 cm of ground level, irrigation is to be provided. Start AWD 10 DAT or 20 DAS; Irrigate only when water is 15 cm deep. 6

13 Sl# Variety Ecology Remark 2 Bold grain Wetland Suitable for transplant condition but farmer practice as broadcast rice Dry land 3 NuiNui Wetland Suitable for transplant condition but farmer practice as broadcast rice Dry land 4 Uttam Wetland Suitable for transplant condition but farmer practice as broadcast rice Dry land 5 China Motka Wetland Dry seed + Pre-germinated seed, Broadcast 6 Japani Wetland Dry seed + Pre-germinated seed, Broadcast 7 LalJari Wetland Pre-germinated seed, Broadcast 8 Lakrdawe Wetland Pre-germinated seed Broadcast 9 Rawele Wetland Pre-germinated seed Broadcast 10 UjarkaMotka Wetland Dry + Pre-germinated seed, Broadcast, (Bold grain) 11 Thakur Ram Wetland Pre-germinated seed Broadcast 12 Kharapani Wetland Dry + Pre-germinated seed, Broadcast 13 SubaDhan Wetland Dry + Pre-germinated seed, Broadcast 14 PahelaJapane Wetland Dry + Pre-germinated seed, Broadcast Seed rate Seed rate often varies because of seed size and more importantly based on crop establishment method. Below amount can be used while the seeds are certified, healthy, well filled and have 80% germination: Pre-germinated seeding A. Broadcasting: About kg/ha B. Line sowing/furrow seeding (behind the plough): About kg/ha C. Line sowing with drum seeder: About kg/ha D. Transplanting: About kg ha -1 Seed Rate in seed-bed: 80 to 100 g/m 2 Direct Dry Seeding A. Broadcasting dry seed: About kg ha -1 B. Furrow/Line Sowing (behind the plough): About kg ha -1 Seed treatment and seeding: Select good seeds 5 and treat the seeds with 1.25 g/kg of seed after soaking in water for 24 hours. Avoid over germination. Optimum seed incubation period is hours Sow sprouted seeds in the main field using a optimum seed rate of kg/ha ( seeds/m²) in broadcasting method and kg /ha ( seeds/m²) in line seeding by drum seeder. Use drum seeder for uniform seeding and increased grain yield Germination test Germination Test: Should be done before sowing, especially, when the seeds are from old stocks/ a carry-over from previous season/ or farmer-produced. 5 Good seeds can be selected using urea/clay/salt solution (see Seed sorting in Part-4) 7

14 FAO / Shahida Sarker Parul Photo 9: Germination test using different germinating media Seed germination test: 1) Spread 100 seeds on paper towel that has been soaked in water. 2) Cover the seeds with another paper towel. 3) Roll up the paper with the seeds inside & store them in the shade for 7-10 days. Keep the rolled sacks moist for the entire period. Do not let them dry out. 4) Make 4 sets of 100 seeds. 5) At the end of 7-10 days, count the normal seedlings that have developed (normal seedling - well-developed roots & shoots, healthy and strong - on the other hand - abnormal seedling - without root, thin and diseased) Calculating the germination rate For example: if 80 seeds germinated in a tray of 100 seeds, then Germination (%) = 80 x 100 = 80% 100 * To ensure % of filled grains, select a random 100 seeds and count the number of filled grains, if 90, it means 90% filled grains. Seed soaking and incubation technique Incubation of rice seed: Incubation time: 48 to 72 hrs (varies with whether) Soak a half-filled seed-sack in clean water for 24 hrs Place the sack on top of a wooden platform in a shaded area and cover with rice straw to facilitate incubation Turn the seed once after 24 hrs for aeration and reduce the inner-heat of the heap Incubate until white "dots" observed Land selection and preparation Select appropriate land (Seed bed/main land) number of seeds germi nated % Ger min ation X 100 Number of seeds used Free from flood Free from shade Near to an irrigation channel Medium fertile land with clay-loam soil Permits frequent and easy inspection Prepare the land (Seed bed/main land) Irrigate land 7 days before plowing to make soil soft & allow weed/unwanted rice seed germinated 8

15 Plow land 4/5 times followed by laddering to make well puddled and uniform level Clean stubble after every laddering Good land preparation ensures: Homogenous stand by receiving equal nutrient & water and a strong initial start over weeds Seedbed preparation FAO / Shahida Sarker Parul Photo 10: Rice seed bed and uprooting rice seedlings Kinds of seed bed: (i) Wet bed method; (ii) Dry bed method (i) Wet bed method Plow and harrow the field 4-5 times until the soil is thoroughly puddled and leveled. Construct raised beds 5 10 cm high and m wide of any convenient length. Construct beds with canals between them cm wide. Sow incubated, pre-germinated seeds evenly over the bed 1 m 2 area requires 80 to 100 gm seeds. (ii) Dry bed method: same as wet-bed but dry seeds are used here Seed sowing in wet seedbed: Seeds to be sown uniformly on the seed bed 5-7 hours after bed preparation. Irrigation for 2 days at a depth of 1 cm of water after 5 days of sowing. Seedbed fertilization: Fertile & medium fertile soil does not require fertilizers. Unfertile soil needs compost / cow-manure at the rate of 2 kg/m 2 If seedlings are found dull green, 7 gm urea/m 2 can be applied. In case of sulfur deficiency add 10 gm gypsum/m 2 Weeding: Doesn t require but should be done if necessary Uprooting of seedling: Irrigate the bed before pulling Seedbed protection: Sometimes require against cattle/squire (fencing); avoid bird damage. Table 4: Recommended time for seeding, transplanting and harvesting of HYV Rice in Fiji Season Seeding time Transplanting time Seedling age (days) Spacing (cm) Harvesting time Main season October November 21 to OR February-March Off season April May 21 to OR July-August Transplantation of rice seedlings Uprooting of seedling: Irrigate the bed before pulling which will facilitate easy uprooting of seedlings with minimum root damage. Transplant one seedling hill -1 (for seed production plot) (2-3 seedlings/hill for other plots) Transplant under 2-3 cm soil depth 9

16 Maintain cm cm spacing for row to row and plant to plant, respectively. Fill the gap within 7 days in case of seedling mortality FAO / Shahida Sarker Parul Photo 11: Transplanting Nutrient management Capacity of soil to supply nutrient/s in proper ratio for plant growth is defined as soil fertility. The amount of available nutrient element indicates the soil fertility that is supplied to the soil through fertilizer/s. A fertilizer may be any substance applied to the soil to supply those essential elements that are required for plant growth. Fertilizer is one of the most effective inputs of rice production but somewhat expensive in many tropical countries. 16 nutrient elements that are essential for plant growth are divided into: major and minor elements. Major nutrient elements: C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S Minor nutrient elements: Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, B and Cl. Si is beneficial elements. Classification of Fertilizer Materials A. According to form/source: 1. Natural (organics): Plant parts or residues, e.g; compost, azolla etc. 2. Chemical (synthetic): Products of chemical reaction of certain materials, e.g. NH 3 + H 2S0 4 = (NH 4) 2S0 4 B. According to number of fertilizer element: 1. Single fertilizers: Contain only one of the major fertilizer elements (N, P and K), e.g. Urea 46% N, Ammonium sulphate - 21% N TSP 48% P 20 5 or 20 % P MP 60% K 20 or 50% K 2. Incomplete fertilizers contain 2 of the major fertilizers e.g. DAP or (NH 4) 2HP0 4-16% N and 20% P 3. Complete fertilizers contain all the major fertilizer elements (N, P and K), e.g Mixed fertilizers contain 2 or more of the major fertilizer elements which are supplied 2 or more fertilizer materials, e.g. DAP + KCL Fertilizer computation (Table 5) To compute for the equivalent amount of fertilizer materials necessary to supply the corresponding amounts of nutrients the following formula is used. Recommended rate (kg nutrient/ha) X Area (ha) Amount of fertilizer (kg) = X 100 % nutrient in commercial fertilizer Table 5: Generally used chemical fertilizers and their nutrient element Fertilizer N P K Urea 46 TSP 20 MOP 50 1ha = 10,000 m 2 = 2.47 acre = 247 decimal 10

17 Fertilization application in rice field (Error! Reference source not found.) 1/3rd N, all P and 3/4 th of K fertilizers should be applied at final land preparation. Rest 2/3rd urea should be applied in two top-dress: 1 st one at 2 weeks after transplanting and the 2 nd one at days before heading as per status of the soil Apply rest 1/4 th of K at PI stage FAO / Shahida Sarker Parul Photo 12: Top dressing urea in rice field Several factors determine the fertilizer efficiency in rice at the farm level such as soil, variety, time of planting, water management etc. Soil test based fertilizer application especially for P and K is preferred over blanket dose. Apply 80:40:40 kg ha -1 in the main season (wet season) and 120:60:60 kg ha -1 in the off season (dry season) in general. For direct seeding rice apply 80:40:40 kg ha -1. Urea Application using leaf color chart (LCC) (Table 6) Table 6: Parameters for Urea application using LCC in Rice Wet season Dry season Parameter Direct Direct Transplanted Transplanted seeded seeded Critical LCC value Start LCC measurement Last LCC Booting stage Booting stage measurement 10 days 10 days Interval of LCC 5 days (if no need to use 5 days (if no need to use measurement N) N) Number of hills/field Number of 1 (topmost fully 1 (topmost fully expanded) leaves/hill expanded) Bellow critical value Bellow critical value Time of N ( 6 LCC reading out of ( 6 LCC reading out of application 10) 10) Amount of Urea (170g) (kg/h) Photo 13: Put the leaf under the shade of body during measurement FAO / Shahida Sarker Parul Weed Management: maintain a weed-free rice field up to tillering stage Weed impacts negatively to rice crop in the following ways: Compete with plants for sunlight, moisture & soil nutrients Act as alternate hosts for insects-pests/disease pests. 11

18 Reduce fertilizer use efficiency Reduce efficiency of irrigation system Reduce quality and quantity of harvest. Managing weeds in rice field: Initial plowing buries weeds, allow germinate their seeds and decomposed by later plowings. Stubble cleaning after every laddering can control weeds. Use weed-free seed and keep tools and machinery clean Keep levees and irrigation canals, non-farm areas free of weeds Keep animal manure free of weed seed by proper decomposition Weedicides are very effective in weed control: o Grasses & broadleaf weeds: spray Stam F34 (Propanil-a post-emergence 9-11 lit/ha at 3-4 leaf stage. o Broad leaf grasses & broadleaf weeds: spray Rice Spray lit/ha at 5-6 weeks after sowing (post emergence herbicide) o Grasses, broadleaf & sedges: Spray Basagran PL 2 (bentazon lit/ha at 3-4 leaf stage (post emergence herbicide) There should not be any rainfall up to 4-8 hours after spraying. Again, Field should be completely drained before application of chemicals and flooded 3 days after spraying Mechanical control of weeds by operating finger weeder at days after sowing combined with one hand weeding was more economical. FAO / Shahida Sarker Parul Photo 14: Weeds and weeding in rice field Water management in rice seed production Water management techniques Water stress from PI-early grain filling stage results under-weight grain Excess water after transplanting reduces tillering ability Too much water during grain filling reduces seed quality Irrigation water should be applied at 2-3 cm depth 3 days after transplanting (also control weed) At tillering stage, alternate wetting and drying techniques can be applied to save water. Water should be drained out from seed plot 7 days before harvest Harvesting rain water: small pond of 2 m depth can facilitate 2/1 irrigation with stored rain water. Bund management: A 15 cm high bund can hold rain water and help to face occasional drought in main season. 12

19 Insect pests management in rice field Rice Insect: Leaf Roller Adult moths is light brown Wings having dark brown stripes and spots Larvae are yellow / yellowish green Lay eggs singly on the leaf surface The insect occurs in all rice season IRRI Publication Photo 15: Adult of Rice Leaf Roller Damage Symptoms The larva forms a protective feeding chamber by folding a leaf blade together and glues it with silk strands and feed on leaf tissues. Longitudinal white and transparent streaks on leaf blades are created Photo 16: Larva and damaged leaf Management Practices Destruction of moths by light trapping Perching for predatory birds can reduce the population Recommended insecticide should be applied at Economic Threshold Level (25% damaged leaves) IRRI Publication Rice Insect: Brown Plant Hopper (BPH) The adult hopper is brown colored It may be long winged (macropterous) or short-winged (brachypterous) Both adult & nymph suck sap from the Stem It is a serious pest of Rice IRRI Publication Photo 17: BPH in rice field 13

20 Damage Symptom Nymphs are whitish and gradually tuning brown Both adult and nymph crowded at the base of the rice plant and suck sap from stem Direct feeding by a large number of hoppers cause the plants to dry up and is known as hopper burn BPH transmit Grassy Stunt and Ragged stunt virus diseases Photo 18: BPH damage field Management Practices Rotation must be practiced in synchronized plantings over a wide area, and should include a non-rice crop outside the grass family. Light trapping Using wider plant spacing Draining out of water Avoidance of top dressing of N fertilizer in endemic areas Cultivation of early maturing varieties Insecticide should be applied, if 2-4 gravid female or 10 nymph/hill are present in 50% hill. Rice Insect: Gall midge An important pest of main season crop The adult is about the size of a mosquito Females have bright red abdomen males are darker Adults lay eggs singly near the base of the plant IRRI Publication 14 Photo 19: Adult of Gall midge Damage Symptoms Larvae feed inside growing point of the plant Tillers with gall bear no panicles Feeding stimulates leaf sheath to transform into gall known as onion shoot or silver shoot Management Practices Light Trapping Visit the field regularly and recommended insecticide should be applied when 5% Onion Shoot (ETL) is visible Avoid dense planting Integrated Pest Management (IPM) A pest management system that uses all suitable techniques and methods in as compatible manner as possible and maintains the pest populations at levels below those causing economic injury IPM: a broad interdisciplinary approach is taken using scientific principles of crop protection to combine into a single cropping system a variety of management strategies and tactics to reduce pest populations. Objective: Conserve beneficial insects and other organisms

21 Judicial use of chemical pesticides Reduce side effects and after effects of pesticide use Not allowing pests to active resistance or tolerance to pests Ensure ecological balance and pollution free environment Reduce production cost. IPM involve combinations of control techniques to optimize pest according to local conditions. Four different components of IPM are (i) Cultural, (ii) Mechanical; (iii) Biological; and (iv) Chemical. 1. CULTURAL CONTROLS Crop rotation: BPH prone areas sugar cane/vegetables can be inserted Polyculture: strip cropping creates the habitat diversity favorable to natural control. Trap cropping: pickleworms will concentrate in squash planted near cucumbers, and the squash plants can be destroyed. Keeping field weed free Changing time of application and quantity of fertilizers. Excessive use of urea can increase pest intensity e.g., yellow stemborer, leaf roller etc. On the other hand application of urea can reduce thrips attack. Proper irrigation management: Flooding field can reduce swarming caterpillar whereas drying field can control caseworm. Proper spacing: Narrow spacing increases brown plant hopper incidence. 2. MECHANICAL CONTROL Perching: to aid insect feeding birds Light trapping: can attract moths and other insects Hand picking: picking of stem borer egg mass Plough down stubbles: can control stem borer Sweep netting: can control hispa Leaf clipping: Destroys eggs and grubs of rice hispa Scare birds: can control bird damage 3. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL Conserving beneficial insects by: o Cultivating legume crops in levee o Giving time to find out shelter by beneficial insects after harvest (not ploughing field immediately after harvest) o Placing straw in bund after harvest as shelter of friendly insects o Perching for insect feeding birds o Avoid misuse/overuse of pesticide 4. CHEMICAL CONTROL Insecticides are toxic chemicals that are used to control unwanted/annoying insects. Use of insecticides is only accepted as last choice of controlling pests in rice field when other control measure fails. Insecticides can bring down insect pest population with very quick action with high pest mortality within a few hours to 1-2 days if applied at proper rate & time of infestation. Photo 20: Spraying insecticide in rice production plot Available chemicals and pest management: BPH: spray near basal portions of the plant with Orthene 75% at 1.1 kg a.i/ha or 20gm formulation in 14 liters of water when using a knapsack sprayer and 75 gm formulation in 10 lit of water when using a Mist blower. FAO / Shahida Sarker Parul 15

22 Leaf rollers: spray Sevin 80% at I kg a.i/ha. or 17 gm formulation in 14 liters of water when using a knapsack sprayer and 50 gm formulation in 10 lit of water when using a Mist blower Armyworm: spray Dipterex 80% W.P. at 1.12 a.i./ha or 28 ml formulation in 14 liters of water when using a knapsack sprayer and 81 ml in 10 lit of water when using a Mist blower To control Sheath rot use mechanically separated seeds Spray only at ETL (Table 7) of respective insect but before that practice all possible measure to control insect-pests (Table 8) Table 7: Economic Thresh-hold level (ETL) of some common rice pests Categories Insect ETL Internal Feeder Stem borer 3 female moths or egg mass/m % dead heart upto maximum tillering stage 5% white head after maximum tillering st ge 75 deadhearts in 20 hills or 2 adults or 2 eggmasses/m² Gall midge 5% Onion Shoot Leaf Feeders Rice hispa 4 adults/hill or 35% damaged leaves Whorl maggot, Leaf roller, Caseworm, Swarming caterpillar, Grasshoppers, Long 25% damaged leaves horned cricket Leaf Suckers Green leafhopper 1 hopper/sweep and presence of Tungro virus occurred Stem suckers Brown plant hopper 2-4 gravid female or 10 nymph/hill are present in 50% hill. OR 1 hopper/tiller Mealy bug more than 5% hills are damaged Grain sucker Rice bug 3 bugs or nymph/hill Ear cutter Ear Cutting caterpillar No Insecticides Table 8: Management of Rice Insect Pest: possible measure to control common insect-pests Cultural Control Draining out of standing Whorl maggot, Caseworm, BPH, WBPH Water Flooding of field Swarming caterpillar, Soil insects Destruction of infested plants Mealy bug Early maturing variety BPH, WBPH Wider plant spacing BPH, WBPH Top dressing of N fertilizer Thrips Resistant variety GLH, BPH, WBPH, Tungro Light trap All insects attracted to light Collection & destruction Stem borer of egg masses By Sweep net Hispa & all other insect Burning of stubbles Stem borer, Ear cutting caterpillar, Swarming caterpillar Mechanical Control Leaf clipping Rice hispa (75-92% grubs can be removed) Biological Control Perching Placing of branches in the field to provide perching site for predatory bird Chemical Control Use recommended chemicals If necessary with proper dose 16

23 Mechanization in rice cultivation and processing: The Fiji Govt has given emphasis to continue import of farm machinery and help mechanize farming activities aiming to increase cropping intensity, mitigate labour shortage in rice growing activities. Mechanization is gradually progressing in all sectors of agriculture as farmers are getting benefits of using various machines for farm operation. However, tillage operation by using power tiller and tractors and threshing by using different types of harvester/threshers are more popular in rice growing practice in Fiji. Benefit of mechanization: Shortage of draught power & labor in agriculture Less turnaround time resulting high cropping intensity Supplement human power in agriculture Scope of mechanization in rice cultivation: 1. Land preparation using power tiller/tractor/leveler. 2. Sowing direct seeds in rice field using drum seeder. 3. Transplanting rice seedling using transplanter. 4. Weeding rice field with mechanical weeder. 5. Harvesting rice with combine harvester. 6. Threshing rice grains with power thresher. Photo 21: Land preparation by power tiller FAO/ Shahida Sarker Parul 7. Milling rice grains: Rough rice grain (Paddy) is milled before prepared for consumption. Paddy contains husk and cornel. Milling yield of rice is a measure of rough rice performance during milling. It is the total quantity of head rice and broken grains recovered from unit quantity of rough rice. Various components such as hull, bran, broken and whole grains are weighed to determine the total milled rice yield and head rice yield and expressed in percentage. Rough rice contains around 20% hull and 10% commercial bran including embryo. The milling yields of high yielding varieties are grouped as high (>70%), intermediate (68-70%) and low (<68%). Rice seed production at farmers' level: Mark a seed plot at Farmers field A small part of rice field can be selected as seed plot and can be marked by sticks in the corners. The part of the land should be uniformly leveled and at least 3 meter from the band inside the rice plot. After intensive care throughout the production season and rouging several times, the harvest is carefully threshed and sundried. And with 12% moisture, the produce can be used as own saved seed by the farmer for following season. The two main features of rice seed production is ISOLATION and ROUGING that differs with the grain production plots. FAO /Shahida Sarker Parul Photo 22: Seed production within rice production plot 17

24 Isolation distance for seed production Isolation distance: keeping seed production plot separate from other nearby varieties to prevent cross- pollination. Isolation distance is essential to maintain varietal purity. Although rice crop is a self-pollinated crop, cross pollination up to 0.3 to 1% (and can extend up to 5%) is reported. This is due to : o Wind pollination: Rice pollen is light and dry and wind can carry these to some extent. o Insect pollination: Since there are many insects in rice field, always there is a chance of insect pollination throughout the tropics. o Some other agents like birds, snails, water etc. has impact on cross pollination. The larger the seed plot the less the danger of out-crossing The isolation distance is compulsory for seed producers if they wish their multiplied seeds certified by the appropriate authority. The isolation distance for rice seed production is 3 meter. Rouging for rice production Rouging means removal of off-types or mixtures. Rouging in seed production plot is extremely important as pollen from off-type plants can cause irreparable damage through crosspollination. It is essential to eradicate ALL off-types to stop deterioration of seed quality by cross pollination and mixture. Concept and source of off-types: Plants with heterogeneous characters in a seed production plots may be called off-types. Sources of such off-types are: Volunteer plants from previous crop in seedbed/main field, Natural out-crossing, mutation, Minor genetic variation/ developmental variation, and Mechanical mixtures during harvesting, threshing, drying, processing and packing. Identifying characters of off-types: with following characteristics of plants: Plant height: Plants taller and shorter than most of the population in the field. Plants with different color of leaves, sheaths, and straws Awns: if majority plants are with awns then those without awns are off-types & vice versa. Panicle exertion: Plants with earlier or later panicle emergence are to be considered as offtypes (only those with a flowering range 2-3 days should be kept). Angle of flag leaf: If erect flag leaf is dominant then horizontal and droopy leaves are off types. Size, shape, and color of grains: If most of the panicles have long grains then those with medium grains are off-types. If slender grains are dominant, then bold grains are off types etc. Diseased or insect-damaged plant. Time of rouging: Rouging should be made continuously over the whole growing season (as and when noticed off-types) with a special emphasis during the period of panicle emergence to early seed development. Usually rouging is done during Vegetative growth, Flowering, Post flowering and Pre-harvest times. 18

25 PART-3: RICE PRODUCTION SCHEDULE The different activities related to rice production can be scheduled in a management timetable to get detailed information of tentative timing of those activities during rice crop cultivation. Short duration variety of 110 days is considered in these tables. Wet direct seeded rice management timetable (Short duration variety of 110 days) days after seeding Planting PI Flowering Maturation Critical stages Weeds critical N critical Rice bug Pre-plant management: Land preparation and seed incubation Final land preparation (make sure field is level; allow time for soil to settle before planting - or -2 to -3 seed will sink too deep to emerge) Basal fertilizer with N can be applied -2 Soak seed and Incubate for sprouting Crop establishment 0 Sow sprouted seed (suggested rate kg ha -1 ) +1 Incubate additional seed (e.g., 1 kg per 0.25 ha) to use to fill in any gaps +15 to +20 Fill gaps by transplanting if not filled by re-seeding Weed Management 0 to +1 Use recommended herbicide -1 to +20 Use recommended herbicide +20 to +40 Use recommended herbicide Water management: Critical- PI stage needs 1-2 cm standing water 0 to +15 Flash flood +20 to +25 Alternate wet and dry method can be adopted +25 to +80 There should be enough moisture need flash irrigation if rain water is not available +81 to +88 Drain field (to facilitate maturation and mechanical harvest) Nutrient management: Apply basal fertilizer during final land preparation Apply N as required if plant stand and tiller number low (may use LCC for N top dress) CRITICAL - Monitor N status - apply N if needed - N nutrition at panicle initiation must be PI +35 to +38 adequate Insect-pests and disease management Mid tillering & Scout for Leaf roller and Tungro - transmitted by green leaf hopper on +40 to +65 Scout for BPH and stem borers (whiteheads) - needs adequate monitoring Milk Monitor Rice bugs - if greater 1 bug/hill at milk stage apply control stage +75 to +85 Post Production Harvest at around 80% maturity (grains will be yellowish) Drain field at around 7 days before physiological maturity - around 25 days after flowering for short duration variety Drying: Sun dry for 3-4 days and reduce moisture content below 12% for better storage 19

26 Dry direct seeded rice management timetable (Short duration variety of 110 days) Critical stages: days after seeding(das) Planting PI Flowering Maturation Weeds critical N critical Rice bug -2 to -3 Pre-plant management Final land preparation (make sure field is level; allow time for soil to settle before planting - or seed will sink too deep to emerge) Basal fertilizer with N can be applied Crop establishment 0 Sow seed (suggested rate kg ha -1 ) Broadcast ( kg ha -1 ) and harrow if possible (to reduce losses to birds and rats) Broadcast into 15 cm spaced furrows and cover ( kg ha -1 ) Drill seed ( kg ha -1 ) USE CLEAN SEED (to increase plant vigor and reduce disease and weeds) +1 Incubate additional seed (e.g., 1 kg per 0.25 ha) to use to fill in any gaps +15 to +20 Fill gaps by transplanting if not reseeded Reduce pest damage during crop establishment rats, and birds Weed Management 0 to +1 Apply recommended weedicide -1 to +20 Apply recommended weedicide +20 to +52 Apply recommended weedicide Water management: Critical- PI stage needs 1-2 cm standing water 0 to +21 Flash flood +40 to +45 Alternate wet and dry method can be adopted +55 to +90 There should be enough moisture need flash irrigation if rain water is not available +95 to +100 Drain field (to facilitate maturation and mechanical harvest) 0 to +52 (PI) +49 to +52 Nutrient management: Apply basal fertilizer during final land preparation If apply basal N, then apply N as required - if plant stand and tiller number low (LCC may be used to determine N requirement) CRITICAL - Monitor N status - apply N if needed - N nutrition at panicle initiation must be adequate Mid tillering & on +40 to to Milk stage Insect-pests and disease management Scout for Leaf roller and Tungro - transmitted by green leaf hopper Scout for BPH and control stemborers if thought necessary (causing whiteheads) - needs adequate monitoring Monitor Rice bugs - if greater 1 bug/hill at milk stage apply control +95 to +100 DAS Post Production Harvest at around 80% maturity (grains will be yellowish) Drain field at around 7 days before physiological maturity - around 25 days after flowering for short duration variety 20

27 +110 to Drying: Sun dry for 3-4 days and reduce moisture content below 12% for better storage Transplanted management timetable (Short duration variety of 110 days) days after seeding(das) Planting PI Flowering Maturation Critical stages: Weeds critical N critical Rice bug Pre-plant management: Nursery and seedling -28 prepare nursery USE CLEAN SEEDS (to increase plant vigor and reduce disease and weeds) -28 & -27 Soak and incubate seeds (suggested rate kg ha -1 ) -26 Sowing incubated seeds in nursery -2 to -3 Land preparation Final land preparation (make sure field is properly leveled; allow time for soil to settle before transplanting) Crop establishment Transplant (suggested spacing 20 cm x 20 cm for manual; 30 cm x 12 cm for mechanized 0 transplanting) +15 to +20 Fill gaps by re-transplanting Weed Management Note: Timing of herbicide application is very important relevant to the last land precreation activity -1 to 0 Pre-transplanting Use recommended herbicide 0 to +1 Use recommended herbicide -1 to +20 Use recommended herbicide +20 to +40 Use recommended herbicide Water management: Critical- PI stage needs 1-2 cm standing water 0 to +15 Flash flood +20 to +25 Alternate wet and dry method can be adopted +25 to +80 There should be enough moisture need flash irrigation if rain water is not available +81 to +88 Drain field (to facilitate maturation and mechanical harvest) Nutrient management: Apply basal fertilizer during final land preparation Apply N as required if plant stand and tiller number low (may use LCC for N top dress) CRITICAL - Monitor N status - apply N if needed - N nutrition at panicle initiation must be PI +35 to +38 adequate Insect-pests and disease management Mid tillering & Scout for Leaf roller and Tungro - transmitted by green leaf hopper on +40 to +65 Scout for BPH and stem borers (whiteheads) - needs adequate monitoring Milk Monitor Rice bugs - if greater 1 bug/hill at milk stage apply control stage +75 to +85 Post Production Harvest at around 80% maturity (grains will be yellowish) Drain field at around 7 days before physiological maturity - around 25 days after flowering for short duration variety 21

28 Drying: Sun dry for 3-4 days and reduce moisture content below 12% for better storage PART-4: POST HARVEST HANDLING, PRCESSING AND UTILIZATION FAO / Shahida Sarker Parul Photo 23: Harvesting Sundrying and Storing rice grain Calculating rice yield panicle #/m 2 spikelet # per panicale 1000 grain wt (g) Rice yield (m 2 ) = panicle #/m 2 spikelet # per panicale 1000 grain wt (kg) Rice yield (m 2 )= x 1000 = x kg x 10,000 Rice yield = t/ha = x 10 t/ha (wet grain) moisture content of wet grain Wt of dry yield = yield of wet grain (at 14% Moisture) Moisture of dry grain Sorting/Cleaning of rice seed Stored seeds need to be sundried for one day (to break dormancy if any) and cleaned properly. Cleaned and treated seed can prevent seed-borne diseases and ensure healthy seedling and good harvest. Seed sorting: can be done in 3 ways (1) Winnowing: using a locally made winnower or use air current/fan (2) By hand: if small amount (3) By soaking in urea/clay/salt solution (Generally before the sowing seeds) Dissolve 1.5 kg urea or some clay in 40 liters of water (check solution with an floating egg) Soak seeds in the urea/clay solution & stir to float unfilled, broken & diseased seeds Remove floating poor seeds by hands/sieves Wash seeds properly 3-4 times with clean water (especially in case of urea solution). Clean seed will have bright appearance with no spots & lesions. Seed Processing and Storing Harvesting, threshing, cleaning and drying of rice seed 22

29 Harvesting can be done when 80-90% grains found mature (grains become strawcolor) Small quantity grain may be threshed by leg on a canvas Big lot can be threshed using thresher machine (if it is seed then with slow-run) Clean extra stubbles before drying Sun dry: Rice grain needs removing some moisture before storing to avail damage grain in the store. Food grain can be dried under strong sun but seed should be dried under 5-6 low-intensive sunlight avoiding noon temperature. Moisture content of stored grain (both food and seed) must be maintained at or below 12% Final dried seeds again cleaned properly (air blow / cleaner) Healthy seeds can be separated using sieve or grading machine. Sundried grains need to be cool and then stored properly. Storing rice grains Clean the storing place before store new harvest to avoid insect pest damage Take appropriate measure to save stored grains from rats Storing rice seed All storing materials should be kept on wooden slab Keep the seed of different varieties separately. Cleaned and sun-dried drum, poly-bag, earthen pot can be used. Earthen pots should be colored to make it air tight After seed filling, extra space of pot should be filled with sand/ash. An air-tight cover should be used for stored pot. Photo 24: Different product of rice FAO / Shahida Sarker Parul Manage post-harvest grain loss and dirty panicle complex Postharvest loss and prevention: The total average loss in rice postharvest operations, harvesting to milling can be reduced to some extent by taking proper care at the operation levels. Proper time of harvest: Early harvested paddy contains more immature grains and late harvested paddy suffers more shattering Crop stacking: no adverse effect in seed quality due to 3 days stacking but seed grain avoid stacking beyond 1 day Threshing and winnowing: The use of mechanical and power threshers can be used to reduce this loss. Grain drying (Field-drying or sun-drying of raw paddy): This is usually due to (a) shattering of grain (b) stalk-breaking (c) birds, rodents and other animals. Insect /rat damage during store: Damage by Weevil, Grain borer, Moth etc. occur frequently. Rat is one of the major pest causing huge storage loss of paddy. Clean and well managed store can reduce these losses. Dirty panicle complex: often caused by some pathogenic organism and need good field management to reduce this loss. Rice Utilization Rice grain quality influences the commercial success of this commodity. Farmers prefer high yield, millers prefer superior milling performance and consumers prefer good eating and cooking qualities. Commercialization of rice farming depends on the production of quality grains. The quality indicators for rice includes (i) Physical properties (milling yield, head rice 23

30 yield, grain size and shape, (ii) Chalkiness in the grain (Appearance of milled rice); (iii) Chemical properties (Amylose content, Protein content); (iv) Cooking qualities (cooking time, tenderness, elongation ratio, etc.) and (v) Nutritional properties (energy/protein/mineral/vitamin content). Energy content - Rice as carbohydrate food and is one of the most important source of energy (milled rice contains % carbohydrate and % fat). Protein content of HYV rice varieties varied from percent in milled rice. Mineral elements and Vitamins: Rice grain contains minerals and a few vitamins, for instances, thiamin (vitamin B 1) is the major one to 0.52 mg/100g rice powder in brown rice and 0.08 to 0.14 mg/100g in milled rice, riboflavin (Vitamin B 2) and niacin 0.02 to 0.06 mg/100g and 1.3 to 2.4 mg /100g, in milled rice, respectively. Utilization of rice: The main product and by-product of paddy and their uses are listed below: 1. White rice Used to cook with water and main dish by millions of people around the world 2. Brown rice Brown rice generally needs longer cooking times than white rice, unless it is broken or flour blasted (which perforates the bran without removing it) Brown rice is whole grain rice, with the inedible outer hull removed; more nutritious than white rice 3. Rice husk Generated during the first stage of rice milling, when rough rice or paddy rice is husked Rice husk is used as fuel 4. Rice bran Generated when brown rice moves through the whiteners and polishers High nutritive value. Besides proteins, it is an excellent source of vitamins B and E. And a small amounts of anti-oxydants, which are considered to low cholesterol in humans. Rice bran contains 10 23% bran oil. Bran oil is a high quality vegetable oil for cooking or eating. The conventional use of rice bran is as ingredient for animal feeds, in particular ruminants and poultry. The oily nature makes bran an excellent binder for animal feeds. 5. Brewer s rice Brewer s rice is separated produced when milled rice is sifted Used as ingredient for animal feeds, in particular ruminants and poultry. Cooked rice: The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, and short-grained. Medium-grain rice is used for sweet dishes; rice with high amylopectin used to cook Sticky rice by steaming; a stickier medium-grain rice is used for sushi; short-grain rice is often used for rice pudding; parboiled rice is fully cooked and then dried; rice flour and starch often are used to make different types of cakes. Rice is also used as Puff rice. Processing: Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs water during cooking. With the absorption method, rice may be cooked in a volume of water similar to the volume of rice. With the rapid-boil method, rice may be cooked in a large quantity of water which is drained before serving. Some of the popular rice dishes are listed in Error! Reference source not found.. 24

31 PART-5: ECONOMICS OF RICE PRODUCTION Rice growers will be interested to expand or to be involved in rice growing and accept rice as new commodity in their own farms when they realize that the crop is providing profit from their land and more importantly ensure their family food security. Classification of Costs There are two major categories of costs; namely fixed cost, and variable cost. The other costs, which we derive for better understanding our analysis, are cash cost, kind cost, total cost, marginal cost and opportunity cost etc. Total Cost (TC): The total cost is the sum of fixed and variable costs. Symbolically the total cost can be written as: TC = FC + VC (1) Where, TC = Total Cost FC = Fixed Cost VC = Variable Cost Fixed Cost (FC): The cost, which is incurred even if no output is produced, is referred to as fixed cost. The fixed cost is also known as sunk cost. Variable Cost (VC): The variable cost is the cost that can vary with the change in output. Labor, fertilizer and insecticides etc. are the variable cost items. Marginal Cost (MC): Marginal cost is the change in TC resulting from a unit increase in output. Change in TC MC = (2) Change in output Opportunity Cost (OC): The opportunity cost is the cost that sacrifices for other. The opportunity cost of family labor is the cost that can earn by selling out the labor to other s farm/non-farm activities. Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR): It is the ratio between gross return (GR) and total cost (TC). A farmer can invest money as long as the BCR is equal to 1. GR BCR = (3) TC Empirical Results of Costs and Returns Analysis for Rice Production in Fiji (for 1 ha) (Table 9), Considering Mechanized (Govt rate), Star variety, Broadcast, Irrigated rice cultivation Table 9: Gross Margin: Rice of 1 ha land with machinery for land preparation and harvesting Unit Quantity Price (FJ$) Total (FJ$) Sale price of Paddy tones Estimated Yield t/ha 3.5 Estimated Income 2275 Sl. # Variable Cost 1 Input Cost 1.1 Triple Super Phosphate 50 kg bag Potash 50 kg bag Urea 50 kg bag Weedicide/Pesticide 25

32 Unit Quantity Price (FJ$) Total (FJ$) 2.1 Proponil Liters MCPA 4 Liters Suncloprid Liters Bifenphrin Liters Machinery hire 3.1 Plough Hours Harrow Hours Combine Harvester Hours Labor Hire 4.1 Broadcaster Person day Fertilizer Applicator Person day Weedicide Applicator Person day Manual Weeding Person day Harvester Person day Sundry Person day Other Cost 5.1 Empty Bag Number Transport Time Water ha Seed kg Land Rent for one season FJ$ LS 50 Total Expenditure Gross Margin Cost of production per ha Return per ha 2275 Benefit per ha 486 Following improved technologies (seed, balanced fertilizer application, IPM, etc.) farmers could produce better with low costs which in turn gave them a good profit. Farmers felt encouraged to grow rice for better profit. Following improved technologies (seed, balanced fertilizer application, IPM, etc.) in ToT and FFS trial plots rice yield could increase by 34% and 44% in ToT and FFS trial plots, respectively. Moreover, following IPM techniques and better management practices production costs also could be reduced which in turn gave a good profit while calculating the gross margin leaving an encouraging picture for the farmers to continue and expand rice cultivation. References 1. K. Srinivasa Rao, S.V. Subbaiah, M. Nacola, Kamlesh Puran, Ram Pratap, BasDeo Lal, Epeli Tikoi Delai and Rajendra Reddy 2007,Cultivation Techniques to enhance rice production in Fiji, Rice Production Technology Bulletin, Research Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests, Republic of Fiji Islands, 32 pp 2. BRRI Modern Rice Cultivation. 18 th Edition. 80p. 3. Rice Production Manual, Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. Production.pdf 4. F.B. Brown and Laure, M. Development of rice growing in the Rewa River Basin. Fiji. Agronomy and Production Economics. FAO-UN Technical report 4.. AGS:SF/FIJ3. 53p. 5. Northern Division Rice Survey Report Ministry of Agriculture. Republic of Fiji. 14p. 6. A.J.Vernon. Rice Research in Fiji: Fiji. agric.j.(1972) 34, 61-70p. 7. Ricepedia the online authority of rice. CGIAR. Research program on rice-global rice science partnership. Report consulted (collected from Ministry of Agriculture, Republic of Fiji): 26

33 8. BOLDGRAIN A High Yielding Rice Variety for Fiji by N Reddy (Rice Breeder, Koronivia Research Station, Nausori, Fiji) Report from Ministry 9. COMMODITY PROFILE: A report produced by Ministry of Agriculture, Republic of Fiji 10. CURRENT STATUS, CONSTRAINTS AND POTENTIALITY OF AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN FIJI. By M W Ullah (Professor, Dept. of Soil Science and Agricultural Engineering, USP ullah_w@samoa.ac.fi) and S Anad (Post graduate student, Dept. of Soil Science and Agricultural Engineering, USP) 11. FERTILIZER SITUATION IN FIJI A report collected from Ministry of Agriculture 12. HISTORY OF RICE FARMING IN FIJI as mentioned by Sujendra Prasad Actg ATO, Lakena [Press Article rel. 08/05/07]). 13. REPORT ON THE GUIDELINES FOR RICE PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT IN THE REPUBLIC OF FIJI ISLANDS. By Md. Sirajul Islam, PhD, Consultant, FAO-UN, submitted to Republic of the Fiji Islands, Under TCP/FIJ/ RICE AS AN INDUSTRY IN FIJI A draft report collected from Ministry 15. RICE GROSS MARGIN Ministry Report 16. SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND FERTILIZER RECOMMENDATION FOR NAUSORI AREA by Shoji Miura, Etsaro Tomioka, and Kishore Chand (report collected from Ministry of agriculture) 27

34 In Fiji rice, is a major source of food and has contributed to the improvement of the livelihood of thousands of farmers relying on rice as a main source of income. Rice has multi-dimension roles as the foundations of food security, economic growth as well as social and political stability. However, the Fiji rice industry increasingly weakened over the years as the rice area and production declined while the rice yield growth has been stagnant or marginal. The Government has given supportive policies and incentives along with increased investment from public and private sector to promote the rice industry development. FAO in collaboration with the Fiji government arranged rice Teaching of Trainers for extension officials of existing and potential rice growing areas to transmit improved rice production technologies among the farmers. This publication is a technical manual for extension officers. 28