Interpretation guidelines for Brunei GAP Produce Quality Module

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1 Interpretation guidelines for Brunei GAP Produce Quality Module November 2012 Disclaimer The views expressed in this information product are not necessarily those of the Government of Brunei nor does the Government of Brunei vouch for the accuracy of the material. No responsibility or liability will therefore be accepted by the Government of Brunei in relation to any use or reliance on the material contained in this publication.

2 Contents Acknowledgements Introduction... 1 Purpose and scope of guide Guide sections Hazards and causes of quality loss... 3 Quality hazards Quality loss during production Quality loss at harvest Quality loss during postharvest handling GAP requirements Quality plan 2.2 Planting material 2.3 Fertilisers and soil additives 2.4 Water 2.5 Agrochemicals 2.6 Harvesting and handling produce 2.7 Handling of produce 2.8 Storage and transport 2.9 Traceability and recall 2.10 Training 2.11 Documents and records 2.12 Review of practices Self-assessment checklist good agricultural practices Example quality plan... Examples of documents and records Appendices 1. Glossary of terms 2. References and additional information

3 Acknowledgements Editors Dr. Robert Premier, from Global F.S. pty ltd, Victoria, Australia Mr. Scott Ledger, Queensland, Australia The original publication was prepared by a working group involving representatives from all ASEAN countries and the editors of this guide. member This document is a revised and modified version of an ASEAN Secretariat publication related to ASEAN GAP. It has been reproduced and modified here in accordance to the ASEAN secretariat copyright process.. Copyright ASEAN Secretariat 2006 All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of materials from this publication for educational or other non commercial purposes is authorised without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of materials in this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders.

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5 1.1 Purpose and scope of guide 1. Introduction This interpretive guide was designed to assist producers, packers, supply chain businesses, trainers, government representatives, auditors and others to understand the practices required for implementing the Food Safety Module of Brunei GAP. It provides guidance on what has to be done to implement the required practices. Separate interpretive guides are available for the other Brunei GAP modules. Products that present high risk to food safety, such as sprouts and minimally processed products, are not covered in the scope of Brunei GAP. Brunei GAP may be used for all types of productions systems but it is not a standard for certification of organic products or GMO free products. 1.2 Guide sections The guide contains background information on types of quality hazards and causes of quality loss, guidance on implementing the GAP requirements, a self-assessment checklist to review compliance with the requirements, examples of documents and records, a glossary of terms and references and additional information. Section 2. Hazards and causes of quality loss This section provides information about the potential quality hazards and causes of quality loss. A quality hazard is any characteristic that prevents the produce from meeting the requirements of a customer or government regulation. Produce quality can be lost at any step during production, harvesting and postharvest handling. Section 3. GAP requirements The good agricultural practices for controlling quality hazards are grouped into 10 elements. Each element has background information to explain how quality can be lost. Specific information is then provided for each practice to explain what is required to implement the practice. In some cases, two or more practices are grouped together as the guidance information is the same for both practices. Section 4. Self-assessment checklist The self-assessment checklist enables the level of compliance with the good agricultural practices contained in the food safety module to be checked. The relevance of the practices will depend on the location of the farm or packing business, type of produce, and the systems used for production, harvesting, handling, packing, storage and transport. The person assesses whether the practice is done correctly or if attention is needed or if the practice is not relevant. If attention is needed, the actions required are identified and recorded. Section 5. Example quality plan This section contains an example of a quality plan for production, harvesting and postharvest handling of mangoes. For each process step, the quality plan describes the quality hazards that may occur, the causes of quality hazards and the good agricultural practices required to prevent or minimise the risk of the quality hazards occurring. Section 6. Examples of documents and records The section contains examples of documents and record forms that are required to implement various practices in the produce quality module. The documents and record forms are examples only and other methods and formats can be used.. 1

6 Appendix 1. Glossary of terms This appendix contains definitions for the abbreviations and terms used in the guide. Appendix 2. References and additional information This appendix contains references and additional information on control of quality hazards for fresh produce. It includes lists of training programs, GAP guidelines, publications, GAP systems and organisations. 2

7 Quality hazards Hazards and causes of quality loss A quality hazard is any characteristic that prevents the produce from meeting the requirements of a customer or government regulation. For example the produce quality may not meet the requirement of a customer for size, colour, maturity, external appearance, flavour, or shelf life. The produce may also not meet the quarantine regulations of an importing country because of the presence of a pest or disease or it may be incorrectly labelled. There are three types of quality characteristics external appearance, internal quality, and hidden quality. External appearance includes those characteristics that can be seen by the eye. Examples are colour, size, shape, disease, insects, blemishes, and packaging. Internal quality includes those characteristics that can t be seen from the outside and the produce needs to be cut or eaten to identify the quality. Examples are colour, firmness, texture, flavour, aroma, disease and insects. Hidden quality includes those characteristics that can t be seen, smelt or tasted. Examples are shelf life, nutritional value and genetic modification. There are some basic quality characteristics that customers expect when purchasing fresh produce. Examples are: Free of major injury, spoilage or blemish likely to affect keeping quality Not overripe, excessively soft or wilted Free of excessive dirt, unacceptable chemical residues and other foreign matter Free of foreign odours and taste Free of quarantine pests Produce quality can be lost at any step during the production, harvesting and postharvest handling of fresh produce. Grading for quality Not only is the quality of individual pieces important, but the overall quality of the combined saleable unit is also important. The buyer will have expectations for the quality of the saleable unit for example, bundles of leafy vegetables, a basket, crate or carton of fruit. Many customers require the produce to be uniform in quality within the package. This may be uniform colour, size, weight, shape, or some other characteristic. To achieve uniformity, the produce is graded for quality either at harvest, packing or during a repacking stage. Grading is usually done by humans, either pickers or packers, although machinery or measurement devices are increasingly being used. Accuracy of humans is typically lower than with machinery, but can be improved with suitable training. Achieving perfect uniformity is rarely possible so some level of variability has to be allowed. Decisions have to be made about what range of attribute between the lower limit and upper limit will be allowed. For example, for a produce weight requirement of 250 grams with an allowance of 10%, the weight range would be 225 to 275 grams. 3

8 Figure 1. Grading tomatoes by colour to satisfy the requirements of different buyers Quality loss during production The inherent quality of produce is determined by the production practices. Once produce has been harvested, produce quality can not be improved. Production practices affect all types of quality characteristics. External characteristics such as colour, size, and shape are affected by practices that impact on plant growth and crop load such as water and nutrition management, pruning and thinning. External appearance can be reduced by disease infection, pest damage and mechanical injury such as wind rub. The internal appearance, eating quality, shelf life and nutritional value of produce is reduced by water stress, inadequate plant nutrition and excessive crop loads. GAP during production is aimed at increasing the inherent quality of produce at the time of harvest. Quality loss at harvest The maturity of produce not only affects the quality at harvest but also the self life of the produce. Maturity refers to the stage of development in the process of growing of the fruit or vegetable. Maturation continues until the start of senescence, leading to the death of the produce. Determining when produce is mature and ready for harvest can be a difficult decision. For some crops, maturity indices have been developed to assist in the decision process. For other crops, harvesting at the correct time can be highly subjective. The optimum maturity for harvest is when the plant has completed sufficient growth and development to ensure that produce quality and shelf is acceptable to the consumer. Most produce start to senescence once harvested, eventually leading to death. If this produce is harvested too mature, senescence may occur before the produce reaches the consumer. If this produce is harvested immature, quality characteristics such as colour, size, shape, flavour and texture will be reduced. Fruit crops undergo a ripening process as part of maturation. Ripening involves changes in fruit characteristics that lead to increasing eating acceptability. Examples of these changes are softening, decrease in acids and tannins, increase in sugars, development of aroma and changes to skin colour. For some fruit such as mango, banana and tomato, these changes continue after the produce is harvested. If fruit is harvested when they are not mature, they may lack the required flavour or texture for the consumer. If fruit is harvested too mature, senescence may occur before the produce reaches the consumer. 4

9 Examples of the different types of produce are: Stems and leaves asparagus, celery, lettuce, cabbage Flowers artichoke, broccoli, cauliflower Partially developed fruit cucumber, green bean, okra, sweet corn Fully developed fruit apple, pear, citrus, tomato Roots and tubers carrot, onion, potato The methods for measuring maturity must be simple, as it may need to be assessed in different places such as in the field or packing shed or in the market. Quality loss during postharvest handling There are many causes of quality loss after harvest. Quality loss can be due to the normal biological processes, which can be slowed but not stopped, and can be the result of poor handling practices. Major causes of quality loss after harvest are Acceleration of senescence (aging) W a t e r l o s s Mechanical injuries Ph ysiological d isorders D i s e a s e i nf ec t i o n Growth and development Acceleration of senescence (aging) All fruits and vegetables are alive and the biological processes continue to be active after harvest. Senescence is the process of aging leading to death, and it commences immediately at harvest. The rate of senescence has to be managed to minimise loss of quality. Common symptoms of senescence are excessive softening, tissue breakdown, loss of colour, loss of flavour, off-flavours, and tissue discolouration. Fruit and vegetables continue to use oxygen and produce carbon dioxide after harvest. This process is called respiration. During respiration, heat is also produced. There are two different types of respiration processes climacteric and non-climacteric. With climacteric respiration, the produce undergoes a burst of respiration that coincides with the initiation of ripening in fruit. After reaching a peak, respiration falls again. Examples are ripening fruit such as mango, banana, papaya and tomato. With non-climacteric respiration, there is no burst or rapid rise in respiration. Examples of non-climacteric produce are vegetables and fruits such as carambola, citrus, and pineapple. Produce varies greatly in the rate of respiration rate. The rate of deterioration of produce is related to the respiration rate. The following table shows four categories of respiration and examples of produce for each category. Generally, mature plant parts have low respiration and actively growing plant parts have high respiration. Respiration rate Product Low Garlic, onion, citrus Moderate Cabbage, carrot, mango, tomato, banana High Cauliflower, strawberry Very high Broccoli, asparagus, sweet corn, mushroom 5

10 The respiration rate is temperature dependent the higher the temperature, the higher the respiration rate. Control of temperature is crucial to minimising loss of quality through senescence. Temperature control starts with rapid cooling after harvest to remove field heat. Common methods used to cool produce include cooling with air, water, and package icing. Source: Dr. T. O Hare, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland, Australia Figure 2. Effect of temperature on quality of Chinese mustard after 4 days storage. Water loss All plants undergo water loss through a process called transpiration. This process continues after harvest. Produce varies greatly in transpiration rate. Generally produce with large surface areas have high transpiration rates and produce with protective skins have low transpiration rates. Symptoms of water loss include shrinking, wilting, shrivelling, softening and loss of crispness and juiciness. The level of water loss where symptoms become visible varies between products. Some leafy products show symptoms at about 2% water loss while some fruit do not show symptoms below 6% water loss. The rate of water loss rate is temperature dependent the higher the temperature, the higher the water loss. Air movement across the produce surface can also accelerate water loss. For produce with high transpiration rates, protecting produce during storage or transport from excessive air movement is important. Water loss can be reduced by holding the product at reduced temperature and in an environment with high moisture content (for example in a plastic bag). Application of a surface coating such as wax can also reduce water loss but is suitable mainly for low respiration products because the coating can impede oxygen and carbon dioxide movement. Mechanical injuries Mechanical injuries can occur at any stage of harvesting, grading, packing and transport. Injury symptoms can appear externally or internally. They may be visible almost as soon as they occur, or they may only become visible at some later time. Mechanical injuries not only cause a loss of appearance, they can also increase water loss, stimulate increased respiration or ethylene production, and allow entry of disease organisms. The major types of injuries are B r u i s i n g A b r a s i o n Wounds (cuts and punctures) Cracking and splitting When soft produce are bruised, external symptoms are usually easy to recognise, such as flat spots or shape distortions. On produce with firm or hard external surfaces, bruising is frequently not visible. The hard surface may 6

11 distort and return to normal shape after impact, leaving damaged areas inside that only become visible to the consumer. The areas of damage usually appear as translucent or discoloured areas. Bruising can be caused by impact or pressure damage. Impact damage can occur from dropping of individual produce or packages or hard knocks on equipment and during transport. Pressure damage can occur in product stacked too high or packed in a container unable to support the required weight. Abrasion (rubbing) of surface tissue leads to rupture of cells. Loss of water and cell death occurs, leaving dry black or brown areas on the surface. Some of this injury may be visible immediately, but frequently takes several days to become visible. Symptoms can be severe for fruit which undergo ripening such as banana. Common causes of abrasion injury are rubbing of produce against dirty or rough surfaces of containers and equipment and rubbing of loosely packed produce during transport. Heavy impacts to rigid or hard produce can cause cracking or splitting. This can occur when a single produce is dropped on to a hard surface, a container of produce is dropped or loose produce bounce against each other during transport. Bruising Abrasion Cracking and splitting Wounds Figure 3. The major types of injuries are bruising, abrasion, cracking and splitting and wounds Physiological disorders External factors can cause some of the active biological processes occurring in produce to fail or be disrupted, resulting in quality loss. Examples of these physiological disorders are: H e a t i n j u r y Chilling (cold) injury Ethylene damage Carbon dioxide damage Low oxygen (anaerobic) injury Heat injury. When produce is exposed to high temperatures, some of the quality characteristics are adversely affected. The effect of high temperature is produce specific but generally occurs above 30 C. 7

12 Sources of heat can be the sun shining onto packed produce, or onto the side of a transport vehicle. Excess heat build-up can also occur in stacks of produce with high respiration rate. The heat of respiration causes the produce to self-heat, particularly if it has not been adequately cooled. Colour changes can be affected, such as inhibition of green colour loss. In extreme cases brown areas can appear on the skin. Other symptoms include Excessive sof tness O f f f l a v o u r s Yellowing of leaves W i l t i n g Chilling injury. Produce exposed to excessively low temperatures can suffer chilling injury. Common symptoms are surface pitting, discoloured skin areas, darkening of flesh or water soaked areas of flesh. Chilling injury can occur during cooling, storage and refrigerated transport. Produce varies greatly in sensitivity to low temperatures. For example, climacteric tropical and sub-tropical fruit are affected by temperatures below 12 C while pineapple has been shown to suffer chilling injury at 20 C. Figure 4. Bananas (grey skin) can suffer chilling injury below 12 C and pineapples (flesh browning and blackening) below 20 C. Ethylene damage. Ethylene is a hormone that is involved in plant growth, development, ripening and senescence. Climacteric fruit experience an increase in ethylene production rate that coincides with ripening. These fruit release ethylene during ripening. Non-climacteric produce generally have a low ethylene production rate. Ethylene in the air around produce can have both a positive and negative effect. The positive effect is the use of ethylene to control the ripening of climacteric fruit such as banana and tomato. However if unwanted ethylene builds up in the air around sensitive produce, it can induce or increase the rate of ripening and water loss and cause injuries. Symptoms of ethylene damage include surface pitting, increased disease incidence, yellowing, and increased softening. Ethylene damage is typically caused by the mixing of ethylene producing and ethylene sensitive produce during storage and transport. Carbon dioxide damage. Carbon dioxide produced by respiration can build up in situations where ventilation is inadequate. For example, plastic bags can be used to create a modified atmosphere to extend the life of the product. Carbon dioxide can build up and be difficult to manage, particularly when temperature control is below optimum. Some leafy products such as lettuce and chinese cabbage are sensitive to 2% carbon dioxide, suffering brown spots or brown vascular tissue. Carbon dioxide injury in fruit usually appears as skin discolouration and internal discolouration and possibly with water-soaked appearance. Low oxygen injury. Produce, particularly fruit, held at atmospheres below 2% oxygen can suffer injury. Normal respiration fails and the product undergoes anaerobic respiration. This can occur when controlled or modified atmosphere storage and transport is incorrectly managed. The most common symptom is the formation of offflavours. 8

13 Disease infection Infection by disease organisms, mostly bacteria and fungi, is a major cause of quality loss in many fruit and vegetables. Infection can occur in the field during growth, or during postharvest handling. Spoilage organisms can be spread in wash water, particularly when the water is not is not changed frequently. The susceptibility of produce varies considerably and is affected by several factors. One important factor is mechanical injury, where bruises, abrasions, cracks and cuts allow the organism to enter the produce. Subjecting produce to stress such as excessively high or low temperatures, high or low humidity or unsuitable atmospheres can allow infection to occur or can increase disease development. Disease develops quickly in produce in an advanced stage of senescence. Figure 5. Mechanical injury increases the susceptibility of produce to disease infection. Bruises, abrasions, cracks and wounds allow disease organisms to enter the produce. Disease symptoms may range from small surface lesions that degrade appearance to severe infections with external and internal breakdown of a substantial part of the produce. Symptoms of moderate severity commonly appear as areas of excessive softness, off-colour or off-flavour. Growth and development Some types of produce continue growing after harvest. This can detract from the appearance of the produce and also cause quality deterioration internally as the produce uses its reserves to support the growth. Sprouting of potatoes, shooting of onions, and elongating and changing shape of asparagus are examples of continued growth after harvest. Formation of fibres can also occur in some produce. 9

14 3. GAP requirements The good agricultural practices for controlling produce quality hazards are grouped into 10 elements. For the first element, Quality plan, the method for developing a quality plan is described. For the other elements, potential causes for quality loss are described and specific information is then provided for each practice to explain what is required to implement the practice. In some cases, two or more practices are grouped together as the guidance information is the same for both practices. 2.1 Quality plan Practice Practices that are critical to managing produce quality during production, harvesting and postharvest handling are identified in a quality plan for the crop grown. The good agricultural practices required to control produce quality hazards vary with the type of produce and how it is grown, harvested, handled, packed and transported. Each farmer or employer must identify the practices that are critical to managing quality and document them in a quality plan. A quality plan contains the following information: Process steps Quality hazards Causes of quality loss Good agricultural practices What steps are involved in growing, harvesting and postharvest handling? What quality loss can happen if something goes wrong during the process? What can go wrong during the process to cause the quality loss? What control measures, monitoring activities and record keeping are needed to prevent or minimise the risk of the quality hazard occurring? An example of a quality plan for production, harvesting and postharvest handling of mangoes is described in section Planting material Practice Crop varieties are selected to satisfy market requirements. It is important that the crop variety selected to be grown is acceptable to the customers who purchase the produce. There are often many varieties available from which to select. The best way to identify the preferred varieties is to read industry publications and talk to customers such as traders, wholesalers and retailers. Practice If planting material is obtained from another farm or nursery, either a recognised plant health certificate or a guarantee that the material is good quality is provided by the supplier. The health of the planting material will directly affect the growth of the crop, which impacts on the quality of the produce. Unhealthy plants are more susceptible to pest and disease attack and disorders such as misshapen produce, and produce is typically smaller in size and has reduced shelf life. To ensure that the planting material is healthy when obtained from another farm or nursery, the farmer should request the supplier to provide a recognised plant health certificate or a guarantee that the material is good quality. 2.3 Fertilisers and soil additives Fertilisers are used to provide nutrients for plant growth and soil additives are used to improve soil structure. Some examples of soil additives are gypsum, animal and plant manures, sawdust and coconut pulp. Adequate nutrition is essential to ensure healthy plant growth. Unhealthy plants are more susceptible to pest and disease attack and disorders such as misshapen produce, and produce is typically smaller in size and has reduced shelf life. Excessive fertiliser use can cause excessive plant growth, which can lead to quality loss such as poor colour, deformities, internal disorders and reduced shelf life. 10

15 Practice Nutrient application is based on recommendations from a competent authority or on soil or leaf or sap testing and the nutritional requirements for the crop grown. Nutrient requirements vary depending on the type of produce grown, the production method, the soil type and characteristics, and the previous application of fertilisers and soil additives. Nutrient application must be based on the nutritional requirements of the crop and recommendations from a competent authority or on soil or leaf or sap testing. Recommendations for fertiliser application are typically available in industry publications produced by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture. Further advice can be obtained from advisers such as extension officers, consultants and resellers. Before using an adviser, request them to show proof of their competence. Examples of proof are qualifications from an education institution, statement of knowledge and experience from a competent authority, and a training course certificate. Advisers can also provide advice on soil and plant testing. Soil testing is done to check the availability of nutrients in the soil while leaf or sap testing is done to check the level of nutrients in the plant. Practice Areas and facilities for composting of organic materials are located, constructed and maintained to prevent contamination of crops by diseases. Rainfall runoff from compost made from plant materials, particularly old crop residues, may be a source of disease if the compost heap is located close to production sites and water sources. Compost areas and facilities need to be constructed with barriers, drainage systems, and covers to prevent contamination of produce from plant diseases. Figure 6. Rainfall runoff from compost made from plant materials, particularly old crop residues, may be a source of disease if the compost heap is located close to production sites and water sources. Practice The application of fertilisers and soil additives is recorded, detailing the name of the product or material, date, treatment location, application rate and method, and operator name. 11

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17 A record of fertilisers and soil additives applied must be kept to help guide the nutrient application for the crop grown and for future crops. The history of fertiliser application on the site is an important factor when determining the nutritional requirements of a crop. If problems occur with produce quality, the fertiliser and soil additive record may help determine if poor nutrition is the cause of the problem. The record of the application of fertilisers and soil additives can be recorded in a log book or on a record form. An example of a record form is contained in Section 6. Examples of documents and records. 2.4 Water Adequate water is essential to ensure healthy plant growth. Unhealthy plants caused by water stress are more susceptible to pest and disease attack and produce is typically smaller in size and has reduced shelf life. Excessive water application can also stress the plant and lead to quality loss such as splitting and reduced shelf life. Practice Irrigation use is based on crop water requirements, water availability, and soil moisture levels. The need for irrigation varies with each type of produce grown and the location and production method. The important factors to consider are crop water requirements, water availability and soil moisture levels. Recommendations for irrigation use are typically available in industry publications produced by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture. Further advice can be obtained from advisers such as extension officers, consultants and resellers. Before using an adviser, request them to show proof of their competence. Examples of proof are qualifications from an education institution, statement of knowledge and experience from a competent authority, and a training course certificate. Water for irrigation may be available from a range of sources for example, farm dams, underground bores, rivers and watercourses, irrigation schemes. A range of irrigation systems are available and selection depends on how much water is available, the type of produce grown, production system, availability of labour and finances. Irrigation systems vary from low volume, efficient systems such as trickle irrigation to high volume systems such as spray and flood irrigation. Soil moisture levels can be measured by a simple method such as digging a hole in the soil or by using equipment such as tensiometers and soil moisture probes. Spray irrigation Trickle irrigation Figure 7. Selection of irrigation systems depends on how much water is available, the type of produce grown, production system, availability of labour and finances. 2.5 Agrochemicals Chemicals are used during the production of fresh produce for control of pests (insects, disease, weeds), regulation of growth and thinning of crops, and after harvest for treating produce for disease and insect control, applying surface coatings to reduce moisture loss or improve appearance, and for sanitising water and equipment surfaces. To ensure that chemicals are used effectively to prevent or minimise quality loss, chemicals must be approved for use on the type of produce grown and must be applied according to label or permit instructions. 13

18 Integrated pest management systems are recommended where possible to reduce the risk of chemical resistance and excessive residues and the impact of chemicals on the environment. Practice Employers and workers have been trained to a level appropriate to their area of responsibility for chemical application. Incorrect selection, mixing, and application of chemicals can lead to inadequate pest control, spray burn, residues exceeding the MRL or visible chemical residues on the produce. Training is important to ensure that employers and workers have the appropriate level of knowledge and skills, which varies with area of responsibility. For example, the person who has overall responsibility for chemical use must have knowledge about all aspects and be able to train workers. A worker who applies the chemical must have knowledge and skills on preparing the spray mix and the operation of equipment. Evidence is required to show that people have been trained to the appropriate level. This may vary from a certificate from a formal training course to a note in a log book. The information to record is the person s name, date of training and topics covered. Source: Mr. S. Menon, QA Plus Asia-Pacific Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia Figure 8. Practice Employers and workers must be trained to a level appropriate to their area of responsibility for chemical use. Crop protection measures are appropriate for the control of pests. The crop protection measures required vary with the type of produce grown, the production system, pest pressure and environmental conditions. Recommendations for crop protection are typically available in industry publications produced by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture. Further advice can be obtained from advisers such as extension officers, consultants and resellers. Before using an adviser, request them to show proof of their competence. Examples of proof are qualifications from an education institution, statement of knowledge and experience from a competent authority, and a training course certificate. Practice Integrated pest management systems are used where possible. 14

19 An integrated pest management (IPM) system integrates multiple strategies for managing pests to minimise the use of synthetic pesticides. The strategies include encouraging beneficial insects and microorganisms to flourish, good crop hygiene and plant health, regular monitoring of crops for pests, using biological control agents, and selective use of synthetic pesticides. Evidence is required to show that an IPM system is used. Examples of evidence are records of crop protection practices such as pest monitoring results, use of biological control agents, and spray application. Practice Chemicals are only obtained from licensed suppliers. Chemicals obtained from unlicensed suppliers may be incorrectly identified or not true to the label contents or may contain impurities. This can lead to inadequate pest control, spray burn, residues exceeding the MRL or visible chemical residues on the produce. Practice Chemicals used on crops are approved by a competent authority in the country where the crop is grown and intended to be traded, and documentation is available to confirm approval. The use of approved chemicals is not only important for food safety but also to ensure that the chemicals are effective for the purpose and produce quality is maximised. Most countries have authorities responsible for registering the use of chemicals on farms. Approval to use the chemical may be listed on the label or a permit may be issued for its use. Chemicals are typically approved for a particular purpose for specified crops. The approved use and MRL must be confirmed for not only for the country where the produce is grown but also for where the produce is intended to be traded. It is possible that a chemical may be approved with a particular MRL in the country where the produce is grown but is banned or has a different MRL where the produce is to be traded. Biopesticides, which are made from biological sources, must also be approved for use on the produce grown. Documented lists of approved chemicals and MRLs can be obtained from publications or downloaded from websites or direct contact with the appropriate authorities. The Codex Alimentarius Commission ( provides standards for MRLs that many countries have adopted. Practice Chemicals are applied according to label directions or a permit issued by a competent authority. To ensure that chemicals are effective for the purpose, chemicals must be applied according to the label or permit directions. Ineffective use can occur if mixing is incorrect or the application rate is too low or high. Labels that are written in a foreign language must be translated accurately to ensure that mixing and application rates are correct. Fiqure 9. Practice 16. Chemicals are applied according to label directions or a permit issued by a competent authority. A chemical rotation strategy and other crop protection measures are used to avoid pest resistance. 15

20 Continuous use of the same chemical may lead to pest resistance and loss of quality through pest damage. A chemical rotation strategy and the use of integrated pest management strategies reduce the risk of pest resistance to chemicals. Practice Equipment used to apply chemicals is maintained in working condition and checked for effective operation at least annually by a technically competent person. Faulty equipment may lead to incorrect application rates, either too low or too high. During each use, the equipment should be checked for leaks and faulty nozzles. At least annually, the equipment should be calibrated to check that the volume of spray delivered is correct. The calibration must be done by a technically competent person. This can be the farm owner, a farm worker, an advisor, or an equipment representative as long as they have been appropriately trained. A record of the calibration should be kept. The information to record includes the name of person who did the calibration and the date and results of the calibration. The information can be recorded in a log book or on a record form. Practice The application of chemicals is recorded for each crop, detailing the chemical used, reason for application, treatment location, date, rate and method of application, weather conditions, and operator name. A record of chemicals applied must be kept to show that chemicals have been applied correctly and for traceability in the event of unacceptable quality loss occurring due to pest damage. The records enable possible causes of pest damage to be investigated. The information required can be recorded separately or together in a log book or on a record form. Examples of records for applying chemicals are contained in Section 6. Examples of documents and records. 2.6 Harvesting and handling produce Quality can be lost during the harvesting operation, during handling and packing of produce and during storage and transport of produce to the customer. Good agricultural practices are aimed at preventing or minimising quality loss through optimising maturity at harvest, handling produce carefully, grading produce to customer requirements, and effective control of temperature and moisture loss. Harvesting Quality loss during the harvesting operation can be caused by: Incorrect maturity Acceleration of senescence (aging) Water loss Mechanical injury Disease infection Practice An appropriate maturity index is used to determine when to harvest produce. Determining when produce is mature and ready for harvest can be a difficult decision. For some crops, maturity (harvest) indices have been developed to assist in the decision process. For other crops, harvesting at the correct time can be highly subjective. The optimum maturity for harvest is when the plant has completed sufficient growth and development to ensure that produce quality and shelf is acceptable to the consumer. Most produce start to senescence once harvested, eventually leading to death. If produce is harvested too mature, senescence may occur before the produce reaches the consumer. If produce is harvested immature, quality characteristics such as colour, size, shape, flavour and texture will be reduced. The methods for measuring maturity must be simple, as it may need to be assessed in different places such as in the field or packing shed or in the market. The best methods are those that are objective rather than subjective. The following examples of maturity indices can be used separately or in combination depending on the fruit or vegetable. 16

21 Days from flowering Mean heat units calculated from weather data Development of abscission layer visual or force of separation Surface structure visual appearance S i z e l e n gt h or d i a m e t er Specific gravity floatation techniques Shape dimensions, ratio charts Solidity feel, bulk density, x-rays, near infrared (NIR) Textural properties firmness, tenderness, toughness Colour external, internal use of colour charts Internal structure visual, NIR Compositional factors such as content of sugar, starch, acid, juice and oil Visual appearance Figure 10. Destructive test Some maturity indices are non-destructive such as skin colour of lychee while others are destructive such as measuring the sugar content of melons with a refractometer. Practice An appropriate technique is used for harvesting of produce. Practice Equipment and tools are suitable for harvesting and are checked for cleanliness before use and cleaned as required. Mechanical injuries during harvesting can be caused by unsuitable harvesting methods and rough handling by workers. To prevent mechanical injury, the harvest technique must be appropriate for the produce and workers trained in correct methods. Dirty equipment and tools can be a source of disease infection and should be checked before use and cleaned as required. The harvesting technique will vary depending on the type of produce, the availability and cost of workers, and the size of farm. The method can be simple such as hand picking into baskets or more complex such as using harvesting aids with conveyors for transferring produce into bulk containers. Rough handling can occur when the produce is removed from the plant and placed into a container. Some produce is removed by hand while others are removed by cutting with a knife or secateurs. Dropping produce from excessive heights into the harvest container will caused impact damage. The softer the produce, the more susceptible it is to impact damage. Practice Containers are suitable for harvesting of produce and are not overfilled. Practice Liners are used to protect produce if containers have rough surfaces. Practice Containers are covered to reduce moisture loss and exposure to the sun. 17

22 Practice Containers are checked for soundness and cleanliness before use and cleaned or discarded as required. The type of harvest containers and the packing method can be a source of quality loss. Sharp and rough surfaces on the inside of the container can cause wounds and rub damage. Overfilling the container with produce packed too high can cause pressure damage. Dirty containers can cause rub damage and disease infection. Produce that is susceptible to moisture loss, such as leafy vegetables, can lose moisture quickly if left exposed in the container. Liners can be used to protect produce if the containers have rough surfaces. Examples of liners are banana leaves, paper, and straw. The liner must be clean to ensure it is not a source of food safety hazards and spoilage organism. Moisture and exposure to the sun can be reduced by covering containers with materials such as banana leaves, paper, hessian bags, and plastic. Containers should be checked before use for soundness and cleanliness and cleaned or discarded as required. Figure 11. Liners will protect produce if harvesting containers have rough surfaces. Practice Produce is harvested in the coolest time of the day and harvesting in the rain is avoided if possible. Practice Produce is removed from the field as quickly as possible. Practice Harvested produce is placed in the shade if long delays occur before transport. The process of senescence, aging leading to death, commences immediately at harvest. The higher the temperature and the longer the produce is held at high temperatures, the faster the rate of senescence. To minimise the effect of high temperature, particularly for produce that deteriorates quickly, harvest during the coolest time of the day, cover harvest containers, remove produce from the field as quickly as possible and place harvested produce in the shade if there are long delays before removing from the field. If produce is harvested in the rain, it may remain wet for a long period and provide a favourable environment for disease development. Disease will develop quickly if produce such as leafy vegetables remain wet at high temperature. Harvesting during rain is best avoided. Source: Dr. Vong Nguyen, Department of Primary Industries, NSW Australia Figure 12. Removed produce from the field as quickly as possible or place in the shade if there are long delays before removing from the field. 18

23 Practice Packed containers are not stacked on top of each other unless they are designed to support the container and minimise mechanical damage. Practice Containers are secured during transport to minimise mechanical damage. Mechanical injury can occur if containers are stacked on top of each other and the container is not designed to support the weight above. Examples are using open top baskets, boxes and crates. The container must have sufficient stacking strength and either have a lid or stacking device to allow the container above to placed on top without causing pressure damage. Shelves or raised floors can be used in the transport vehicle to allow multiple layers of open top containers to be stacked. Containers must be secured during transport to prevent rub damage from excessive vibration or impact damage from containers bouncing or falling over. Different methods of securing the containers can be used such as ropes, straps or canvas covers. Figure 13. Shelves can be used in the transport vehicle to allow prevent pressure damage when stacking multiple layers of open top containers. 2.7 Handling and packing produce Produce may be prepared for marketing either in the field or in a separate packing area or shed. Quality loss during handling and packing can be caused by: Incorrect grading Acceleration of senescence and water loss M e c h a n i c a l i n j u ri e s Physiological disorders Disease infection Growth and development Practice Equipment is constructed to minimise excessive drops and impacts. Practice Equipment, containers and materials that contact produce are regularly cleaned and maintained to minimise mechanical damage. Excessive drops and impacts can occur when produce is removed from harvest containers and placed onto benches or tables for packing or onto grading and packing equipment. They can also occur at points along the grading and packing equipment and at the end when produce drops into packing bins or packages. Appropriate equipment design and training of workers are needed to minimise physical injury. Dirty equipment, containers and packaging materials can cause rub damage and disease infection and should be checked before use and cleaned as required. 19

24 Practice Measures are taken to prevent the presence of pests in and around handling, packing and storage areas. Pests such as rats, mice, birds and cockroaches can chew and eat produce while produce is being held in handling, packing and storage areas. The presence of pests can be minimised with physical barriers or chemical treatments. Examples of control measures are: Use baits and traps to control rodents. Use blinds or fixtures over openings in walls (doors and windows) to prevent entry of birds. Regularly dispose of waste from areas where produce is packed, handled and stored. Store containers and materials off the ground or floor and keep them dry, ventilated and covered. Practice Where required, produce is treated to minimise disease development and loss of quality. Some produce can be treated after harvest to minimise disease development. The treatment can be a chemical treatment such as dipping or spraying with a fungicide or a physical treatment such has hot water or storage at a low temperature. Figure 14. Practice Disease development can be reduce by dipping or spraying with a fungicide or a physical treatment such has hot water or storage at a low temperature Water used after harvest for handling, washing, and produce treatment is treated or changed regularly to minimise contamination from spoilage organism. Water used after harvest for handling, washing and produce treatment can be a source of spoilage organisms. The water must be either changed frequently or treated with a sanitiser or a non-recirculating system is used where water runs to waste. Figure 15. To avoid a build of spoilage organisms, water used to wash produce must be either changed frequently or treated with a sanitiser or a non-recirculating spray system is used where water runs to waste. There are a number of chemical and non-chemical sanitising methods that can be used to treat water for spoilage

25 organisms. Chemical sanitisers must be approved for use by a competent authority. Technical advice should be sought to ensure that the best option is used. Common options are: Chlorine Chlorine dioxide C h l o r o- b r o m i n e c o m p o u n d s Hydrogen peroxide Peracetic acid Peroxy compounds (combinations of hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid) Ozone Ultraviolet light Practice Produce is packed and stored in covered areas. Packing and storing of produce in areas that are exposed to the sun will accelerate the rate of senescence and can cause sunburn of produce in open top containers. Covering these areas reduces the temperature of the surrounding air and direct exposure to the sun. It can be a simple structure with a roof on supports with no walls to a fully enclosed packing shed. Practice Produce is not placed in direct contact with soil or the floor of handling, packing or storage areas. Once produce is harvested, it should not be placed in direct contact, particularly the cut surfaces, with the ground or the floor of handling, packing and storage areas. Soil and dirty floors can be a source of spoilage organisms. The cut surfaces of produce can provide entry points and nutrients for growth of spoilage organisms. Materials such as paper, plastic and timber can be placed on the ground or floor to prevent contact of harvested produce with dirt and other matter. The materials should be clean to prevent them being a source of contamination. Figure 16. Once produce is harvested, it should not be placed in direct contact, particularly the cut surfaces, with the ground or the floor of handling, packing and storage areas. Practice Produce is graded and packed according to customer or market requirements. Many customers require the produce to be uniform in quality within the package. This may be uniform colour, size, weight, shape, or some other characteristic. To achieve uniformity, the produce must be graded for quality. Grading is usually done by humans, although machinery or measurement devices are increasingly being used. Accuracy of humans is usually less than machinery, but can be improved with suitable training. Photographs or produce samples showing different quality grades can be used to train workers. Achieving perfect uniformity is rarely possible so some level of variability has to be allowed. Decisions have to be made about what range of attribute between the lower limit and upper limit will be allowed. For example, for a produce weight requirement of 250 grams with an allowance of 10%, the weight range would be 225 to 275 grams. 21

26 Figure 17. Practice Grading citrus for size. The sizing rings increase in diameter along the machine and fruit from small to large drop through into different bins for packing. Protective materials are used where required to protect produce from rough surfaces of containers and excessive moisture loss. Rough surfaces on the inside of the container must be covered with protective materials to prevent wounds and rub damage. Examples of protective materials are banana leaves, paper, straw and bubble plastic. The material must be clean to ensure it is not a source of food safety hazards and spoilage organism. If produce susceptible to moisture loss is packed in open top containers or in containers with excessive ventilation in the sides, liners may be required to reduce moisture loss. Examples of liners are banana leaves, paper and plastic film and bags. Figure 18. Lettuce in this open package is susceptible to both mechanical damage and moisture loss Practice Field heat is removed using appropriate cooling methods. The rate of senescence, moisture loss and disease development is dependent on temperature. The higher the temperature of the produce, the higher is the rate of deterioration. Removing field heat from the produce minimises quality deterioration. 22

27 The need to cool produce depends on the type of produce and the time from harvest to consumption. For example, produce that is sold at a local market within 1 day of harvest or produce with a low rate of senescence and moisture loss usually do not require cooling. Produce with moderate to high rates of deterioration that are transported long distances or held for long periods should be cooled to reduce quality loss. Common methods used to cool produce include cooling with air, water, and package icing. Two methods are used for air cooling room cooling or forced air cooling. Room cooling is where cool air is swept passed stacks of produce or packed containers. Space is required around containers for airflow and cooling is typically slow and uneven. Forced air cooling is where cool air is pulled through packed containers. The containers must be vented to allow air flow past each piece of produce. Cooling is fast and uniform. Cooling with water is called hydrocooling. Produce is immersed in or showered with cold water. The produce and containers must be able to tolerate water. Cooling is very fast and even. Top icing is where ice is placed on top of produce or an ice slurry is injected in the the container. Produce must be able to tolerate ice. Cooling is slow if ice is just placed on top of the container. Cooling with air Figure 19. Top icing Field heat can be removed from produce by cooling with air, water or ice. 2.8 Storage and transport Packed produce may be transported directly to the customer, the next business in the supply chain, or held for a duration before transport. Quality loss during storage and transport can be caused by: Acceleration of senescence, water loss, disease infection Mechanical injuries Physiological disorders Practice For long delays before transport, produce is held at the lowest suitable temperature available. Practice Transport vehicles are covered and appropriate temperature conditions are used to minimise quality loss. If produce is held for long periods before or during transport, it should be held at the lowest temperature suitable to the produce. Holding produce at high temperature will accelerate senescence, moisture loss and disease development. The recommended temperature for storing and transporting produce varies with the type of produce. Most leafy vegetables can be held at 0 C while tropical and sub-tropical fruit are best stored at between 10 to 13 C. Storing at lower temperatures will cause chilling injury. Covering the transport vehicle reduces the heating of produce from the surrounding air and the direct impact of the sun and also minimises air flow through the load. Recommendations for storage and transport of produce are typically available in industry publications produced by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture. Further advice can be obtained from advisers such as extension officers and consultants. 23

28 Figure 20. Covering the transport vehicle reduces the heating of produce from the surrounding air and the direct impact of the sun and also minimises air flow through the load. Practice Transport vehicles are checked before use for cleanliness, foreign objects, and pest infestation, and cleaned if there is a significant risk of mechanical damage and contamination from spoilage organisms. Dirty transport vehicles can be a source of pest infestation and disease infection and mechanical damage when produce is stacked loose in the vehicle. The vehicle should be checked before use for cleanliness, foreign objects and pest infestation and cleaned as required. Practice Mixing of non-compatible produce during transport is avoided. Incompatibility of produce during transport can occur if produce of different sensitivity to low temperature is transported together or if ethylene producing produce is mixed with ethylene sensitive produce. For example if bananas are transported with lettuce at temperatures below 10 C and if ripening tomatoes are transported with cucumbers. Advice on mixing of produce during transport can be obtained from industry publications produced by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture or from advisers. Practice Produce is transported quickly to the destination. A delay in the transport of produce to the customer increases the risk of quality loss, particularly when the produce has not been cooled and the transport is not refrigerated. 2.9 Traceability and recall An effective system for identifying and tracing produce is needed to investigate causes of quality loss when it occurs and to prevent re-occurrence of the problem. The essential requirements for an effective system are: each production site is identified by a name or code, each batch of packed containers is clearly marked with an identification code, a record is kept of the batch identification, date of supply, source and destination, and records of farm operations are kept. A batch is defined as all produce harvested and packed on the same day from the same source, which has been treated in the same way. Practice Each separate production site is identified by a name or code. The name or code is placed on the site and recorded on a property map. The site name or code is recorded on all documents and records that refer to the site. 24

29 A site is a defined area on the farm. If there is more than one production site on the farm, they must be identified by a name of code. For example, sites may be identified with names like road block, house block or dam block or with codes like block A, B, C or block 1, 2, 3 and so on. The whole farm can be treated as one production site. The consequence of not distinguishing separate production sites is that if a problem occurs with produce quality, it may not be possible to identify the source of the problem. If the different production sites are identified, the quality problem may be traced to a particular production site. The different production sites must be physically identified with a sign showing the site name or code. This can be as simple as a peg with the name or code written on the top of the peg. Placing a sign on the site minimises the risk of workers accidentally applying incorrect treatments. The location of the site must be identified on a farm plan, with the name or code shown. The site name or code must also be recorded on all documents and records for cross-referencing and to enable trace back. Practice Packed containers are clearly marked with an identification to enable traceability of the produce to the farm or site where the produce is grown. Packed containers that are prepared for sale must be marked with an identification to enable trace back to the farm or production site. This includes produce packed on the farm and produce in field containers ready for transport to another establishment for packing. Simple methods can be used to identify the farm. Examples are attaching a card or label onto the container with the name of the farm or using a particular colour for the container. Markings and labels should be waterproof to prevent deterioration. If more than one production site is present on a farm, marking the site name or code on the container enables trace back to each individual production site. For example the letter A marked on a container would indicate that the produce was harvested from Block A. Similarly, where produce is harvested a number of times from one production site, traceability is enhanced by marking the date of packing or a code on the container. An example of a packing code is the day number for the month and the year for example would refer to the 24th day of September, Where produce from more than one farm is packed together in the same batch, the name of the farm or a code must be marked on each container to identify the farm. For example, each farm could be allocated a number and the number is then marked on the container. Figure 21. Where produce from more than one farm is packed in the same brand, marking of field and packed containers with a name or code will enable produce to be traced back to each farm. Practice A record is kept of the date of supply, quantity of produce and destination for each consignment of produce. 25