PROFIT+ VALUE CHAINS Barrier Analysis Report

Transcription

1 US PROFIT+ VALUE CHAINS Barrier Analysis Report Project Agreement No: AID-623-I Order No: AID-611-T Project No: J805A August 28, 2012 On behalf of PROFIT+ (Production, Finance and Improved Technology Plus)

2 DISCLAIMER The author s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

3 Table of Contents A. Background 3 B. Objectives 3 C. Gender Barrier Analysis 4 D. Methodology 5 E. Summary Results 7 1. Role of Men and Women in the Value Chain 8 2. Decision Making Along the Value-Chain 9 3. Income and Control of Income Labor and Labor Decisions Access to Agricultural Inputs and Technologies Access and Control of Natural Resources (Land and Water) Access to Financial Resources Access to Extension Services Social, Community and Farmer Associations and Cooperatives Education Social and Cultural Norms Profitability and Benefits from Value Chains 14 F. Findings and Recommendations: 14 G. Conclusion 16 H. Annex 1: Seasonal Calendars 23 I. Annex 2: Daily Calendars 29 J. Annex 3: Schedule for PROFIT+ Gender Barrier Analysis 36 2

4 Barrier Analysis Report A. Background PROFIT+ (Production, Finance and Improved Technology Plus) Program is financially supported through the USAID Feed the Future (FTF) global hunger and food security initiative in Zambia. PROFIT+ aims to foster economic growth and significantly contribute to Zambia s Millennium Development Goal 1 by: Improving smallholder productivity; Expanding markets and trade; and Increasing private sector investment in agriculture. PROFIT+ will achieve these objectives by adopting a value chain approach that will increase productivity and efficiency along six value chains (maize, soyabean, sunflower, groundnut, tomato, and onion) while expanding the reach of the benefits from this growth to include women and other vulnerable and viable groups and populations. PROFIT+ interventions are concentrated in the Eastern Province in Chipata, Katete, Lundazi and Petauke districts. PROFIT+ will also support the tomato and onion value chains in select peri-urban districts surrounding Lusaka, including Chongwe and Mumbwa. ACDI/ VOCA in the process of designing PROFIT+ s implementation strategy. This strategy will build on information from numerous assessments related to value chains, profitability, warehousing, and gender. As a sub-contractor under the ACDI/VOCA-led PROFIT+ program, Catholic Relief Services (CRS) will support the development of the implementation strategy by conducting a Gender Barrier Analysis across six value-chains in six Zambian villages. The Gender Barrier Analysis will also feed into the larger PROFIT+ Gender Assessment conducted by ACDI/VOCA. B. Objectives The purpose of this assessment is to identify significant gender barrier factors that affect the ability of men and women to effectively participate and benefit from the different value chains; so as to inform potential project interventions that contribute to greater household food security, build better household management of resources, and strengthen women s effective participation and control within the value chain. The objectives of the gender barrier analysis are to: Determine the roles and responsibilities of both men and women in each of the six value chains Determine the specific barriers that keep different genders from effectively participating in the given value chain related to gender, income/financial, social/cultural, legal and community barriers 3

5 Observe practices, participation patterns, and power dynamics between women and men as well as access and control of resources, decision-making, and labor allocation between men and women at the household level C. Gender Barrier Analysis The Gender Barrier Analysis is designed to obtain information on priority targeting and critical intervention information that will feed into the process of developing a more gender responsive program. The goal is to ensure that the voice and participation of community members are included in determining the proposed interventions that address gender inequities, and particularly those related to the viable and vulnerable but viable women in both male and female-headed households. The assessment seeks to understand what is keeping viable and vulnerable but viable people, in particular women from entry into the 6 value chains and improving their wellbeing The CRS Zambia and partner team conducted this Gender Barrier Analysis from August 12-27, 2012 in the four principal intervention districts in the Eastern Province Chipata, Katete, Lundazi and Petauke and in two peri-urban districts surrounding Lusaka (Chongwe and Mumbwa) (Figure 1) in order to analyze gender roles, constraints and opportunities along targeted value chains from household to market. CRS lead the design and implementation in order to determine constraints for women, men, and other vulnerable groups participation from production to marketing, and to identify strategies that enable viable and vulnerable but viable smallholder farmers to have access to, and control over, assets and resources, and maintain a balanced load while ensuring food security at household levels. The Gender Barrier Analysis focused on barriers to value chain participation at household and community levels. The CRS team developed a set of rapid assessment tools similar to those used in community health and other development projects to identify gender specific barriers that would have significant positive impact on agricultural practices, health, nutrition or well-being of targeted groups in the project area. The analysis looked across all gender-related issues at the household-level to determine how men and women can benefit in each of the six value chains (maize, soyabean, sunflower, groundnut, tomato and onion) without contributing in a negative way to their time commitments, other household responsibilities, and income control. 4

6 Figure 1: Map of Focus Group Discussion Villages Chongwe Petauke Gender Barrier Analysis Focus Group Districts Source: D. Methodology The methodology included the following: 1. Review and analysis of selected PROFIT+ project documents pertinent to development of the gender barrier analysis; 2. Development of barrier analysis assessment tools used to gather the appropriate information; 5

7 3. Meetings and discussions with PROFIT+ and CRS staff and partners involved in the implementation of the project; 4. Interviews with key stakeholders such as traditional village leaders and agricultural extension officers present in the targeted geographic areas; and 5. Focus group discussions (FGDs) and interviews with farmers in selected districts and villages within the project s target geographical area The methodology included use of four participatory tools: separate focus group interview guides for men and women using a common set of questions, individual informational interviews with key informants including traditional leaders and agricultural camp extension officers, and group exercises to develop a daily and seasonal calendar for both men and women. Focus Group Discussions (FGD) The FGDs identified the gender-based decision-making as well as gender- roles along the six PROFIT+ value-chains (production, processing, storage, transport, and marketing). The discussions highlighted issues on the access and control of income and decisions on labor allocation. Key information was collected on access to and control of agricultural technology and inputs, natural resources, financial resources, extension services, associations and cooperative, and education. Social and cultural norms and legal barriers were also discussed. Key Informant Interviews Interviews with the village Hedman and extension agents provided an overview of the village or agriculture camp and insight into traditional and agricultural practices. Daily and Seasonal Calendars The daily and seasonal calendars identified gender-based division of labor and categorized responsibilities by season, gender, and intensity of activity (see Annex 1 and 2 for detailed calendars). It highlighted community shocks and constraints such as drought or dry seasons, hunger periods, times of greater illness in the family, periods of heavy load, and timing of local cultural events and activities to be factored into project planning. The calendar activity clarified the best times of year to with families and local communities and will help proposal planners and project managers analyze various local indicators related to both men's and women's changing roles and responsibilities and in addressing intra-household inequities. A total of 197 persons from 6 villages (Figure 1) participated in the FGD process with almost even representation among men and women (Figure 2). Focus group discussions, informal conversations and observation walks provided detailed information on livelihood systems and the everyday realities of households in these districts. Interim meetings were held with the CRS Zambia team to record and enter the data gathered from each set of community interviews and to revise and refine the assessment tools as necessary. 6

8 Figure 2: Participants by Districts Figure 3: Participants by Gender A CRS Zambia team of eight persons participated as facilitators, note takers and observers for each community level focus group. The assessment team, responsible for facilitating the household and community-level focus group discussions, key information interviews, and designing the assessment tools included the following: Ms Mary Patricia Ahern, Senior Technical Advisor, Gender CRS HQ Ms Valerie Rhoe, Senior Technical Advisor, Agriculture and Environment CRS HQ Ms. Margaret Mwenya, Program Manager CRS Zambia, Ms. Dina Mvula, Caritas Chipata, Monitoring and Evaluation Mr. Joseph Musukwa, Caritas Chipata, Project Officer Mr. John Zulu, Caritas Chipata, Project Officer Mr. Albert Ndhlovu, CRS Zambia Mr. David Ngulube, CRS Zambia E. Summary Results The Gender Barrier Analysis adapted the Integrating Gender Issues into Agricultural Value Chains (INGIA-VC) 1 process to analyze gender roles, behaviors, constraints and opportunities along the selected value chains, from household to end market. The analysis highlighted gender inequalities and constraints that could create or exacerbate value chain programs, create inefficiencies in value chain operations, or open opportunities for more gender equitable interactions along the value chain. It gave a deeper understanding of the gender dimensions of poverty and the complex social and traditional cultural relations that exist in communities. It help determined how agricultural inputs and resources, shared roles of women and men s labor time and decision- 1 The Integrating Gender Issues into Agricultural Value Chains (INGIA-VC) process examines three intersecting dimensions: 1) observed practices and patterns of participation and decision making; 2) patterns of access to and control of productive assets; and 3) social beliefs and perceptions, laws, policies and institutions that impact gender inequalities. 7

9 making at the household level impact the potential for women s involvement in value chain activities. 1. Role of Men and Women in the Value Chain The FGDs informed us that the farmers of the six focus group villages are actors in the value chain process of all six focus crops: groundnuts, maize, onion, soyabean, sunflower, and tomato. In general, these villages produce all six crops. The amount produced depends on previous year prices, access to inputs, and weather conditions. These raw goods are then consumed at, process at for consumption only, pre-processed (cleaned, separated, etc) before being sold to an external processor, and/or taken to the market for sale. The role of men and women in production, processing, and marketing is not straight forward. Table 1 illustrates that the roles of men and women vary across villages as well as key activities; and therefore, it is difficult to specify which gender plays the main role within the value-chain process. However, the data does illustrate that in most villages, men and women jointly produce groundnuts, maize, soyabean, and sunflower, while garden produce such as tomato and onion are typically the domain of the men. At processing and preparation for processing of groundnut, maize, and sunflower lies with women using traditional tools, while both men and women may take products to an external processor. Five of the six villages do not process tomato or onions at because they are neither unaware of the processed products that could be developed nor have equipment for processing these products. Most villages do not process soyabeans inhouse because it is difficult, but Mumbwa village showed good examples of at--processing of soyabean for cakes, coffee, and tea and tomatoes into jams. In some villages like Katete, men will transport raw products for processing because of the distance to the processor. Also, in villages such as Petauke, the men do not take maize to the miller as he will be seen as weak. The role of men and women in marketing depends on the quantity of the product, control of income, and the distance to the market. Women often market the raw product in smaller quantities near their village, while men will sell larger quantities at the main markets that are a bit further away. Even the traditional woman s crop of groundnut is often marketed by the males of the household if the quantity is large enough. Table 1: Role of Men and Women in Production, Processing, and Marketing (based on female and male FGDs outputs) PRODUCTION Groundnut Maize Onion Soyabean Sunflower Tomato Female 2 Male 3 Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Chipata M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F Lundazi M/F N/A 4 M/F N/A M N/A M/F N/A M/F N/A M N/A Petauke M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M M/F M/F M/F M/F M Katete M/F M/F M/F M/F M M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M M/F Mumbwa F f F M/F F M/F F M/F F M/F F M/F Chongwe 5 M/F M/F M NA M/F M 2 Output from female focus group discussion per village; applicable to table Output from male focus group discussion per village; applicable to table N/A refers to information not available 8

10 PROCESSING Groundnut Maize Onion Soyabean Sunflower Tomato Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Chipata M/F F F M/F NP 6 NP F M/F M/F M/F NP NP Lundazi F N/A M N/A NP N/A NP N/A NP N/A NP N/A Petauke F M M/F M NP NP M/F NP M/F M/F NP NP Katete M/F F M/F M M/F NP M/F M M/F M M/F NP Mumbwa F F F F NP N/P F F F F F F Chongwe F F NP NP NP NP MARKETING Groundnut Maize Onion Soyabean Sunflower Tomato Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Chipata M/F M/F M M/F M M/F N/A M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F Lundazi F N/A M N/A F N/A F N/A F N/A F N/A Petauke M/F F M/F M M M M/F 0 M/F M/F M M Katete F M M M M M/F M M M M/F M M/F Mumbwa F F/M M M F M M M M M/F M/F M Chongwe F M M N/A M M 2. Decision Making Along the Value Chain Those performing and those making decisions on key value chain activities vary across villages or crops. Table 2 illustrates that in some value chain activities in particular villages, those who make decisions is very clear while it becomes less clear in other villages. For crops like maize, onion, soyabean, and tomato, production, transport and marketing issues are predominantly decided by males. In regards to storage, women often provide input on how much of the crop to store for use and the size and quality of the storage units. The discussions highlighted that the male within the household often has the final say in decisions, but women in some villages contribute, at varying degrees, information to the decision-making process. Women seem to have the most decision making authority over processing, which might be a result of most processing being at- for consumption and not perceived as an income generating activity. When a person makes a decision that is typically the responsibility of the opposite gender, intrahousehold dynamics might be affected. Both women and men are not comfortable with the other making their decisions. If a woman makes a man s decision, it could result in verbal or physical abuse. It is often perceived as an attempt to overrule a male and as an insult to a male; even if the decision leads to positive benefits. However, women will also be upset if a man makes a decision that is typically her responsibility. She might show her frustration by reducing her load in the. 5 The FGD with Chongwe District was not broken down into separate men and women groups given the number of attendees (6 persons). Attendance was low as a respected elder of the village passed away that day. 6 NP refers to the raw product not being processed 9

11 Table 2: Decision Making across the Value Chains Chipata Katete Lundazi Mumbwa Petauke Chongwe PRODUCTION Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male F/M Groundnut F M F M M F F F M F M Maize M M F/M M M M M M M F/M F/M Onion M M M M M N/A F F/M M M F/M Soyabean M M M M M N/A N/A M M N/A M Sunflower F/M M F/M M M F M F/M M F/M M Tomato M M M M M N/A F M M M M PROCESSING Chipata Katete Lundazi Mumbwa Petauke Chongwe Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male F/M Groundnut F F F F F F F F F F F Maize F/M F F/M F F F M F/M F F M Onion F/M N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A F N/A F F/M F/M Soyabean F N/A F/M F/M F N/A N/A F/M F N/A M Sunflower F/M F/M F F/M F F F F/M F F/M M Tomato F/M N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A F N/A F F/M M STORAGE Chipata Katete Lundazi Mumbwa Petauke Chongwe Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male F/M Groundnut F M F M M F F F M F F Maize F/M M F/M M M F M M M F M Onion F F M M M N/A F F/M M F F/M Soyabean F M M M M N/A N/A F/M M N/A M Sunflower F M M M M F M F/M M F M Tomato F/M F N/A M M N/A F N/A M M TRANSPORT Chipata Katete Lundazi Mumbwa Petauke Chongwe Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male F/M Groundnut F/M M M M M M F F M F/M M Maize M M M M M M M F/M M M M Onion M M M M M N/A F F/M M M M Soyabean F M M M M N/A N/A M M N/A M Sunflower F/M M M M M F M F/M M M M Tomato M M M M M N/A F M M M M MARKETING Chipata Katete Lundazi Mumbwa Petauke Chongwe Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male F/M Groundnut F F/M F M F/M F/M F F M F/M F/M Maize M F/M F/M M F/M M M F/M M M M Onion M F M M M F/M F F/M M M M Soyabean M F/M M M F/M M N/A M M N/A M Sunflower F/M F/M F/M M F/M F/M M F M F/M M Tomato M F M M M F/M F M M M M 3. Income and Control of Income Understanding who controls the income generated from these six value chains now and how interventions into these six value chains could retain or change the control is important for ensuring positive outcomes. In general, men had control of income generated from most of these six 10

12 value-chains. Either directly by ensuring all money collected by a female is reported back to him or indirectly by denying money to the female for purchasing items if she has access to income from the sale of crops near the village. In some villages, joint discussions are held with the husband and wife to plan a budget. If expenditure is planned, then further approval is not needed, but if an unplanned expense rises the female will need to seek approval from the male of the house. However, in most village men do not need to report to the female what income is received and he often spends some of the money received at the market on alcohol before returning to the village. There is also a level of distrust between the male and female as some males may underreport what income was received at the market. Available income is quite susceptible to demand and supply fluctuations in the market as the households have little ability to sale during low supply periods. The farmers are well aware that being able to sale products during not-peak harvest periods will bring in a higher price, but are unable to given short shelf-life of their unprocessed and poorly stored agricultural goods. Table 3: Control of Income by Value Chains Chipata Chongwe Katete Lundazi Mumbwa Petauke Female Male Joint Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Groundnut F/M M F F/M F/M M M F F M F Maize M M M M F/M M M M M M M Onion M M M M F/M M N/A M M M M Soyabean M M M M F/M M M M M M N/A Sunflower F/M M M F/M F/M M M M F M M Tomato M M M M F/M M N/A F/M F/M M M 4. Labor and Labor Decisions Household labor is a critical input into agricultural value-chain activities that is often not valued. Those involved in the FGDs had a difficult time quantifying their load to determine if it has increased or decreased over the past five years. When considering load, reproductive activities such as childrearing were not considered. However, discussions did draw out that loads have changed for most of the villages. Some have seen increased loads because the farmers have diversified their crop-base, while others have seen their loads decreased because they have access to technologies such as a plow. During peak agriculture times, often takes precedent over household chores and childrearing. However, several approaches were adopted to compensate for these peak periods. Some approaches included: 1) older female children preparing their own meals and meals for younger siblings; 2) mother returning from the early to prepare meals while father remains in the ; 3) meals being prepared in the ; 4) young children who do not go to school the ; 5) additional labor from the community is hired and paid with food; and 6) selected crops are given priority. The discussions also reinforced the understanding that pregnant women continue to in the until it is time to deliver without any addition food consumption. However, in some villages, pregnant women continue to in the because they are uncomfortable staying at 11

13 and not contributing, while in other village women are required to remain in the. In some villages, additional labor is hired to supplement the labor of the pregnant wife. In most villages, males within male-headed households have the final say on labor allocation (Table 3). Women have the final say in female-headed households. Table 4: Labor decisions Who makes labor decisions Chipata Chongwe Katete Lundazi Mumbwa Petauke Female Male F/M Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male F/M M M M M F/M F/M M M M M 5. Access to Agricultural Inputs and Technologies In general, male and female farmers have access to seed varieties, fertilizer, and hoe; although seeds and fertilizer are expensive. For government program fertilizer, farmers are typically required to provide a down payment before the fertilizer is available. Most seeds are bought though the private sector. Some villages have access to a plow or pesticides; although not common. Radios are available in some villages, but are often only listened to by men as women are conducting household. Even though a radio may be available, the reception might be too poor to receive information. Males and females do have access to mobile phones but males have more access then females. In general, males in male-headed households make decision about access and use of inputs and technologies with male priorities receiving primary attention. Females in female-headed households make their own decisions. Most farmers were not happy with their existing technology. There was a strong focus on acquiring processing technology and other production technologies such as reaper plows and planters and new varieties to accommodate climate changes. 6. Access and Control of Natural Resources (Land and Water) There is a general consensus across the villages that there is sufficient quantity of land but not sufficient quality poor fertility. Also, water is available from boreholes and wells for many months of the year, but most of the villages have several months in which these water sources are dry. If these sources are dry, women, girls and boys will fetch water from far off streams. Boys will often carry water on bicycles, while women and girls carry water on their heads. The ownership and control of land is governed by traditional laws and culture in these villages. Typically, the male has ownership and control of the land allocated to the household. If the husband passes away, the widow retaining the land is typically a decision of the husband s family. If she does retain the land, then it is inherited by her children. If she remarries, the widow will go to her new husband s land so her children will still inherit her land. A widow could also request land from a hedman, but an unmarried woman would not be granted land from the hedman because if she gets married, then the land lays idle. Married women are generally not usually given land by the local headman; she only has access to land through her husband. Although female-headed households have better standing in terms of land acquisition and decision-making, they are often too poor to access other productive resources. 12

14 7. Access to Financial Resources These villages had limited access to financial services. Majority of the farmers did not have a bank account, although a few farmers recently opened accounts as a result of a change to the government maize program requiring a bank account. However, the process of opening an account is not clear to the farmers, seems complicated to them, and the documents are in English. Selected villages had access to some training on saving and loans programs and microfinance, but most villages have not received training nor have access to these types of programs. 8. Access to Extension Services Access to private and government extension services by village varied with some receiving regular visits while others only having sporadic visits. The program often mention with regular extension services is the Conservation Agriculture Extension Program. The content of the extension services seems to focus on production which is relevant to the farmers, but there is a need to expand to processing and marketing. Although women and men, in general, seems to be able to participate in extension services for most of the villages, the decision on who participates lies with the male in male-headed households. Given time constraints and access, if only the male or female are able to attend the extension training, then the ones who attends shares the information learned with his/ her spouse. 9. Social, Community and Farmer Associations and Cooperatives All of the farmers have access to community/ farmer associations and/ or cooperatives as long as they can afford the membership fee and there is space available. Both men and women participate in the associations and cooperatives, with women and men taken leadership roles. Some villages elect leaders based on integrity and capability of the person. Some groups express that women refuse to take leadership roles because they are used to being led and/ or are illiterate and less educated so don t feel capable of leading. Most villages have women-only groups, in which a few men are members of the group. The role of the men is unclear as the women mentioned they are there to assist with more labor-intensive activities while the men mentioned they are advisors. Men do not hold leadership positions within the women s groups. Although many of the men in the villages do not see the women s groups as having influence or being effective, one women s group informed us that their efforts in planting trees for conservation were reported on the local radio station, which led to surrounding villages following pursuit. 10. Education Education of children is a key input for agriculture enterprises to be successful. Illiteracy is a common issue that inhibits women from actively participating in household decision-making, the market, and leadership positions. In general, boys and girls attend primary school to ninth grade, but if financial resources are limited those who continue to attend school varies. In some villages, the student who is performing well, regardless of gender, will continue to attend school; while in other villages boys are preferred given the likelihood of pregnancy and early marriage of girls. However, it was raised in one village that families that educate their girls are better off as she supports her family. It is important to note that school attendance is reduced in January and February, which is the primary planting season. 13

15 11. Social and Cultural Norms There are a number of social or cultural norms that inhibit women s participation. As mentioned above, ownership and control of land is a key constraint to women s participation. In addition to land, women s ability to participate is limited by her ability to make decisions within a marriage, but she feels compelled to marry given societal pressures. Furthermore, women are still seen as the primary care provider while most men do not take up any household chores. However, a few men in certain villages express that they undertake household chores. 12. Profitability and Benefits from Value Chains In general, the farmers from the six villages felt that all six value chains were profitable, but when inquiring about their costs, the farmers were unable to calculate how much it cost them to produce, store, transport, and market the outputs. In addition to income and consumption, some of the key benefits identified for these value chains included nutrition, food security, income to buy assets and pay school fees, seasoning for main foods (i.e. relishes), crop rotation, and fertility. F. Findings and Recommendations: The FGD, daily and seasonal calendars, and key information interviews identified gender, income/ financial, cultural, legal, community, and agricultural barriers to active participation of males and females in the six specified value-chains. The broad findings and recommendations are below, while specific findings and recommendation by barrier type are presented in table 5. The key findings are: Reducing gender inequality and recognizing the potential contributions of viable and vulnerable but viable groups in smallholder farming value chain activities, along with providing access to productive resources is critical in combating food insecurity and creating an improved environment for enterprise growth. For the households who produce the food they consume, developing low external input sustainable agriculture technologies that restore or maintain soil fertility (such as composting, mulching, low/no till farming, etc.), can contribute substantially to enhanced value-added production. Processing for the market is a missing link that inhibits these households from maximizing their value-added benefits of being involved in these value-chains. Expanding market information systems, market structures for products produced in communities as well as building the negotiation skills of men and women producers to be able to obtain better prices for the produce will improve production decisions, increase disposable income, and provide better access to food obtained from the market. Given the number of families dependent on agriculture directly or indirectly as household producers, agricultural day laborers or intermittent off farm ers, developing and 14

16 promoting a sustainable agricultural farming system is essential. Since most of the food consumed by smallholder farmer families is either produced on their farms or purchased using income earned from their farms, increasing farm productivity and engagement in value chain activities needs to be the focus of interventions. Access to and control over land means little unless vulnerable people have the inputs and services needed to grow and cultivate their land effectively. Complementary programs that promote women s access and control of resources, rights to land, water, credit, and extension services are essential. Assets and income controlled by women are more likely to improve household food consumption and family nutrition, thereby increasing improved well-being of the family. Women in Eastern Province communities reiterated their reduced status as women and lack of control of household resources and income. Women produce much of the food that is consumed; yet derive little of the benefit as income traditionally is controlled by men. Although female-headed households have better standing in terms of land acquisition and decision-making; however, they are often too poor to access other productive resources including hired labor. The analysis identified uniqueness across the villages in regards to culture, tradition, operational norms, and context. Given these differences, time and effort will be necessary to design appropriate village-level interventions to ensure these difference do not impede the anticipated outcomes. The key recommendations: Gender sensitive indicators can monitor changes in men s and women s status and in reducing gender inequalities over time. Indicators can track changes along the value chain to revel where certain activities have had success in creating new opportunities and where gender interventions can generate positive and/or negative value chain outcomes. Strengthen interventions by targeting smallholder farmers, many of whom are women and single heads of households, with an awareness and promotion campaign around the benefits of Saving Internal Lending Community (SILC). Build trust and cohesion with the SILC groups as they learn how to set up regular savings, maintain financial records, and establish a process of internal lending. Experience has shown that women who participate in SILC groups are much more likely to participate in income-generation activities and a greater participation in value chain activities. Sequence interventions, particularly financial services, linkages to government safety net programs, and livelihood development to help build up market readiness of non-viable farmer actors into viable ones (ex: starting one group off with low-risk crops while other groups grow crops that have longer time frames or require more assets). 15

17 Organize vulnerable producers into small groups that receive an intensive training package which combines value chain development with skills upgrading, with a focus on women farmers. Pilot these groups in three or four poor communities for a nine to twelve month period. Gender awareness raising needs to be part of extension training for both men and women. Local district extension authorities need to provide services that support farmers on agriculture and livestock keeping, promote improved agricultural practices, and encourage participation of women in value chain activities, thereby contributing to well being of smallholder households and communities. G. Conclusion Women s participation in value chains is exacerbated by patterns of male dominated decisionmaking and control over assets and income. By decreasing gender inequality on the one hand, and increasing access to farming inputs, financial services and market-oriented training for viable and vulnerable but viable groups, value chain participation can have significant outcomes for improved livelihoods among viable and vulnerable but viable smallholder farmers. In order to decrease gender inequity, the underlying social and cultural norms and systems that permeate at the household and community level need to address the gender biases. PROFIT+ will use key findings and recommendations from this barrier analysis to inform and develop strategies for reaching the viable and vulnerable but viable and ensuring that gender responsive interventions are built into project activities. In order to effectively increase and diversify agriculture production and processing for markets and increase income and productive assets, gender-responsive interventions need to be designed taking into account the constraints and barriers identified by the beneficiary communities themselves. Project activities and planning should be shaped by these findings to ensure that populations are reached effectively in targeted geographic areas of PROFIT+. 16

18 Table 5: Barriers, Findings, and Recommendations Barrier Key Findings Recommendations Gender related Barriers Power relations between men and women inhibit women from acquiring voice, access and control of household resources and income (gender roles, dynamics and power relations within household and community) Decisions are mainly made by men, except in certain situations where women are allowed to contribute to decision-making in value chains such as groundnuts and sunflower Significant lack of trust exists between men and women; men fear that knowledgeable women and women with financial resources will take control, have more power, and could leave them Lack of freedom of women to make independent decisions on their own regarding assets and income Women bear most of the load, inhibiting them from taking part in community activities and complex marketing systems Women are unaware of their rights, have low literacy levels, and lack of assertiveness which creates barriers to women s active participation in decision-making related to production and marketing Develop a household strengthening approach similar to Faithful House to engage men and women in collaborative decision-making an build trust for planning a more balanced household resource allocation strategy Structure behavior change interventions using positive deviant men and women who are contributing to household and community behaviors that improves gender relations that create more equitable intra-household distribution of labor, food, assets and income Use gender trainings to raise awareness of importance of shared decision-making, assets, income, and loads between men and women Structure interventions so that men and women plan agriculture activities together Conduct gender training with men, women and traditional community leaders around improvedagricultural practices that promote gender equality Involve both men and women in all program activities so that power, control of assets and household responsibilities are shared, reducing inequalities between men and women Sensitize both women and men regarding the benefits of strengthening women s decisionmaking capacity and to realize that both will benefit through increases in household and community well-being. 17

19 Financial/Income Barriers: (access to credit, bank accounts, control of assets and income) Lack of family income inhibits men and women from getting a loan, opening a bank account, or other financial services from a bank Access to credit is by village, not by gender Women have minimal access to credit, savings or other viable income generating activities Men have more access to government programs while women had more access to savings and loans programs Control of income at household level is male dominated Strong belief that a man is the head of the household and is the custodian of all assets including livestock, property, and income Unable to calculate the costs incurred from participating in the value chains; and therefore, not able to know their true profits Provide detailed training opportunities for basic planning and business skills including accounting, credit and savings systems, costing, benefits, pricing, profitability, and markets across the value chain Provide improved access to credit with financial tools and strategies designed specifically for vulnerable women Actively promote access to credit and savings systems such as SILC for both women and men Increase opportunities for women to access financial and business development services through collaboration with other private sector initiatives 18

20 Health/Nutrition Barriers: (food insecurity) Household members eat only what is available and are not able to store and preserve for lean times Female households are more vulnerable to food insecurity than male headed households; In lean times households eat only one or sometimes two meals a day with nshima as the staple food Food insecurity is result of low yields due to poor soil, monocropping in some cases (maize), insufficient capital to invest in farming, and poor weather conditions Income available from off-farm activities such as piece is not always used to purchase food, but rather split between other household priorities such as school fees, purchase of agricultural inputs, or assets such as a bicycle or a radio Men rarely participate in household tasks, leaving women heavily burdened with productive and reproductive roles at the household level Women s load and food consumption does not changes during pregnancy Strengthen communities capacities to manage resilience to food insecure periods of the year Provide structured activities that encourage use of income for purchasing food Strengthen household garden production (tomatoes, onions, rape and other vegetables) and food preparation/ processing strategies for improved dietary diversity an availability of food during lean times Promote appropriate technology around food processing such as access to grinding mills, water pumps, potable water, etc. Promote sensitization shops and behavior change strategies on myths and cultural beliefs that surround food production, processing, and consumption. Include men in nutrition and food preparation practices at the household and community level Encourage interventions that include nutrition sensitive food preparation, preservation, and processing methods. Support behavior change strategies that encourage maternal and child feeding practices with both men and women 19

21 Social and Cultural Barriers: (norms, practices, alcoholism, gender-based violence, behavior change strategies) Social/cultural beliefs hold that women who control assets or incomes will no long be submissive to their husbands Cultural beliefs that men are head of households and bread winners and as such decision-makers. Alcoholism among men creates serious problems at household and community levels, inhibiting household ability to adequately make decisions, manage assets, resources and income, leaving women to carry the burden for household well-being When decisions between men and women are challenged at household level, conflict often results in gender based violence (GBV) Women don t participate in market activities because men say they will be taken advantage of due to their low literacy levels Education and literacy levels of women are lower than men, and as a result decisions are left to men who have more knowledge Boys are often chosen to go to school first; yet girls are recognized as being more beneficial to the family when educated Majority of the load is carried by women; both men and women perform agriculture, but women also perform all household responsibilities; men s is usually valued more than women s Women and girls have more daily ing hours through their triple roles (reproductive, productive and community) Women have responsibility to provide food for their families while husbands would be resting or enjoying their leisure Workloads for women increase when there is a household food deficit Control of income at household level is male dominated Functional literacy and numeracy capacity building can be offered to support women s understanding of the basics of producing, processing and marketing (able to read weights, tags on seed, etc) Engage women in functional literacy classes so they can better participate in community leadership opportunities and engage more fully in value chain activities Develop a mentoring program for female leaders through literacy and numeracy education applied to value chain activities Develop activity profiles according to the gender division of labor for each agricultural activity (such as land preparation, weeding, harvesting, storage, transport, etc.) for each crop and at each interval along the value chain Identify gender and age denominations: whether the adult women, adult men, the adolescent girl or boy, other children, or the elderly in carrying out a particular activity Specify what percentage of time is allocated to each activity, and whether it is carried out seasonally or daily; Specify where the activity is performed, in order to reveal people s mobility. Is done at, in the family, the family shop, or elsewhere within or beyond the community; then build these variable into project planning Triangulate data in order to verify division of labor and other critical gender responsive issues related to project planning and implementation Use current structures of village traditional leaders - head persons and chieftains to encourage them as role models and champions of gender equity in leadership. 20

22 Legal Barriers: (inheritance laws, policies, land and property rights, governance issues, state legal systems, traditional legal systems) Women who divorce and remarry must leave their land; land is then passed on to their children; widows are allowed to remain on the land Traditional leaders can give land to widows; married women do not have access to land except through inheritance; women are under pressure to be married Female headed household have access to land but have very limited ownership and control over land. Land is owned and controlled by men through tribal or clan traditions; strong cultural traditions and practices hinder women s rights to land ownership Women have limited knowledge of the legal frame Since traditional leaders can allocate land and resolve land conflicts, this group needs better understanding of social and economic impacts of existing land inheritance practices; Coordinate trainings and monitor activities with all stakeholders, in particular extension officers and district level authorities Undertake intensive gender awareness raising among community and traditional leaders on women s rights to own land, property, and other assets Undertake legal awareness raising among women on their rights to own land, property, and assets, and other obligations and restrictions 21

23 Agricultural Barriers linked to Value Chains: (participation in value chain activities) Decisions on what and how to plant, how much to plant, processing and new crop varieties to adopt are often jointly made, although men in most cases have the final say Decisions on cash crops are reserved for men and only in some cases (groundnuts and sunflower) do women decide on when and what cash crops to plant. Both women and men participate in value chain activities, men control production and marketing, and women benefit less than men Long distances to markets inhibits women from participating in market activities Lack of small agriculture inputs and technologies such as plows, seeds, fertilizer and oxen inhibit women from participating in activities along the value chain Lack of access to adequate water sources and to new technologies for wells, bore holes, dams and irrigation systems, in particular during dry season inhibits successful farming outcomes Lack of basic business skills of both women and men in all phases of value chain activities market assessments, cost benefit analysis, profit margins, etc. Extension services are lacking due to long distances, large geographical areas for coverage with too few extension officers for the number of households, and no dependable planning process in place for farmers Gardens are used as a coping strategy rather than a means of supplementing everyday livelihoods Lack of access to financial inputs inhibits viable and vulnerable farmers from participating in value chain activity 22 Review the way extension services are delivered and make them relevant and regular to both women and men Coordinate with private sector extension service to supplement local and national government services Strengthen linkages where extension services exist and advocate for these services for underserved populations in areas where they are not available Build in training on basic business skills related to management of value chain activities Focus on women friendly technology to save labor, increase value & allow women to access equipment for weeding, harvesting and processing Raise awareness of gender equity and in particular women s participation in the agricultural sector regarding access to productive inputs Provide support for women s groups in production, processing, and marketing in small enterprises (groundnuts, sunflower) Improved access to appropriate technology in farming practices and land preparation Promote women s collective effort to plant and harvest as a group; Promote small livestock Passover Programs as a support for livelihood planning processes Learn how Conservation Agriculture Extension Program (FAO) is able to provide regular weekly services to farmers as well as provide opportunities for farmers, who are not accessing this Program, to have access. Improve market information systems including understanding the needs of the consumer Improve ability to preserve and store agricultural products for sale during market-scarce times to ensure higher prices and income during leaner times.

24 H. Annex 1: Seasonal Calendars 23

25 Chipata Seasonal Calendars Women Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Planting x x x Weeding x X x Harrowing x x Spraying cotton x X Gardening x x x x x x x Harvesting x x x x Processing x x x x x Selling x x x x x Opening new s x x Cleaning houses x x x x x x Thatching x x x Top dressing fertilizing x X x Basal dressing fertilizing x x Attending meetings x x x Cutting grass x x x Grazing animals x X x x x x x x x x x x Men Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Land preparation x x Planting x x Weeding x X x Fertilizer application x x Second weeding Harvesting x x x x x Marketing x x x x x x Gardening x x x x x x x x Mending houses x x x Mending granaries x x Very low food High food availability Low income High income High expenditure Low expenditure High labor requirements Low labor requirements High disease burden Low disease burden PROFIT+ BARRIER ANALYSIS REPORT TO USAID ZAMBIA PAGE 24