Not all Salmon Are Created Equal: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Global Salmon Farming Systems

Transcription

1 SUPPORTING INFORMATION Manuscript Title: Not all Salmon Are Created Equal: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Global Salmon Farming Systems Authors: Pelletier, N 1*., Tyedmers, P 1., Sonesson, U 2., Scholz, A 3., Ziegler, F 3., Flysjo, A 2., Kruse, S 3., Cancino, B 4., and H. Silverman 3. 1 Dalhousie University 2 Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology 3 Ecotrust 4 Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Valparaiso * School for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University, Suite University Ave, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3J5 nathanpelletier@dal.ca Pages: 37 Figures: 0 Tables: 13 S1

2 EXTENDED METHODS DESCRIPTION ISO-compliant life cycle assessment methodology (ISO 2006) was used to evaluate the cumulative energy use (MJ), biotic resource use (C) and greenhouse gas (CO 2 -e), acidifying (SO 2 -e) and eutrophying (PO 4 -e) emissions associated with the cradle-to-farm gate production of salmon in each of the four major production regions (Norway, UK, Chile, and Canada) as well as to compute a production-weighted global average for each impact category. As the first life cycle analysis of a global food super-commodity, considerable effort was invested in maximizing the scope, currency and representivity of the research. Towards this end, collaborative relationships were developed with the major salmon feed production and salmon farming companies in each region. As a result, our models are based on actual feed and farm production data representative of 70% and 24% of global farmed salmon feed and fish production volumes in A full description of our modeling parameters for the production and use of all supply chain material and energy inputs (including all agricultural, fisheries, and animal husbandry supply chains providing feed inputs) and quantification of relevant emissions are described below. INVENTORY ANALYSIS Specifically, we accounted for the material/energy inputs and emissions associated with: the production and use of primary energy carriers; the cultivation and/or harvest of raw materials for feed ingredients derived from agricultural, animal husbandry and fisheries systems, including fertilizer, pesticide, seed and fuel inputs as well field-level and manure management-related gaseous emissions; processing and transportation of feed ingredients; salmon feed milling and transport; and all farm-level activities. We did not include the production and maintenance of associated infrastructure. Crop-derived Feed Ingredient Models Agricultural crop production systems were modeled using a consistent methodology across production regions. Direct fuel inputs for farm machinery and crop drying specific to crop and region were derived from published literature sources and government statistics and extension reports (for sources, see Tables S2). Where resolution was not available with respect to the specificity of primary energy carriers, the use of diesel fuel was assumed. Where electricity was required (for example, in crop drying) country-specific electricity mixes were modelled based on International Energy Association data (IEA 2008), including transmission losses. Fertilizer, seed and pesticide application rates specific to crop and region were employed. Average fertilizer mixes for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers were modelled for European, American, Canadian, and South American production regions based on statistics provided by the International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFIA 2008). Inventory data for the production of individual fertilizers were derived from the EcoInvent (2008) database. These were representative of average European conditions but were modified to reflect regional energy mixes. Five-year average yield rates specific to crop and region were derived from EuroStat (2008), CANSIM (2008), NASS (2008) and FAOStat (2008) databases. Uniform transportation distances for crop inputs of 100 km for seeds and 1000 km for fertilizers and pesticides via truck transport were assumed. Where country-specific inventory data for a feedstuff were not S2

3 available, we employed inventory data from the nearest country for which data could be accessed (Table S2). Field-level emissions of nitrous oxide, ammonia, nitric oxide and nitrate related to nitrogen fertilizer application, biological nitrogen fixation and crop residues were calculated following IPCC (2006) Tier 1 protocols using default emission factors. Secondary nitrous oxide emissions were calculated assuming a 90%/10% ammonia/nitrous oxide split for a total 10% volatilization rate following Brentrup et al. (2000). Additional ammonia-nitrogen emissions at a rate of 5 kg/ha for all field crops was assumed following Andersen et al. (2001), and a standard atmospheric nitrogen deposition rate of 15 kg/hectare was assumed across production regions. Indirect nitrous oxide emissions from nitrate leaching to water were calculated based on a standard leaching rate of 30% nitrogen surplus following a nitrogen balance calculation as per IPCC (2006) guidelines. Additional carbon dioxide emissions associated with the urea fraction of regional nitrogen fertilizer mixes were also calculated according to IPCC (2006) protocols. For crop processing, inventory data were derived from a combination of peer-reviewed reports, databases, and contacts with private companies. Where more than one dataset was available for a given process, average energy inputs and yields were calculated for that process. This information was then applied using regional energy mixes in order to calculate the resource use and emissions intensities of processing on a country-specific basis. Livestock-derived Feed Ingredient Models Due to the complexity of modelling animal husbandry systems standard production models were developed that could subsequently be applied in country-specific contexts. These models were structured to reflect average regional feed compositions, feed conversion ratios, and production cycles based on multiple data sets and consultation with regional experts (Table S3). Specifically, standard broiler poultry models were developed for North America, South America and Europe. These were subsequently refined on a country-specific basis to reflect feed sourcing and energy mixes. The poultry production models encompassed the full broiler supply chain, including the production of chicks in dedicated hatcheries, the provision, processing and delivery of all feed ingredients, on-farm energy inputs and emissions related to litter management, broiler processing, and by-product rendering to produce poultry fat and blood, feather, and by-product meals. A full description of the model, which is based on the US broiler supply chain, is available in Pelletier (2008) and processing/rendering stages are described in Pelletier and Tyedmers (2007). Fish-derived Feed Ingredient Models Data for energy inputs to fisheries were derived from a combination of peer-reviewed literature, databases, and unpublished data collected by Peter Tyedmers. The fish meal and oil rendering models were based on average energy inputs to fish rendering plants calculated from four separate data sets representative of operations in Canada (Tyedmers 2000), the US (Anon., pers. Comm.), South America (Pelletier and Tyedmers 2007) and Denmark (LCA of Food 2008). We applied local energy mixes and species-specific meal and oil yield rates where applicable (Anon. pers. comm.). S3

4 Salmon Feed Production Models Data for material and energy inputs to salmon feed production were collected from major feed producers who together represent approximately 70% of global production volumes. Specifically, we modelled a production-weighted average of the material and energy used for all salmon feeds produced by the industry over the course of 2007 in each production region. This included transportation of raw materials via indicated modes from their respective regions of production, and the milling and packaging of commercial salmon feeds. Salmon Farm Production Models Data for material and energy inputs/emissions associated with salmon farming operations were solicited via survey and follow-up correspondence from multiple salmon farming companies in each region. Resulting data cumulatively represented 24% of global farmed Atlantic salmon production volumes in This included the types and amounts of primary energy carriers, feeds (including transport via the indicated modes from feed mill to farm) and other inputs required for the total annual production of each company. From this, we modelled a productionweighted average for each region. We also used nutrient balances to model average nitrogen and phosphorus emissions to marine waters based on protein and phosphorus content of feed inputs (Sauvant et al. 2002, Preston 2004) and standard N and P contents of live-weight farmed salmon of 3% and 0.5% respectively (Stead and Laird 2002). Co-product Allocation Co-product allocation is required to apportion resource use and emissions between the coproducts of multi-output systems. Since the purpose of this analysis was to describe the biophysical environmental dimensions of a food production system, it was deemed appropriate to base allocation decisions on an inherent biophysical characteristic of food coproducts which both reflects the ecoefficiency of the process and is also relevant to the underlying causal impetus of the production system. To this end, the gross chemical energy content of co-product streams was chosen as the basis for all allocation decisions because (1) satisfying human needs for food energy is the root cause of all food production activities and (2) the chemical energy of food products present in raw materials is apportioned between processed outputs in a manner which speaks directly to the ecoefficiency with which the system provides food energy for human consumption. For a thorough discussion of this approach, see Ayer et al. (2007) and Pelletier and Tyedmers (2007). IMPACT ASSESSMENT Impact assessment in LCA involves calculating the contributions made by the material and energy inputs and outputs tabulated in the inventory phase to a specified suite of environmental impact categories. We considered two resource use impact categories (energy use and biotic resource use) and three emissions-related categories (greenhouse gas, acidifying and eutrophying emissions). With the exception of biotic resource use, all impacts were calculated using the SimaPro 7.1 LCA software package from PRé Consultants (PRé, 2008). Energy use was quantified following the Cumulative Energy Demand method v 1.03 (Frischknect et al. 2003). Greenhouse gas, acidifying, eutrophying emissions were quantified using the CML 2 Baseline 2001 method (CML, 2001). Biotic resource use, a relatively novel impact category in LCA S4

5 research (see Papatryphon et al. 2004, Pelletier and Tyedmers 2007, Aubin et al. 2009) essentially provides an estimate of the net primary production required to sustain the production of biotic inputs. For agricultural ingredients, the carbon content represented in the crop fraction of the plant was quantified. Biotic resource use for fishery-derived ingredients was calculated following Pauly and Christensen (1995) using the formula P=(M/9) 10(T 1), where P is the mass (in kg) of carbon appropriated, M is the mass of fish required (wet weight), and T is the trophic level of the organism used (as reported in FishBase, 2008). Here, carbon represents the transferable products of photosynthesis (net primary production). All of the above assessment methods follow the problem-oriented mid-point approach, meaning that results are expressed in terms of their potential environmental impacts rather than actual damage levels. INTERPRETATION All impacts were calculated per live-weight tonne of salmon produced in each region and as a production-weighted global average. Supply chain impacts were assessed to identify impact hotspots and key leverage points for environmental performance improvements within and between production regions. Sensitivity analyses and scenario modeling were undertaken to test the importance of key methodological assumptions and strategies to reduce impacts (see Supplementary Materials). Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were used as the basis for these analyses due to their current topicality and the importance of the food system to total anthropogenic GHG emissions. For the Norwegian production region, we tested the influence of our use of the IPCC (2006) default emission factor for field-level nitrous oxide emissions (1% of applied N) in crop production on farm-level GHG intensity of salmon production by alternately applying the low (0.33%) and high (3%) range of uncertainty estimates provided by IPCC. We tested the impact of within-region changes in feed inputs by comparing farm gate GHG emissions that result from average 1997, 2003 and 2007 feed composition data from British Columbia. We further investigated the relative roles of differential feed use rates and feed compositions between regions together with the cumulative reduction in GHG emissions that could be achieved by modeling farm gate emissions under a scenario in which gross feed conversion ratios were equal to that of the lowest achieved in 2007 while keeping formulations constant. Finally, we modeled a scenario in which all fish-derived inputs to Norwegian feeds were replaced by the least emission intensive fish meal and oil analyzed. To set the results of our work in a broader context, we compared global average GHG intensity of farmed salmon production to estimates of emissions from other animal husbandry sectors. S5

6 Table S1. Weighted average feed composition (%) by ingredient for all salmon feeds milled by the surveyed companies over the course of 2007 in Norway, the UK, Canada and Chile. FEED INGREDIENTS NORWAY UK CANADA CHILE Crop-derived Canola Seed Canola Meal Canola Oil Fava Beans Lupin Seed Maize Gluten Meal < Peas Pea Protein Concentrate Rape Seed Meal Rape Seed Oil Soy Meal Soy Oil Soy Protein Concentrate Sunflower Meal Sunflower Oil Wheat Wheat Flour Wheat Gluten Meal Livestock-derived Poultry Blood Meal <0.1 Poultry By-product Meal Poultry Fat Poultry Feather Meal Fish-derived Anchoveta Meal Anchoveta Oil Blue Whiting Meal Blue Whiting Oil Capelin Meal Capelin Oil < Atlantic Herring Meal Atlantic Herring Oil Atlantic Herring By-product Meal Atlantic Herring By-product Oil Atlantic Herring By-product Pacific Herring By-product Meal Pacific Herring By-product Oil Jack Mackerel Meal Jack Mackerel Oil Krill Meal Menhaden Meal Menhaden Oil Mixed Whitefish Meal Mixed Whitefish Oil Sand Eel Meal Sand Eel Oil Sprat Meal Sprat Oil S6

7 Table S2. Inventory data sources for agricultural raw material production and processing models for salmon feeds produced in Norway, UK, Canada and Chile in Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Raw Material Production Inventory Data Source Processing Inventory Data Source Notes Agricultural Canola Seed Canada Pelletier et al Pelletier and Tyedmers 2007 Canola Meal Canada Pelletier et al Pelletier and Tyedmers 2007 Canola Oil Canada Pelletier et al Pelletier and Tyedmers 2007 Fava Beans UK Williams et al Feed Peas (dehulled) Canada EcoInvent 2008 Apaiah 2006 Assumed same as France Feed Pea Protein Concentrate France EcoInvent 2008 Apaiah 2006 Lupin Seed Chile Narayanaswamy et al Assumed same as Australia Maize Gluten France EcoInvent 2008 Pelletier and Tyedmers 2007 Maize Gluten USA Pelletier 2008 Pelletier and Tyedmers 2007 Rape Seed Meal France EcoInvent 2008 Schmidt 2007 Rape Seed Oil France EcoInvent 2008 Schmidt 2007 Soy Meal Brazil Schmidt 2007 Schmidt 2007 Soy Meal Argentina Dalgaard et al Schmidt 2007 Soy Meal Canada Pelletier et al Pelletier and Tyedmers 2007 Soy Oil Brazil Schmidt 2007 Schmidt 2007 Soy Oil Argentina Dalgaard et al Schmidt 2007 Soy Protein Concentrate Brazil Schmidt 2007 Apaiah 2006 Assumed same as pea protein concentrate Sunflower Meal France Basset-Mens 2005 Cederberg 1998 Sunflower Meal Argentina Basset-Mens 2005 Cederberg 1998 Sunflower Oil France Basset-Mens 2005 Cederberg 1998 Wheat UK Williams et al Wheat France EcoInvent 2008 Wheat Canada Pelletier et al Wheat Chile Pelletier et al Assumed same as Canada Wheat Flour UK Williams et al Ryan and Tiffany 1998, Duebendorfer pers comm. Wheat Gluten Meal France EcoInvent Barr-Rosin pers. comm. Wheat Gluten Meal UK Williams et al Barr-Rosin pers. comm. Wheat Gluten Meal Canada Pelletier et al Barr-Rosin pers. comm. S7

8 Table S3. Inventory data sources for animal husbandry raw material production and processing models for salmon feeds produced in Norway, UK, Canada and Chile in Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Raw Material Production Inventory Data Source Processing Inventory Data Source Notes Animal Husbandry Poultry Blood Meal Canada Pelletier 2008 Pelletier 2008 North America model Poultry Blood Meal Chile Pelletier 2008 Pelletier 2008 South America model Poultry By-product Meal Brazil Pelletier 2008 Pelletier 2008 South America model Poultry By-product Meal Canada Pelletier 2008 Pelletier 2008 North America model Poultry By-product Meal France Pelletier 2008 and GLIP 2004 Pelletier 2008 Europe model Poultry Fat Canada Pelletier 2008 Pelletier 2008 North America model Poultry Feather Meal Brazil Pelletier 2008 Anon. feather meal mill manager South America model Poultry Feather Meal France Pelletier 2008 and GLIP 2004 Anon. feather meal mill manager Europe model S8

9 Table S4. Inventory data sources for fisheries raw material production and processing models for salmon feeds produced in Norway, the UK, Canada and Chile in Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Raw Material Production Inventory Data Source Processing Inventory Data Source 1 Notes Fisheries Anchoveta Meal Peru Pelletier and Tyedmers Anchoveta Oil Peru Pelletier and Tyedmers Blue Whiting Meal Norway Schau et al Blue Whiting Meal UK Tyedmers Blue Whiting Oil Norway Tyedmers Blue Whiting Oil UK Tyedmers Capelin Meal Iceland Tyedmers Capelin Meal Norway Schau et al Capelin Oil Iceland Tyedmers Herring Meal Denmark LCA of Food database - Herring Meal Iceland LCA of Food database - Herring Meal Norway Schau et al Herring Oil Denmark LCA of Food database - Herring Oil Iceland LCA of Food database - Assumed same as Denmark Herring Oil Norway Schau et al Herring By-product Meal Canada Tyedmers Herring By-product Meal Denmark LCA of Food database - Herring By-product Meal Norway Schau et al Herring By-product Oil Canada Tyedmers Herring By-product Oil Denmark LCA of Food database - Herring By-product Oil Iceland LCA of Food database - Assumed same as Denmark Herring By-product Oil Norway Schau et al Herring By-product Norway Schau et al Jack Mackerel Meal Chile Pelletier and Tyedmers Assumed same as Peru Jack Mackerel Oil Chile Pelletier and Tyedmers Assumed same as Peru Krill Meal Paraguay Aker (pers comm..) - Menhaden Meal USA Omega Protein (pers comm.) - Menhaden Oil USA Omega Protein (pers comm.) - Mixed Whitefish Meal UK Tyedmers (unpub. data) - Mixed Whitefish Oil UK Tyedmers (unpub. data) -

10 Sand Eel Meal Norway LCA of Food database - Assumed same as Denmark Sand Eel Oil Denmark LCA of Food database - Sand Eel Oil Norway LCA of Food database - Assumed same as Denmark Sprat Meal Denmark LCA of Food database - Sprat Meal Norway Schau et al Sprat Oil Denmark LCA of Food database - Sprat Oil Norway Schau et al Processing data based on average energy inputs to reduction plants in four regions (Canada, US, South America, Denmark). Country-specific energy mixes are applied, as are species-specific yield rates for meals and oils

11 Table S5. Farm-level material and energy inputs, transportation distances for inputs, and farmlevel nutrient emissions per live-weight tonne of salmon produced in Norway, the UK, Canada and Chile in INPUTS NORWAY UK CANADA CHILE Feed (t) Feed Transport (t-km) Barge Truck Smolts (kg) Smolt Transport (t-km) Barge Truck Helicopter Farm Energy Use (MJ) Electricity Natural Gas Liquid Propane Gas Light Fuel Oil Diesel Gasoline EMISSIONS 1 Nitrogen as N (kg) Phosphorus as P (kg) TOTAL PRODUCTION (t) 626, , , ,000 1) Calculated using nutrient balances based on N and P content of feeds and live-weight salmon. Table S6. Material and energy inputs to salmon feed milling in Norway, the UK, Canada and Chile in INPUTS (tonne of feed) NORWAY UK CANADA CHILE Energy (MJ) Electricity Natural Gas LPG Light Fuel Oil Heavy Fuel Oil Diesel Steam PET 1 Packaging (kg) (1) Polyethylene terephthalate. S11

12 Table S7. Life cycle impact assessment results for the production of one live-weight tonne of salmon in Norway, the UK, Chile and Canada in 2007, including the production-weighted global average. Bracketed values represent % contributions. Cumulative Energy Use (MJ) Biotic Resource Use (kg NPP) Greenhouse Gas Emissions (kg CO 2 -equiv) Acidifying Emissions (kg SO 2 -equiv) Eutrophying Emissions (kg PO 4 -equiv) NORWAY 26, ,100 1, Feeds Production 24,540 (93.7) 111,129 (100) 1,684 (93.9) 16.0 (93.6) 6.3 (15.4) Transport 191 (0.7) (0.7) 0.1 (0.6) <0.1 (0) Smolts Production 695 (2.7) (2.6) 0.4 (2.3) 0.2 (0.5) Transport 0.8 (0) - <0.1 (0) <0.1 (0) <0.1 (0) Farm Energy 755 (2.9) (2.8) 0.6 (3.5) 0.1 (0.2) N/P Emissions (83.9) UK 47, ,200 3, Feeds Production 44,700 (93.3) 137,218 (100) 3,060 (95.3) 28.3 (95.3) 9.6 (15.3) Transport 290 (0.6) (0.7) 0.2 (0.7) <0.1 (0) Smolts - Production 1,230 (2.6) (2.5) 0.7 (2.4) 0.3 (0.5) Transport 16.2 (0) (0) <0.1 (0) <0.1 (0) Farm Energy 1,430 (3.0) (2.8) 0.4 (1.3) 0.1 (0.2) N/P Emissions (84.1) CANADA 31,200 18,400 2, Feeds Production 29,400 (94.2) 18,377 (100) 2,240 (94.5) 26.8 (95.4) 9.0 (12.0) Transport 259 (0.8) (0.8) 0.1 (0.4) <0.1 (0) Smolts - Production 502 (1.6) (1.5) 0.4 (1.4) 0.2 (0.3) Transport 3.7 (0) (0) <0.1 (0) <0.1 (0) Farm Energy 988 (3.2) (3.1) 0.8 (2.8) 0.2 (0.3) N/P Emissions (87.3) CHILE 33,200 56,600 2, Feeds Production 30,700 (92.5) 56,565 (100) 2,130 (92.6) 19.1 (93.6) 7.2 (14.0) Transport 507 (1.5) (1.4) 0.2 (1.0) <0.1 (0) Smolts - Production 526 (1.6) (1.6) 0.3 (1.5) 0.1 (0.2) Transport 5.1 (0) (0) <0.1 (0) <0.1 (0) Farm Energy 1,550 (4.5) (4.3) 0.8 (3.9) 0.2 (0.4) N/P Emissions (85.4) AVERAGE 31,100 89,400 2, Feeds Production 28,985 (93.2) 89,374 (100) 2,014 (93.5) 19.2 (94.1) 7.2 (14.6) Transport 305 (1.0) (1.0) 0.1 (0.5) <0.1 (0) Smolts Production 683 (2.2) (2.1) 0.4 (2.0) 0.2 (0.4) Transport 4.0 (0) (0) <0.1 (0) <0.1 (0) Farm Energy 1,092 (3.5) (3.3) 0.7 (3.4) 0.1 (0.1) N/P Emissions (84.8) S12

13 Table S8. Life cycle impact assessment and contribution analysis for inputs to salmon feeds produced in Norway in CUMULATIVE ENERGY USE NORWAY (MJ/tonne of feed produced) Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Inclusion Rate Production (tonne) Production (feed) Processing (tonne) Processing (feed) Transportation (tonne) Transportation (feed) TOTAL % of TOTAL Fava Beans UK 1.60% % Maize Gluten Meal USA 0.20% % Pea Protein Concentrate France 4.93% % Rape Seed Oil France 6.22% % Soy Meal Brazil 7.96% % Soy Oil Brazil 0.92% % Soy Protein Concentrate Brazil 5.40% % Sunflower Meal France 6.05% % Sunflower Oil France 0.92% % Wheat France 5.15% % Wheat Gluten Meal France 2.98% % Wheat Gluten Meal UK 1.35% % TOTAL 43.68% % 39.3% 37.3% 23.5% Anchoveta Meal Peru 6.07% % Blue Whiting Meal Norway 9.49% % Capelin Meal Iceland 0.25% % Herring Meal Denmark 3.14% % Herring Meal Norway 2.05% % Herring Meal Iceland 1.05% % Herring By-product Meal Norway 1.10% % Jack Mackerel Meal Chile 0.71% % Menhaden Meal US Gulf 3.14% % Sand Eel Meal Norway 0.50% % Sprat Meal Denmark 3.14% % Sprat Meal Norway 0.70% % Blue Whiting Oil Norway 3.97% % Capelin Oil Iceland 0.07% % Herring Oil Denmark 2.76% % Herring Oil Iceland 2.35% % Herring Oil Norway 1.15% % Herring By-product Oil Norway 0.57% % Sand Eel Oil Norway 0.28% % Sprat Oil Denmark 4.25% % Menhaden Oil US Gulf 2.76% % Anchoveta Oil Peru 4.96% % Herring By-products (silage) Norway 1.85% % TOTAL 56.32% % 44.1% 3.6% 100.0%

14 BIOTIC RESOURCE USE PER FEED INGREDIENT AND PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED, NORWAY (tonnes C/tonne) Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Inclusion Rate BRU/tonne Ingredient BRU/tonne Feed Fava Beans UK 1.60% Maize Gluten Meal USA 0.20% Pea Protein Concentrate France 4.93% Rape Seed Oil France 6.22% Soy Meal Brazil 7.96% Soy Oil Brazil 0.92% Soy Protein Concentrate Brazil 5.40% Sunflower Meal France 6.05% Sunflower Oil France 0.92% Wheat France 5.15% Wheat Gluten Meal France 2.98% Wheat Gluten Meal UK 1.35% CARBON APPROPRIATION PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED (tonnes/tonne) Anchoveta Meal Peru 6.07% Blue Whiting Meal Norway 9.49% Capelin Meal Iceland 0.25% Herring Meal Denmark 3.14% Herring Meal Norway 2.05% Herring Meal Iceland 1.05% Herring By-product Meal Norway 1.10% Jack Mackerel Meal Chile 0.71% Menhaden Meal US Gulf 3.14% Sand Eel Meal Norway 0.50% Sprat Meal Denmark 3.14% Sprat Meal Norway 0.70% Blue Whiting Oil Norway 3.97% Capelin Oil Iceland 0.07% Herring Oil Denmark 2.76% Herring Oil Iceland 2.35% Herring Oil Norway 1.15% Herring By-product Oil Norway 0.57% Sand Eel Oil Norway 0.28% Sprat Oil Denmark 4.25% Menhaden Oil US Gulf 2.76% Anchoveta Oil Peru 4.96% Herring By-products (silage) Norway 1.85% CARBON APPROPRIATION PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED TOTAL CARBON APPROPRIATION PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED

15 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS, NORWAY (kg CO2-e/tonne) Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Inclusion Rate Production (tonne) Production (feed) Processing (tonne) Processing (feed) Transportation (tonne) Transportation (feed) TOTAL % of TOTAL Fava Beans UK 1.60% % Maize Gluten Meal USA 0.20% % Pea Protein Concentrate France 4.93% % Rape Seed Oil France 6.22% % Soy Meal Brazil 7.96% % Soy Oil Brazil 0.92% % Soy Protein Concentrate Brazil 5.40% % Sunflower Meal France 6.05% % Sunflower Oil France 0.92% % Wheat France 5.15% % Wheat Gluten Meal France 2.98% % Wheat Gluten Meal UK 1.35% % TOTAL 43.68% % 59.2% 22.5% 18.3% Anchoveta Meal Peru 6.07% % Blue Whiting Meal Norway 9.49% % Capelin Meal Iceland 0.25% % Herring Meal Denmark 3.14% % Herring Meal Norway 2.05% % Herring Meal Iceland 1.05% % Herring By-product Meal Norway 1.10% % Jack Mackerel Meal Chile 0.71% % Menhaden Meal US Gulf 3.14% % Sand Eel Meal Norway 0.50% % Sprat Meal Denmark 3.14% % Sprat Meal Norway 0.70% % Blue Whiting Oil Norway 3.97% % Capelin Oil Iceland 0.07% % Herring Oil Denmark 2.76% % Herring Oil Iceland 2.35% % Herring Oil Norway 1.15% % Herring By-product Oil Norway 0.57% % Sand Eel Oil Norway 0.28% % Sprat Oil Denmark 4.25% % Menhaden Oil US Gulf 2.76% % Anchoveta Oil Peru 4.96% % Herring By-products (silage) Norway 1.85% % TOTAL 56.32% % 38.0% 3.5% 100.0%

16 ACIDIFYING EMISSIONS, NORWAY (kg SO2-e/tonne) Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Inclusion Rate Production (tonne) Production (feed) Processing (tonne) Processing (feed) Transportation (tonne) Transportation (feed) TOTAL % of TOTAL Fava Beans UK 1.60% % Maize Gluten Meal USA 0.20% % Pea Protein Concentrate France 4.93% % Rape Seed Oil France 6.22% % Soy Meal Brazil 7.96% % Soy Oil Brazil 0.92% % Soy Protein Concentrate Brazil 5.40% % Sunflower Meal France 6.05% % Sunflower Oil France 0.92% % Wheat France 5.15% % Wheat Gluten Meal France 2.98% % Wheat Gluten Meal UK 1.35% % TOTAL 43.68% % 81.2% 5.3% 13.4% Anchoveta Meal Peru 6.07% % Blue Whiting Meal Norway 9.49% % Capelin Meal Iceland 0.25% % Herring Meal Denmark 3.14% % Herring Meal Norway 2.05% % Herring Meal Iceland 1.05% % Herring By-product Meal Norway 1.10% % Jack Mackerel Meal Chile 0.71% % Menhaden Meal US Gulf 3.14% % Sand Eel Meal Norway 0.50% % Sprat Meal Denmark 3.14% % Sprat Meal Norway 0.70% % Blue Whiting Oil Norway 3.97% % Capelin Oil Iceland 0.07% % Herring Oil Denmark 2.76% % Herring Oil Iceland 2.35% % Herring Oil Norway 1.15% % Herring By-product Oil Norway 0.57% % Sand Eel Oil Norway 0.28% % Sprat Oil Denmark 4.25% % Menhaden Oil US Gulf 2.76% % Anchoveta Oil Peru 4.96% % Herring By-products (silage) Norway 1.85% % TOTAL 56.32% % 6.5% 7.0% 100.0%

17 EUTROPHYING EMISSIONS, NORWAY (kg PO4-e/tonne) Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Inclusion Rate Production (tonne) Production (feed) Processing (tonne) Processing (feed) Transportation (tonne) Transportation (feed) TOTAL % of TOTAL Fava Beans UK 1.60% % Maize Gluten Meal USA 0.20% % Pea Protein Concentrate France 4.93% % Rape Seed Oil France 6.22% % Soy Meal Brazil 7.96% % Soy Oil Brazil 0.92% % Soy Protein Concentrate Brazil 5.40% % Sunflower Meal France 6.05% % Sunflower Oil France 0.92% % Wheat France 5.15% % Wheat Gluten Meal France 2.98% % Wheat Gluten Meal UK 1.35% % TOTAL 43.68% % 91.3% 3.1% 5.6% Anchoveta Meal Peru 6.07% % Blue Whiting Meal Norway 9.49% % Capelin Meal Iceland 0.25% % Herring Meal Denmark 3.14% % Herring Meal Norway 2.05% % Herring Meal Iceland 1.05% % Herring By-product Meal Norway 1.10% % Jack Mackerel Meal Chile 0.71% % Menhaden Meal US Gulf 3.14% % Sand Eel Meal Norway 0.50% % Sprat Meal Denmark 3.14% % Sprat Meal Norway 0.70% % Blue Whiting Oil Norway 3.97% % Capelin Oil Iceland 0.07% % Herring Oil Denmark 2.76% % Herring Oil Iceland 2.35% % Herring Oil Norway 1.15% % Herring By-product Oil Norway 0.57% % Sand Eel Oil Norway 0.28% % Sprat Oil Denmark 4.25% % Menhaden Oil US Gulf 2.76% % Anchoveta Oil Peru 4.96% % Herring By-products (silage) Norway 1.85% % TOTAL 56.32% % 59.1% 1.6% 100.0%

18 Table S9. Life cycle impact assessment and contribution analysis for inputs to salmon feeds produced in the UK in 2007 CUMULATIVE ENERGY USE PER FEED INGREDIENT AND PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED, UK (MJ/tonne) Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Inclusion Rate Production (tonne) Production (feed) Processing (tonne) Processing (feed) Transportation (tonne) Transportation (feed) TOTAL % of TOTAL Fava Beans UK 3.63% % Maize Gluten Meal France 3.88% % Pea Protein Concentrate France 4.38% % Rape Seed Oil France 0.71% % Soy Meal Brazil 8.73% % Sunflower Meal France 3.74% % Wheat UK 4.03% % Wheat Flour UK 0.15% % Wheat Gluten Meal France 1.34% % Wheat Gluten Meal UK 0.40% % TOTAL 30.99% % 32.4% 39.8% 27.8% Anchoveta Meal Peru 15.73% % Blue Whiting Meal Norway 2.67% % Capelin Meal Iceland 0.05% % Herring Meal Norway 0.30% % Herring By-product Meal Norway 0.11% % Herring By-product Meal Denmark 7.20% % Sand Eel Meal Norway 0.45% % Sprat Meal Denmark 7.10% % Whitefish By-product Meal UK 9.00% % Whitefish By-product Oil UK 2.48% % Blue Whiting Oil Norway 0.40% % Capelin Oil Iceland 0.50% % Herring Oil Iceland 1.41% % Herring Oil Norway 1.41% % Herring By-product Oil Iceland 0.35% % Herring By-product Oil Norway 1.61% % Herring By-product Oil Denmark 3.08% % Sand Eel Oil Denmark 0.05% % Sprat Oil Denmark 5.77% % Anchoveta Oil Peru 9.34% % TOTAL 69.01% % 34.6% 2.8% 100.0%

19 BIOTIC RESOURCE USE PER FEED INGREDIENT AND PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED, UK (tonnes C/tonne) Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Inclusion Rate BRU/tonne Ingredient BRU/tonne Feed Fava Beans UK 3.63% Maize Gluten Meal France 3.88% Pea Protein Concentrate France 4.38% Rape Seed Oil France 0.71% Soy Meal Brazil 8.62% Sunflower Meal France 3.74% Wheat UK 4.03% Wheat Flour UK 0.15% Wheat Gluten Meal France 1.34% Wheat Gluten Meal UK 0.40% CARBON APPROPRIATION PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED (tonnes/tonne) Anchoveta Meal Peru 15.73% Blue Whiting Meal Norway 2.67% Capelin Meal Iceland 0.05% Herring Meal Norway 0.30% Herring By-product Meal Norway 0.11% Herring By-product Meal Denmark 7.20% Sand Eel Meal Norway 0.45% Sprat Meal Denmark 7.10% Whitefish By-product Meal UK 9.00% Whitefish By-product Oil UK 2.48% Blue Whiting Oil Norway 0.40% Capelin Oil Iceland 0.50% Herring Oil Iceland 1.41% Herring Oil Norway 1.41% Herring By-product Oil Iceland 0.35% Herring By-product Oil Norway 1.61% Herring By-product Oil Denmark 3.08% Herring By-product Oil UK 0.00% Sand Eel Oil Denmark 0.05% Sprat Oil Denmark 5.77% Anchoveta Oil Peru 9.34% CARBON APPROPRIATION PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED TOTAL CARBON APPROPRIATION PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED

20 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS PER FEED INGREDIENT AND PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED, UK (kg CO2-e/tonne) Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Inclusion Rate Production (tonne) Production (feed) Processing (tonne) Processing (feed) Transportation (tonne) Transportation (feed) TOTAL % of TOTAL Fava Beans UK 3.63% % Maize Gluten Meal France 3.88% % Pea Protein Concentrate France 4.38% % Rape Seed Oil France 0.71% % Soy Meal Brazil 8.73% % Sunflower Meal France 3.74% % Wheat UK 4.03% % Wheat Flour UK 0.15% % Wheat Gluten Meal France 1.34% % Wheat Gluten Meal UK 0.40% % TOTAL 30.99% % 46.4% 25.2% 28.4% Anchoveta Meal Peru 15.73% % Blue Whiting Meal Norway 2.67% % Capelin Meal Iceland 0.05% % Herring Meal Norway 0.30% % Herring By-product Meal Norway 0.11% % Herring By-product Meal Denmark 7.20% % Sand Eel Meal Norway 0.45% % Sprat Meal Denmark 7.10% % Whitefish By-product Meal UK 9.00% % Whitefish By-product Oil UK 2.48% % Blue Whiting Oil Norway 0.40% % Capelin Oil Iceland 0.50% % Herring Oil Iceland 1.41% % Herring Oil Norway 1.41% % Herring By-product Oil Iceland 0.35% % Herring By-product Oil Norway 1.61% % Herring By-product Oil Denmark 3.08% % Sand Eel Oil Denmark 0.05% % Sprat Oil Denmark 5.77% % Anchoveta Oil Peru 9.34% % TOTAL 69.01% % 29.4% 2.6% 100.0%

21 ACIDIFYING EMISSIONS PER FEED INGREDIENT AND PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED, UK (kg SO2-e/tonne) Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Inclusion Rate Production (tonne) Production (feed) Processing (tonne) Processing (feed) Transportation (tonne) Transportation (feed) TOTAL % of TOTAL Fava Beans UK 3.63% % Maize Gluten Meal France 3.88% % Pea Protein Concentrate France 4.38% % Rape Seed Oil France 0.71% % Soy Meal Brazil 8.73% % Sunflower Meal France 3.74% % Wheat UK 4.03% % Wheat Flour UK 0.15% % Wheat Gluten Meal France 1.34% % Wheat Gluten Meal UK 0.40% % TOTAL 30.99% % 67.2% 13.9% 18.9% Anchoveta Meal Peru 15.73% % Blue Whiting Meal Norway 2.67% % Capelin Meal Iceland 0.05% % Herring Meal Norway 0.30% % Herring By-product Meal Norway 0.11% % Herring By-product Meal Denmark 7.20% % Sand Eel Meal Norway 0.45% % Sprat Meal Denmark 7.10% % Whitefish By-product Meal UK 9.00% % Whitefish By-product Oil UK 2.48% % Blue Whiting Oil Norway 0.40% % Capelin Oil Iceland 0.50% % Herring Oil Iceland 1.41% % Herring Oil Norway 1.41% % Herring By-product Oil Iceland 0.35% % Herring By-product Oil Norway 1.61% % Herring By-product Oil Denmark 3.08% % Sand Eel Oil Denmark 0.05% % Sprat Oil Denmark 5.77% % Anchoveta Oil Peru 9.34% % TOTAL 69.01% % 5.0% 5.0% 100.0%

22 EUTROPHYING EMISSIONS PER FEED INGREDIENT AND PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED, UK (kg PO4-e/tonne) Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Inclusion Rate Production (tonne) Production (feed) Processing (tonne) Processing (feed) Transportation (tonne) Transportation (feed) TOTAL % of TOTAL Fava Beans UK 3.63% % Maize Gluten Meal France 3.88% % Pea Protein Concentrate France 4.38% % Rape Seed Oil France 0.71% % Soy Meal Brazil 8.73% % Sunflower Meal France 3.74% % Wheat UK 4.03% % Wheat Flour UK 0.15% % Wheat Gluten Meal France 1.34% % Wheat Gluten Meal UK 0.40% % TOTAL 30.99% % 81.3% 4.4% 14.2% Anchoveta Meal Peru 15.73% % Blue Whiting Meal Norway 2.67% % Capelin Meal Iceland 0.05% % Herring Meal Norway 0.30% % Herring By-product Meal Norway 0.11% % Herring By-product Meal Denmark 7.20% % Sand Eel Meal Norway 0.45% % Sprat Meal Denmark 7.10% % Whitefish By-product Meal UK 9.00% % Whitefish By-product Oil UK 2.48% % Blue Whiting Oil Norway 0.40% % Capelin Oil Iceland 0.50% % Herring Oil Iceland 1.41% % Herring Oil Norway 1.41% % Herring By-product Oil Iceland 0.35% % Herring By-product Oil Norway 1.61% % Herring By-product Oil Denmark 3.08% % Sand Eel Oil Denmark 0.05% % Sprat Oil Denmark 5.77% % Anchoveta Oil Peru 9.34% % TOTAL 69.01% % 46.5% 1.4% 100.0%

23 Table S10. Life cycle impact assessment and contribution analysis for inputs to salmon feeds produced in Canada in 2007 CUMULATIVE ENERGY USE PER FEED INGREDIENT AND PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED, CANADA (MJ/tonne) Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Inclusion Rate Production (tonne) Production (feed) Processing (tonne) Processing (feed) Transportation (tonne) Transportation (feed) TOTAL % of TOTAL Canola Canada 6.1% % Canola Meal Canada 4.1% % Canola Oil Canada 5.1% % Corn Gluten Meal USA 9.2% % Soy Meal USA 4.1% % Peas Canada 5.1% % Soy Protein Concentrate USA 1.5% % Wheat Canada 13.3% % TOTAL 48.5% % 49.7% 34.0% 16.3% Anchoveta Meal Peru 16.8% % Herring By-product Meal Canada 4.1% % Herring By-product Oil Canada 3.1% % Menhaden Oil US Gulf 5.1% % Anchoveta Oil Peru 2.6% % TOTAL 31.6% % 47.8% 5.8% 100.0% Poultry Blood Meal Canada 1.5% % Poultry Fat Canada 3.1% % Poultry By-product Meal Canada 15.3% % TOTAL 19.9% % 28.8% 0.1%

24 BIOTIC RESOURCE USE PER FEED INGREDIENT AND PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED, CANADA (tonnes C/tonne) Feed Ingredient Country of Origin Inclusion Rate BRU/tonne Ingredient BRU/tonne Feed Canola Canada 6.1% Canola Meal Canada 4.1% Canola Oil Canada 5.1% Corn Gluten Meal USA 9.2% Soy Meal USA 4.1% Peas Canada 5.1% Pea Protein Concentrate Canada 1.5% Wheat Canada 13.3% Poultry Fat Canada 3.00% Poultry Blood Meal Canada 1.50% Poultry By-product Meal Canada 15.00% CARBON APPROPRIATION PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED (tonnes/tonne) Anchoveta Meal Peru 16.8% Herring By-product Meal Canada 4.1% Herring By-product Oil Canada 3.1% Menhaden Oil US Gulf 5.1% Anchoveta Oil Peru 2.6% Poultry Blood Meal Canada 3.00% Poultry Fat Canada 1.50% Poultry By-product Meal Canada 15.00% CARBON APPROPRIATION PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED TOTAL CARBON APPROPRIATION PER TONNE OF FEED PRODUCED