Eco new farmers. Module 5 Other organic productions. Section 3 Organic mushroom resources and production

Transcription

1 Eco new farmers Module 5 Other organic productions Section 3 Organic mushroom resources and production

2 Module 5 Other organic productions Section 3 Organic mushroom resources and production 1. Introduction Mushrooms are important to people, particularly those in developing countries. Edible fungi already play an important role in the lives of many people and more benefits could be achieved. Mushrooms are an indispensable food, and nowadays also serve as raw material to develop new materials and technologies. In this section you will learn about the biology of mushrooms and other characteristics, and the applications of mushrooms (food, tourism, etc). 2. Biology of macrofungi About to species of fungi have been described to date, although the total number of species is estimated at around 1,5 million. Based on their lifestyle, fungi may be circumscribed by the following set of characteristics: 1. nutrition: heterotrophic, feeding by absorption rather than ingestion 2. vegetative state: on or in the substratum, typically as a non-motile mycelium of hyphae showing internal protoplasmic streaming. Motile reproductive states may occur 3. cell wall: present, usually based on glucans and chitin or glucans and cellulose 4. nuclear status: eukaryotic, uni- or multinucleate 5. reproduction: sexual, parasexual and/or asexual 6. Habitat: ubiquitous in terrestrial and freshwater habitats 7. Ecology: saprotrophs, mutualistic symbionts, parasites, or hyperparasites 2.1. Classification Mushrooms are Macrofungi that belong to the divisions Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. The Ascomycota are broken into six classes, many of which are microscopic, and the Basidiomycota are broken into three classes (Table 1).

3 Table 1. Ascomycota and Basidiomycota characteristics Group Number of species Typical members Characteristics Ascomycota (Sac fungi) ~ Yeasts, blue and green moulds, powdery mildew, precursor of Dutch elm disease, cup fungi, morels, truffles Single cells or mycelium; pores form in asci; spore shooters Basidiomycota (Club fungi) ~ Bracket fungi, gilled mushrooms, puffballs, stinkhorns, rusts and smuts Mycelium produces spores on the outside of club shaped structures called basidia; spore droppers 2.2. Anatomy When we see a mushroom, what we are really seeing is just the fruiting body of the much larger fungal body or mycelium. The mycelium is a network of filamentous, branching threads or hyphae. The typical form of a mushroom is a convex pileus or cap which may or may not be covered in scales, a straight stem (stalk or stipe), lamellae or gills (or ridges, tubes or teeth in other fungi) where spores are produced, a skirt-like annulus or ring around the stem and a volva or cup at the base of the stem (Figure 1). Fig.1. Diagram of a generic agaric mushroom (Stewart, 2016) Of course, proper species identification is essential before collecting any mushrooms in the wild. 3. Technical and scientific applications of mushrooms Mushrooms contain many essential aminoacids. As a group, mushrooms also contain some unsaturated fatty acids, several of the B vitamins, and vitamin D. Some even contain significant vitamin C, as well as the minerals potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium. Mushrooms have several uses: gastronomy therapeutic uses tourism (mycotourism)

4 new products like clothes, drinks, jewellery and others control plant pests and diseases landscape and environmental services 4. The mushrooms in the gastronomy Mushrooms have long been referred as a powerful source of nutrients. Often grouped with vegetables, mushrooms provide many of the nutritional attributes found in meat, beans and grains. Mushrooms are low in calories, are fat-free, cholesterol-free (Table 2) and are low in sodium; yet they provide important nutrients such as selenium, potassium, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin D. Because of this, combined with their high nutritional content, they are a great, healthy food to eat. The edible mushrooms provide two main benefits to people: they are a source of food and income. Several medicinal mushrooms are also eaten (Table 2). Table 2. Some mushroom species composition Name Protein Carbohydrate Fat Mineral content Amanita caesaria Amanita rubences Boletus edulis Boletus erytropus Cantharellus cibarius Lactarius deliciosos Ramaria flava Russula cyanoxantha Russula delica Suillus lutetus Suillus granulatus Tricholoma populinum Tirmania nivea Mushrooms are very versatile. They enhance soups, stews, pasta, salads and omelettes, and they can be stuffed, baked, fried or sautéed (Figure 2). Fig.2. Examples of edible mushrooms

5 There are many different kinds of mushrooms and many different ways to preserve them: freezing cooked mushrooms, blanching and freezing, drying, pickling, confiting, smoking. 5. The mushroom therapeutic uses Around 6% of edible species also have medicinal properties. Many of the common edible species have therapeutic properties. Much attention is given to various immunological and anti-cancer properties of certain mushrooms, but they also offer other important health benefits, including antioxidants, antihypertensive and cholesterol-lowering properties, liver protection, as well as anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-viral and anti-microbial properties. For instance, selenium can be found in mushrooms and it plays a role in liver enzyme function, and helps detoxify some cancer-causing compounds in the body. Additionally, selenium prevents inflammation and also decreases tumor growth rates. Several studies have shown that type 1 diabetics who consume high-fiber diets have lower blood glucose levels and type 2 diabetics may have improved blood sugar, lipids and insulin levels. One cup of grilled portabella mushrooms and one cup of stir-fried shiitake mushrooms both provide about 3 grams of fiber. 6. The mycotourism Mycotourism is an emerging activity around the world. In practice, it consists of multiple development activities in the fields of hotel industry, forestry, cuisine, education, recreation, science, research, and rural and regional economy, using mushrooms as a resource. The mycotourism may be a solution if the policy makers and stakeholders gather to create new laws, physical structures, help the land owners, campaigns of environmental education and provide the means to form specialized professionals. Furthermore, the incorporation of mycological resource may possibly lead to the organization of mycological activities, lessening of the intoxication risk, conservation of the resource, avoiding it s over exploration and promoting local and regional development.

6 7. Innovative products using mushrooms Mushrooms can be used for packaging, home insulation, fiberboard for furniture and even a surfboard. Mushrooms are also known as a mycorremediation tool as they have the power to remediate different types of pollutants, by producing efficient enzymes that are able to degrade substrates and pollutants. Furthermore, mushrooms can be found in products such as: tea and other drinks, clothes and jewellery, textile materials, biopesticides, skincare products. 8. Wild mushrooms Wild edible fungi have been collected and consumed by people for thousands of years. The importance of wild edible fungi continues to grow for several fundamental reasons. Organic farmers might have interest in non-wood forest products as an alternative source of income. Wild edible fungi can play an important role in providing new sources of income. To summarize, wild edible fungi are important for three main reasons: as a source of food (plus health benefits) as a source of income to maintain the health of forests The knowledge about the mushrooms biology, ecology and life cycle of mushrooms is essential to collect wild edible mushrooms that are present in European forests. 9. Mushrooms cultivation Cultivated mushrooms are becoming popular all over the world. There are over 200 genera of macrofungi which contain species that can be used. Twelve species are commonly grown for food and/or medicinal purposes. The essential operations for mushrooms cultivation include the selection of mushroom spores or strains, maintenance of mycelial cultures, development of spawn or inoculum, preparation of growing medium, inoculation and colonization and crop management for optimum production. Organic farmers can use several substrates, especially agricultural by-products, to produce different mushroom species: wheat and rice straw, corn cobs, hay, water hyacinth, composted manure, and various other agricultural by-products including coffee husks, banana leaves, etc.

7 10. Summary Mushrooms have an increasingly important role in world economy. In addition to its known role as food element and medicinal source, it is emerging as an important raw material. Therefore, it is necessary to study and research this resource to develop new materials and technologies. Finally, it is important to note that mushrooms are a new way to developed regional tourism, and can be adopted in organic farms as a source of diversification. The organic farmers can increase their income by collecting wild mushrooms or by producing them in their farm, with the opportunity to reuse different agricultural by-products as substrate.

8 Module 5 Other organic productions Section 3.1 Mycological resources valorisation Some examples of wild edible mushrooms in Europe 1. Introduction Fungi are important organisms that serve many vital functions in forest ecosystems including decomposition, nutrient cycling, symbiotic relationships with trees and other plants, biological control of other fungi, and as the causal agents of diseases in plants and animals. Mushrooms are sources of food for wildlife. In this section you will learn about the biology, ecology and life cycle of mushrooms and also will see some examples of wild edible mushrooms present in Europe forests. 2. Biology of mushrooms Mushrooms belong to the kingdom of Fungi, a group very distinct from plants, animals and bacteria. Fungi lack the most important feature of plants: the ability to use energy from the sun directly through chlorophyll. Thus, fungi depend on other organisms for food, absorbing nutrients from the organic material in which they live. The living body of the fungus is mycelium made out of a tiny web of threads (or filaments) called hyphae. Under specific conditions, sexually compatible hyphae will fuse and start to form spores. The larger spore producing structures (bigger than about 1 mm) are called mushrooms. In nature this is the most striking part of the organism, but in fact it is just the fruiting body and the major part of the living organism is found under the ground or inside the wood. 3. Mushrooms ecology Fungi depend on other organisms for their food. The mode of living has nothing to do with edibility. Mushrooms can have three living forms: saprophytes: degrading already dead material (Figure 1a) parasites: living at the expense of other organisms (Figure 1b)

9 symbionts: living together with other organisms (especially trees) in a close, mutually beneficial relationship (Figure 1c) (a) (b) (c) Fig.1. (a) Trametes versicolor (saprophyte), (b) Armilaria melea (parasite) and (c) Amanita pantherina (symbiont). 4. Life cycle of fungi Fungi multiply by producing millions and millions of spores. When a spore settles in a suitable environment, it can germinate and branch to form a mycelium. When two sexually compatible mycelia meet, they may fuse to form a so-called secondary mycelium, which is capable of forming fruiting bodies (Figure 2). Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies. Fig.2. Life cycle of mushrooms in nature (Peter Oei et al., 2005) 5. Collecting wild mushrooms Some example of edible wild mushrooms in Europe Some rules should be followed when picking wild mushrooms. don t pick chanterelles, hedgehog mushrooms, winter chanterelles and other small mushrooms that have a cap diameter less than 2 cm. Similarly, ensure boletes, russulas,

10 horse mushrooms, parasols and other larger mushrooms have caps larger than 4 cm diameter. These sizes are legal requirements for selling mushrooms when picking a patch of fungi, try to leave the smallest 50%, regardless of size, to ensure its survival where mushrooms are growing in pairs (commonly chanterelles), only pick one. collect mushrooms into a basket or porous cloth bag that will allow spores to disperse as you move not a plastic bag. try to identify mushrooms without picking them dispose of mushroom trimmings and waste in a similar habitat to the one you picked it in When collecting mushrooms, some rules should be considered to avoid poisoning events. Avoid mushrooms with white gills or ring on the stem and a bulbous or sack like base called a volva. You may be missing out on some good edible fungi but it means you will be avoiding the deadly members of the Amanita family. Also avoid mushrooms with red on the cap or stem. Finally don't consume any mushrooms unless you are 100% sure of what they are Cantharellus cibarius Identification: Cap yellow to orange, funnel-shape, gills shallow, yellow, blunt, and run down the yellow stalk (Figure 3) Season of fruiting: summer-fall. Ecosystem function: Mycorrhizal with pine and upland hardwoods. The Cantharellus mushrooms are known worldwide as chantherelles and are some of the very best edible mushrooms. Chantherelles are always found growing from soil. Fig.3. Cantharellus cibarius

11 5.2. Laetiporus sulphurous Identification: Multiple clusters of yellow-orange shelves growing on wood, soft, fleshy when young, turning hard when mature (Figure 4). Season of fruiting: summer-fall. Ecosystem function: Causes a brown cubical rot of living and dead hardwood and conifer trees. Edible when young. This fungus, also called chicken of the woods, is very common on red oaks. Fig.4. Laetiporus sulphurous 5.3. Hydnum repandum Identification: Cap buff -tan-dull orange with white-yellow teeth on the underside (Figure 5). Season of fruiting: summer-fall. Ecosystem function: Litter decay hardwood and conifer stands. Spores are produced on the outside surface of the downward pointing teeth. Fig.5. Hydnum repandum 5.4. Lactarius deliciosus Identification: Cap pink-orange to pale apricot, often with concentric zones of colour. Tendency to turn greenish when handled or in age, and orange to reddish orange milk (Figure 6). Season of fruiting: autumn to winter. Ecosystem function: Mycorrhizal with pine.

12 Common in pine plantations. A very distinctive Lactarius because of its colour, orange exudate (which gives it its common name) and blue-green bruising. Fig.6. Lactarius deliciosus 5.5. Amanita caesarea Identification: Color is orange to a brilliant red-orange. While the surface is mostly smooth, the edges are lightly striated (Figure 7). Season of fruiting: Early summer through mid-fall. Ecosystem function: Mycorrhizal with pine and oak. This mushroom grows directly on the ground, not on trees or dead wood. Fig.7. Amanita caesarea 5.6. Boletus reticulatus Identification: Whitish to pale brown, becoming brownish to pale brown or yellow-brown in age. The margin inrolled when young, splitting with age (Figure 8). Season of fruiting: Late May to August Ecosystem function: Apparently mycorrhizal with oaks, especially white oak; growing scattered or gregariously (occasionally clustered). Boletus reticulatus grows on soil beneath mainly broadleaf trees, notably beech and oaks.

13 Fig.8. Boletus reticulatus 5.7. Laccaria amethystina Identification: Margin even or inrolled, not lined, or slightly lined at maturity; finely hairy-scaly, or nearly bald; bright grayish purple, fading to buff (Figure 9). Season of fruiting: Late spring and summer. Ecosystem function: Mycorrhizal with hardwoods (especially partial to oaks and beech); growing alone, scattered, or gregariously. Laccaria amethystina is in most respects very similar to Laccaria laccata (also edible). Fig.8. Laccaria amethystine 5.8. Lepista nuda Identification: Cap with 4-20 cm; convex with an inrolled margin when young, becoming broadly convex to nearly flat or with an uplifted, wavy margin in age (Figure 10). Season of fruiting: Late summer and fall (and over winter in warm climates). Ecosystem function: Saprophyte; growing alone, scattered, gregariously, or in clusters in organic debris in woods or in urban settings. Is fairly easily recognized when fresh and young, but older specimens can be confused with many potential look-alikes.

14 Fig.10. Lepista nuda 6. Summary Certain poisonous and edible mushrooms are easily confused. Before eating any wild mushroom, be absolutely sure of its identity and edibility. If there is any doubt whatsoever as to the identity and edibility of a mushroom, do not eat it. When eating wild mushrooms or new cultivated mushrooms, always place some uncooked ones aside in the refrigerator in case there has been a mistake or there is an allergic reaction to the mushroom.

15 Module 5 Other organic productions Section 3.2 Mushrooms production technology 1. Introduction Cultivated mushrooms are becoming popular all over the world. There are over 200 genera of macrofungi which contain species that can be used. Twelve species are commonly grown for food and/or medicinal purposes. The most common cultivated mushrooms are: Common mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), Shiitake (Lentinula edodes), Oyster (Pleurotus ostreatus), Straw (Volvariella sp.), Lion s Head or Pom Pom (Hericium erinaceus), Ear (Auricularia auricula-judae), Reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), Maitake (Grifola frondosa), Winter (Flammulina velutipes), White jelly (Tremella fuciformis), Nameko (Pholiota sp.) and Shaggy Mane mushrooms (Coprinus comatus). Commercial markets are dominated by Agaricus bisporus, Lentinula edodes and Pleurotus spp, which represent three quarters of mushrooms cultivated globally. In this section you will learn about the essential operations for mushrooms cultivation: selection of mushroom spores or strains maintenance of mycelial cultures development of spawn or inoculum preparation of growing medium inoculation and colonization and crop management for optimum production 2. Mushroom production The basic concept in mushroom cultivation is to start with some mushroom spores, which grow into a mycelium and expand into a mass sufficient in volume and stored up energy to support the final phase of the mushroom reproductive cycle, which is the formation of fruiting bodies (Figure 1) or mushrooms.

16 (a) Fig.1. (a) Bag system for Agaricus bisporus (Nair NG) and (b) fruiting bodies (Boletus reticulatus) (b) Mushrooms can be cultivated through a variety of methods. Some methods are extremely simple and demand little or no technical expertise. On the other hand, cultivations which require sterile handling technology are much more technically demanding. These methods are: log culture, spawning sterilised bags and spawning pasteurized substrate Selection of mushroom spores or strains and maintenance The first stage in any mushroom cultivation process is to obtain a pure mycelial culture of the specific mushroom strain. Each type of mushroom culture generally requires unique substrate formulation for propagation and maintenance of purity. Most growers will obtain spawn cultures from reputable production centres, ensuring purity, vigour and supply when required Spawn production - development of spawn or inoculum In mushroom growing technology, the inoculum is known as the spawn (Figure 2). Spawn is a medium that is impregnated with mycelium made from a pure culture of the chosen mushroom strain. For large scale production of mushrooms, large quantities of the specific inoculum are required (often 1-5% of the final mushroom production medium). Spawn production is a fermentation process in which the mushroom mycelium will be increased by growing through a solid organic matrix under controlled environmental conditions. Fig.2. (a) Colonisation of grain at 3 and 8 days after inoculation (Stamets and Chilton, 1983) and (b) Pleurotus rye spawn (Mushroom Spawn Lab)

17 Most spawn is now prepared and shipped in autoclavable polypropylene bags with breathing patches. For natural log production of mushrooms, the inoculum or spawn can also be in the form of wood chips coated with the specific mushroom strain Preparation of growing medium, inoculation and colonization Log Culture Several important mushroom species can grow as saprophytes on dead wood. The advantage of log culture is that it is a simple and natural method, but with the disadvantages that the process is labour-intensive and slow in comparison to growing mushrooms in sterilised sawdust mixtures. Log cultivation is not technically demanding and is relatively easy to carry out. The logs are cut in winter or early spring from fast growing deciduous species, e.g. alder, poplar, oak, cottonwood which have thick outer bark. Logs can be inoculated with spores or with mycelial plugs inserted into drilled holes and then stacked in piles with mild to heavy soaking (Figure 3). Fig.3. Inoculated logs with mycelial plugs Mycelial growth through the log will occur over several months and the logs are then placed in an upright position partly embedded in the soil. Mushroom production will then occur primarily in the cooler spring and autumn months. Since this is an open, non-sterile procedure, contamination with other wood rotting mushroom species can also occur (Figure 4). Increased environmental control can be achieved by having overhead protection or by growing in greenhouses. Fig.4. Log culture (Lentinula edodes)

18 Enriched sawdust culture In this innovative approach various hardwood sawdust or wood chips supplemented with nitrogen-rich additives such as rice bran (though other cereal brans work adequately) are mixed together and then compacted into special autoclavable polypropylene bags of various dimensions (Figure 5). The bags are then autoclaved to ensure complete internal sterility, allowed to cool to 20 o C and then aseptically inoculated with the desired amount of spawn. This stage demands complete sterile handling techniques and any relaxation of standards allows microbial contamination with concomitant financial losses. The inoculated bags (sometimes known as space bags or artificial logs), can then be moved to growing rooms with computer controlled environments giving accurate humidity and temperature conditions. When the mycelium has reached maturity, the log is given a cold temperature shock for 12-24h, restacked and the bag opened and within a few days the mushrooms develop. Fig.5. Polypropylene bags of various dimensions (Pleurotus sp.) Spawning pasteurized substrate The substrate should have cooled down (whether pasteurised by steam or by immersion in hot water) to 30 o C. The spawn (3% to 8% of the weight of the substrate) can be mixed in with when filling the bags. Or a layer of substrate can be topped with some spawn, layer by layer. Different types of bags can be used to hold the substrate. Never fill to more than 20 kg per bag: spontaneous fermentation would raise the temperature inside the bags to more than 30 o C. Make holes in the bags to ensure that enough oxygen can reach the substrate Crop management for production In conventional mushroom production, pesticides are often employed (especially fungicides). However, in organic production pesticides cannot be used. Thus, environmental control

19 (temperature and humidity) is highly critical together with a full understanding of potential microbiological contamination especially from other fungi Fruiting/cropping The ambient temperature has to fit the chosen mushroom strain. If the temperature in the mushroom house is too high for the chosen strain, it will be necessary to frequently vapour the house. Opening the doors and windows at night will also help keep the temperature down. The mushroom house needs ventilation openings that may also provide light. Required light (colour and intensity) depends on the strains. Some growers adhere to the rule of thumb that light should be sufficient to read a newspaper everywhere in the growing room. Good control of the humidity during cropping is very important for all types of mushroom. Keep the humidity high (80-90%) by spraying water several times per day Harvesting Due to the variability of strains and substrates it is difficult to indicate periods for fruiting. Typically, it will take about one week before new primordial are formed, but much depends on the local climate conditions and the climate control in the growing rooms. Harvesting can continue as long as the mycelium remains white and firm. In total, three or four flushes can be harvested. When the substrate becomes soft and colourless, it is time to remove it from the house. In order to avoid rapid deterioration, the fresh mushrooms should be marketed directly after harvesting. If this is not possible, the mushrooms could be dried in a simple drying unit and marketed later. 3. Summary Mushroom farming is a complex business, which requires precision. The major practical steps of mushroom cultivation are: (a) selection of the mushroom species; (b) preparation of a good quality fruiting culture; (c) development of a robust spawn; (d) preparation of selective substrate/compost; (e) care of mycelial (spawn) running; (f) management of fruiting/mushroom development; and (g) harvesting mushrooms carefully.

20 Module 5 Other organic productions Section 3.3 Organic mushroom production using agricultural by-products 1. Introduction Mushrooms are a good cash crop. They are rather easy to grow and are filled with protein, B vitamins and minerals. They even have medicinal properties. Time between spawning and harvesting can be as short as three weeks. Furthermore, after the cultivation, you can still use the substrate as a good soil conditioner. Producing organic mushrooms is somewhat different to producing organic crops and livestock, though the basic philosophy and principles are the same. Many familiar, normal mushroom production practices are employed, which are then guided and controlled by approved organic standards. In this section you will learn about substrates especially agricultural by-products that can be used in organic production. 2. Mushroom production In mushroom production, pre-grown mycelium (free of any contaminants) of the mushroom is inoculated on a sterile substrate (Figure 1). This material is referred as spawn. Fig.1. Life cycle from mushrooms to spawn (Peter Oei et al., 2005).

21 After colonizing the substrate, the mycelium is capable of producing fruiting bodies. The number and quality of the fruiting bodies will depend on the environment (temperature, humidity, nutrients, CO 2 concentration, light, physical shock). These factors differ from mushroom to mushroom Mushroom farms Several factors are important when selecting a place for a mushroom farm: distance to the market availability of good quality substrate material (organic material or farm waste) transportation of the product and substrate materials ready availability of clean water 2.2. Farm layout Before one can start to plan the layout, the processes to be performed at the mushroom farm will have to be listed. For example, whether or not an inoculation room is required depends on whether growers prepare their own substrate or buy inoculated substrate. The farm layout should also include: an efficient flow of substrate materials measures to prevent contamination on the farm efficient use of space The mushroom farm should provide suitable climatic conditions. It is possible to adapt existing structures such as defence tunnels, bunkers, caves, chicken houses, old milk factories or slaughterhouses. Some successful mushroom cultivation operations take place in old defence or railway tunnels. 1) Floor: on a low investment level, mushroom houses are just built on arable land. On a higher investment level, cemented floors are used. Slightly inclined cemented floors provide a smooth surface that can easily be cleaned and allow excess water to drain. 2) Doors, windows and other openings: doors and walls should close properly to prevent insects from entering the growing rooms. A double door, with a wire mesh for the second entrance, can help to keep insects out. The same rules apply for windows. The openings

22 through which air is either blown in or out of the rooms should have at least a simple filter or cloth as barrier. 3) Farm hygiene: the only preventive measure on organic mushroom production is hygiene, and to some extent disinfection. This goes for a spawn production unit, the site for substrate production, the incubation rooms and production units. The spawn laboratory should be separate from the growing site. The growing rooms ought to be separated by (plastic) walls to keep the different stages of cultivation apart. No incubation or spawn running should take place in the same room where the mushrooms are harvested. All these measures are necessary to avoid pests such as flies and other insects as well as diseases spreading from these waste dumps. The minimal requirements for a spawn production unit are: a sterilisation unit (pressure cooker, autoclave) sterile environment: inoculation box or laminar airflow cabin laboratory equipment like petri dishes, test tubes, scales, alcohol flame incubation room The raw materials include: ingredients for media preparation substrate material (grain, wooden sticks (skewers) and many others) pure culture or fresh mushroom of the desired mushroom species strain spawn containers (such as bottles or plastic bags) 5.3. Agricultural substrates used in organic mushroom production Essentially, mushroom species can be cultivated in two ways: Composted substrates: wheat and rice straw

23 corn cobs hay water hyacinth composted manure and various other agricultural by-products including coffee husks, banana leaves, etc The choice of a specific spawn substrate depends on the chosen species and the cultivation method. Table 1. Examples of composted substrates to mushrooms species. Substrate type Mushroom Species Rice straw Straw (Volvariella), Oyster (Pleurotus), Common (Agaricus) Wheat straw Oyster (Pleurotus), Common (Agaricus), Straw (Volvariella), Roundhead (Stropharia) Corncobs Oyster (Pleurotus), Lion s Head or Pom Pom (Hericium), Shiitake (Lentinus) Horse manure (fresh or composted) Common (Agaricus) Banana leaves Straw (Volvariella) Cotton straw Oyster (Pleurotus) Bean straw Oyster (Pleurotus) The mushroom compost used should be produced from fully organic materials. If this is proven to be unobtainable, 25% of the total weight of the components (excluding the casing and water) can come from non-organic sources providing the sources have been approved, including freedom from genetic modification and livestock welfare. Woody substrates: logs or stumps (Table 2 and 3) Sawdust Table 2. Use of spawn substrates Species Cultivation method Final spawn substrate Lentinula edodes Sterilised sawdust in bags Grain, sawdust Pleurotus spp. Pasteurised or sterilised Grain, sawdust or straw substrates based spawn Auricularia spp. Sterilised substrate in bags Sawdust

24 Table 3. Examples of wood type to mushrooms species. Mushrooms Hardwood Ganoderma Grifola Hericium Lentinula Pleurotus Trametes lucidum frondosa erinaceus edodes ostreatus versicolor Alnus spp. X X X Fraxinus spp. X X Populus spp. X X Fagus spp. X X X Castanea spp. X X X Ulmus spp. X X X X Eucalyptus spp. X X Acer spp. X X X X Quercus spp. X X X X X X Prunus spp. X X According EU Regulation (2092/91 and its supplements), for organic mushroom production substrates may be used if they are composed only of the following components: farmyard manure and animal excrements products of agricultural origin (e.g. straw), from organic farms peat not chemically treated wood, not treated with chemical products after felling mineral products water and soil 7. Summary The mushroom production represents an opportunity for organic farmers interested in an diversifying the farm, especially for small farmers, as it doesn t require large areas. Commercial cultivation of mushrooms requires the farmer to be familiar with fungi life cycles, mushroom production steps and materials and species that are appropriate.