Contents Preface xiii Introduction Fabrication and manufacturing technology for optical MEMS

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1 Contents Preface xiii 1 Introduction Optical MEMS and optofluidics History Processes and materials Early devices and systems Progress in optical MEMS and optofluidics MEMS tunable optics Optical MEMS for telecommunications Biology and biomedical applications Brief review of book content Conclusion 16 References 16 2 Fabrication and manufacturing technology for optical MEMS Introduction Optical properties of materials Thermo-optic effects Optical materials standard to MEMS fabrication Etching of standard MEMS materials Non-standard materials incorporated into optical MEMS IR materials UV materials III V semiconductors Birefringent materials Reflective materials Challenges in optical MEMS fabrication Diffraction Dynamic mechanical effects Multilayer stress and strain effects Surface roughness Thermomechanical challenges 53 References 55

2 viii Optical MEMS for chemical analysis and biomedicine 3 Electrothermally actuated MEMS scanning micromirrors and their applications in endoscopic optical coherence tomography imaging Introduction Optical coherence tomography and endoscopic imaging Optical coherence tomography OCT endoscopic imaging Challenges in endoscopic OCT MEMS scanning micromirrors Electrothermal bimorph actuation principle Material selection Electrothermal MEMS mirror designs MEMS-based endoscopic OCT imaging Internal organ imaging In vivo animal imaging Oral and teeth imaging Meniscus and brain tissue imaging Summary 91 References 91 4 Electrowetting-based microoptics Brief history of electrowetting Surface tension Contact angle Focal length of a liquid lens Principles of electrowetting Tunable liquid microlens utilizing electrowetting Electrowetting-based microlens on flexible curvilinear surface Arrayed electrowetting prism and switchable microlens Electrowetting-controlled liquid mirror Electrowetting-driven optical switch and aperture Electrowetting display 119 References Microcameras Introduction Microlens Hydrogel microlenses Tunable microlenses Reflective cylindrical lens Electronic eye with curved image detector Electronic eye camera with fixed focal length Electronic eye zoom camera Compound eye cameras Lobster eye camera 135

3 Contents ix TOMBO compound eye camera Compound eye zoom camera Multiple viewpoint camera Camera arrays Applications Endoscopes Laparoscopes Conclusion 154 References Biologically inspired optical surfaces for miniaturized optical systems Introduction Biological inspiration from index gradient Natural gradient index Mimicking index gradients Summary Biological inspiration from focal tunability Tunable focus found in nature Biomimicry Summary Biological inspiration from wide field of view Compound eyes found in nature Biomimicry Summary Biological inspiration from antireflection Antireflection found in nature Biomimicry Summary Biological inspiration from color Structural color Biomimicry Summary Illumination Bioluminescence found in nature Biomimicry Summary Conclusion 189 References Tuning nanophotonic cavities with nanoelectromechanical systems Introduction PhC nanocavity designs MEMS and NEMS MEMS/NEMS comb-drive actuator design 209

4 x Optical MEMS for chemical analysis and biomedicine NEMS fabrication processes NEMS and nanophotonic devices testing Tuning of PhC nanocavities with NEMS-driven dielectric probes Tuning by single-tip dielectric probes Tuning by multi-tip dielectric probes Tuning of PhC nanocavities with NEMS-driven coupled cavities Tuning with dual-cavity coupling Tuning with triple-cavity coupling Ultrafine tuning of double-coupled multi-mode cavities Tuning of PhC nanocavities with NEMS-driven nano-deformation Conclusions 244 References Quantum dot nanophotonics: micropatterned excitation, microarray imaging, and hyperspectral microscopy Introduction Principles Fabrication processes QD excitation Photoluminescence Electroluminescence Applications of QDs Micropatterned excitation Phase separation Spin coating Langmuir Blodgett method Micro-contact printing Thin film formation Particle transfer Light-emitting diodes Inorganic LEDs Organic LEDs Quantum dot light-emitting diodes Microarray imaging Immunofluorescence imaging Transmission mode imaging Hyperspectral microscopy 277 References Photothermal microfluidics Introduction Light is a special form of energy Why photothermal? Part 1: Basic principles 290

5 Contents xi How much light energy can be compressed in the temporal and spatial domains? How is light converted into heat in microfluidics? Pathway 1: Direct water absorption Pathway 2: Light-absorbing materials Pathway 3: Nonlinear optical absorption Part 2: Photothermal microfluidics and nanofluidics for cell manipulation Femtosecond laser transfection and subcellular surgery Nanosecond pulsed laser-induced cavitation bubbles for transfection Nanoparticle-assisted photothermal therapy and cell manipulation Photothermal therapy Photothermal cargo delivery Photothermal gene regulation in cells Part 3: Photothermal microfluidics for fluid control Surface tension-based photothermal microfluidics Photothermal-induced material change Photothermal-driven electrokinetics Cavitation bubble-driven ultrahigh-speed microfluidics Cavitation bubble-based fluid pumping 315 References Optical manipulation for biomedical applications Introduction Optical tweezers (OT) Multiple OT Biological applications of OT Integration with other technologies Other types of optical manipulation Near-field particle trapping Optical cell sorters Optical actuation of fluids, droplets, and bubbles Optically induced dielectrophoresis (ODEP) Optical cell surgery Optical cell poration Optical cell surgery Conclusion 351 References Polymer-based optofluidic lenses Introduction Out-of-plane optofluidic lenses 369

6 xii Optical MEMS for chemical analysis and biomedicine 11.3 In-plane optofluidic lenses Prospective and conclusion 383 Acknowledgments 384 References Nanostructured aluminum oxide-based optical biosensing and imaging Introduction General fabrication process of NAO thin film Fabrication and integration of NAO thin film micropatterns Technique 1: Lift-off-based process Technique 2: NAO thin film microlithography and etching based process Optical properties of NAO thin film Optical interference signals from NAO thin film Optical emission from NAO thin film under UV irradiance NAO-enabled optical biosensing NAO thin film based label-free biosensing Cancer protein biomarker detection Circulating tumor cell (CTC) detection Fluorescence detection and imaging Background Fluorescence enhancement by NAO surface Fluorescence enhancement on NAO micropatterns Fluorescence protein sensor based on NAO micropatterns Fluorescence DNA sensor based on NAO substrate Summary 426 References 426 Index 435