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1 Guidi with Phil Saunders, spacechannel.org

2 ng Light Long-Range nge Plasmons Aloyse Degiron, Pierre Berini and David R. Smith Long-range surface plasmons are optical modes propagating along metallic circuits at optical and near-infrared wavelengths. These modes are characterized by unique electromagnetic properties that could well reshape our vision of integrated optical circuits and other chip-scale photonic applications. OPN July/August /08/07-08/0029/6-$15.00 OSA

3 Over the past 40 years, the field of integrated optics has become an extremely rich and complex branch of optical engineering, with applications ranging from biosensing and biodiagnostics to signal processing and other communications applications. The great strength of integrated optical circuits is that all elements are conveniently built into the same compact substrate; thus, chips offer great flexibility along with an intrinsic resistance to optical misalignment and userinduced errors. Although there are various competing architectures, the building blocks of most integrated optical circuits are low-loss dielectric waveguides, in which light is confined and guided by total internal reflection. The fabrication costs and guiding performances of dielectric waveguides have been so well optimized that there is currently no competing technology available on the market. In addition, metal configurations that are so widespread in low-frequency applications are not viable in the visible and near-infrared regime due to their considerable material losses. Still, the scientific community has recently shown renewed interest in metal-based optical circuits. In particular, a growing number of research teams are devoting their efforts to developing an entirely new class of metal waveguides sustaining optical modes known as long-range surface plasmons. Despite their name, the distance traveled by long-range plasmons barely exceeds a few centimeters, so it might be at first surprising to discover that an interest exists in optical modes for propagation that suffer from relatively large attenuation rates. The true appeal of these modes lies in their remarkable electromagnetic properties. Long-range surface plasmons Surface plasmons are optical modes propagating at the interface between a metal and a dielectric (or insulating) medium. These waves cannot escape the interface because their electromagnetic field is coupled to a collective oscillation of the conduction electrons of the metal. Due to this interaction between photons and electrons, the electromagnetic fields associated with plasmons are evanescent in the direction transverse to their propagation; that is, the amplitude of their electromagnetic field is at its largest at the metal surface and decays exponentially away from both sides of the interface. This particular profi le renders plasmons very sensitive to any change of topography or material properties in the environment local to the confined electromagnetic fields. Moreover, the exponential decay ensures that most of the energy carried by these modes is concentrated around the metal surface. The unique properties of plasmons have found a broad range of applications in various areas of science. In chemistry and biology, for example, the sensitivity of surface plasmons is used to form the basis for powerful chemical and biochemical detectors that can monitor molecular binding events. Air [ Surface plasmons ] Metal (ε < 1) Surface plasmons are optical surface waves propagating along a metal-dielectric interface. Their electromagnetic field is coupled to a collective oscillation of the conduction electrons in the metal. Surface plasmons along isolated metal-dielectric interfaces are highly confined but suffer from high losses due to absorption in the metal. The long-range surface plasmon is a coupled mode of the metal film arising when its thickness is small enough to allow the surface plasmons on each metal-dielectric interface to interact. These modes are less confined and therefore less affected by absorption in the metal. This figure shows the isolines and the amplitude of the magnetic field for short-range (top) and long-range (bottom) surface plasmon modes. In optics, plasmons have attracted considerable interest because of the large local fields that occur near the metal surface; these large field strengths can dramatically enhance a variety of phenomena such as Raman scattering and light transmission through sub-wavelength apertures. In addition, the wavelength and transverse distribution of plasmons can be significantly smaller than the wavelength of light. For this reason, plasmons offer a path to overcome an important limitation associated with conventional photonic devices, whose size cannot be reduced under half a wavelength (approximately half a micron) due to the diffraction limit. However, this miniaturization comes at a considerable cost the propagation distance of sub-wavelength plasmons is typically smaller than 100 m because metals are very absorptive in the visible and near-infrared. But not all surface plasmons exhibit such large attenuation rates. In particular, thin metal fi lms and stripes embedded in symmetric (or slightly asymmetric) media support long-range plasmons that can propagate over a few millimeters in the visible and several centimeters in the near-infrared. The long-range plasmon is a coupled mode of the metal fi lm arising when its thickness is small enough to allow the surface plasmons on the metal-dielectric interfaces to interact. Vertical position Vertical position H H 30 OPN July/August 2008

4 In optics, plasmons have attracted considerable interest because of the large local fields that occur near the metal surface; these large field strengths can dramatically enhance a variety of phenomena such as Raman scattering and light transmission through sub-wavelength apertures. When the metal thickness is smaller than a few tens of nanometers (typically), the mode becomes weakly confined and a significant part of their energy propagates outside of the metallic region, thereby dramatically reducing the losses by absorption. In practice, metal stripes with a finite width are more useful than infinitely wide metal films because their modes are fully confined in the plane transverse to the propagation direction. Although metal stripes have a relatively simple geometry, their modes cannot be determined analytically. However, accurate numerical techniques commonly used in waveguide engineering can be rigorously adapted to treat metal configurations. It has been shown, for example, that the method of lines and the finite element method can accurately predict the electromagnetic field distribution of surface plasmons, as well as their dispersion and propagation distance. In general, even the simplest geometries such as straight or bent rectangular stripes exhibit a rather complicated behavior. Not only are these structures capable of supporting a wide variety of short- and long-range plasmons, but the density of modes and their corresponding properties can be dramatically modified by perturbations as minor as nanometer-scale changes in the metal thickness. Fortunately, the complexity can be reduced by careful design of the structure. As is the case for optical fibers, it is possible to produce waveguides supporting a single long-range plasmon by simply reducing the width of the stripe. In the near-infrared, this condition is typically satisfied when the metal thickness and width are smaller than 30 nm and a few microns, respectively. The resulting mode is almost purely transverse magnetic (TM) polarized, with the magnetic field predominantly aligned along the width of the stripe. From a practical standpoint, there are several advantages associated with this mode. In particular, it is the only longrange surface plasmon with no cutoff condition it can be operated over a broad range of wavelengths, meaning that it can carry huge amounts of data. In addition, this mode is compatible with mainstream waveguide technologies as it can be transitioned to single-mode optical fibers with very low coupling loss. This interoperability is made possible by the similarities in the transverse electromagnetic profile of the two types of modes, which in turn results in a very good field overlap when the fiber is end-fire coupled to the stripe. These characteristics only occur if the stripes are embedded in a homogeneous dielectric environment. For asymmetric configurations (for example, when the stripe is sandwiched between two different dielectric media), the fundamental longrange mode is altered or even destroyed. Asymmetric stripes are also actively studied for their ability to guide short-range surface plasmons with sub-diffraction confinement. Though these modes are more quickly absorbed, their strong electromagnetic confinement makes it possible to significantly increase the stripe density on a same substrate without perturbing the modes propagating along each waveguide. Moreover, asymmetric stripes surrounded by air on one side are of fundamental interest because the modes can be characterized using near-field microscopy techniques for example, by scanning the immediate vicinity of the structure with an optical probe having sub-wavelength dimensions. [ Long-range plasmon waveguides ] A simple way to guide a long-range surface plasmon is to restrict the width of the thin metal film along which it propagates. The stripe is usually designed to support one single long-range mode, having the transverse power distribution pictured on the bottom left. This mode is nearly TM polarized, with the magnetic field almost parallel to the x axis and the electric field predominantly contained in the y-z plane. Note that this longrange plasmon propagates in a symmetric environment. x z y Metal stripe OPN July/August

5 [ Experimental characterization of plasmon waveguides ] Source Source Fiber Fiber Plasmon Plasmon Fiber Detector Camera Polarizer microscope Large curvature radius Small curvature radius Most experiments on long-range plasmon waveguides are conducted with an end-fire excitation scheme that includes a near-infrared light source and an optical fiber coupled to the metal stripe. Once the plasmon has propagated along the waveguide, it is converted back into light, which can be analyzed by a variety of instruments. In particular, the light emitted at the stripe output forms a bright spot that can be imaged using a microscope and a CCD camera, as shown in this figure for two bends with two different radii of curvature. The asymmetric spot on the lower right image illustrates that, when the bend is too sharp, the mode loses energy by radiating light into the surrounding environment. Such near-field experiments provide invaluable insight into the evanescent components of the field that is, the components that shape the transverse electromagnetic distribution of the mode. Other powerful structures for guiding short-range modes include channel waveguides (which consist in narrow V-shaped grooves in a metal film) and photonic crystals patterned on a metallic surface. Fabrication and characterization of long-range plasmon waveguides The main challenge in fabricating long-range plasmon waveguides is that their length can reach several centimeters, which is orders of magnitude larger than their lateral dimensions. Because of these geometrical constraints, an effective method to fabricate these structures is UV lithography, a technique capable of producing micro-scale features over macroscopic areas. The fabrication generally involves three steps carried out in a clean room environment. First, a transparent layer (SiO 2 or polymer) is applied on a clean substrate. Then the stripes are fabricated using a combination of UV lithography and metal (typically gold) evaporation. Finally, the structures are covered by an upper cladding that provides the symmetric dielectric environment needed to sustain the long-range plasmon mode. Most samples that have been fabricated so far operate at telecommunication wavelengths (in the near-infrared). The dimensions and quality of the samples must be monitored throughout the fabrication process due to the extreme sensitivity of the plasmon; in particular, the metal thickness and edge roughness are usually quantified by inspecting the stripes with an atomic force microscope. The fabrication of these structures requires modern nano-fabrication and characterization tools; this explains in part why research on longrange plasmon waveguides did not start in earnest until the beginning of this century. To characterize the samples, researchers generally set up end-fire excitation schemes, in which the light emerging from a single-mode fiber is polarization-aligned and coupled to the plasmon mode. Probably the simplest way to prove that a plasmon has indeed propagated along a stripe is to visualize the plasmon waveguide termination along an edge of the sample using a microscope coupled to a CCD camera. Since surface plasmons are converted to light after having propagated the full length of the metal waveguide, a bright spot should be visible at the stripe output. In addition, the polarization state of the emitted light is often measured to ensure that the latter is TM-polarized, as is the mode guided by the stripe. For a more quantitative insight on long-range modes, it is necessary to fabricate samples in which one geometrical or material parameter is systematically varied. For example, the attenuation of straight waveguides can be obtained with cut-back experiments, in which the emitted light is measured as the stripe is incrementally shortened. Curved metal stripes have also been examined in detail. It has been established that long-range plasmons can effectively round bends despite the fact that a significant part of their energy is carried outside of the metal. As with dielectric waveguides, propagation around bends is not perfect because the modes lose a fraction of their energy by radiating light along the outer edge of the bend. The radiation loss depends on the mode confinement but even weakly confined long-range plasmons can remain guided for radii of curvature larger than a few millimeters. In addition, propagation around bends can be significantly improved by embedding the waveguides in a dielectric layer that improves the confinement of the modes by total internal reflection without raising too much the attenuation by absorption in the metal. The characterization of straight and bent waveguides is of fundamental importance because more complicated structures can always be broken down into these elementary blocks. To date, researchers have simulated and experimentally demonstrated all basic passive photonic elements including couplers, splitters, Bragg filters and interferometers thus illustrating that long-range plasmons are robust to occasional fabrication defects as well as to the multiple transitions that occur in an integrated circuit. Most studies report a quantitative agreement between simulated and fabricated structures. The error between simulations and experiments is typically 32 OPN July/August 2008

6 The Mach-Zehnder interferometer is of interest because the output signal intensity depends on the phase relationship between the two arms; thus, this structure is capable of detecting substances or chemical reactions that change the optical phase along one of its arms. smaller than 10 percent, which is remarkable for plasmonic systems due to the sensitivity and density of the modes. Applications Research on long-range plasmons is still at an early stage, so it is difficult to predict all the applications that they might eventually enable. However, there are at least two fields where these modes are likely to play an important role the field of sensors and that of active photonic components. Long-range plasmons are attractive for sensing applications because most of their energy propagates outside of the metal. Thus, these modes could be conveniently used to detect events occurring within their local vicinity. Moreover, given their long-range nature, plasmon waveguides acting as sensors naturally have long optical interaction lengths. However, longrange plasmons propagate in a symmetric dielectric environment, requiring the metal stripes to be typically embedded in a dielectric host, such as glass or a polymer, providing the necessary symmetry. Such a design is obviously not well suited to sensing purposes because the fields are insulated from the external environment. To circumvent this potential limitation, a new configuration consisting of a metal stripe on an ultrathin dielectric membrane has been recently introduced. The refractive index of the membrane can be different from that of the surrounding environment because, if the membrane is sufficiently thin, it only mildly perturbs the long-range mode. In fact, a consequence of the small asymmetry in this structure is to render the mode even more surface sensitive while maintaining its long-range character. Also, essentially all of the mode s electromagnetic field is accessible for sensing. Although no fully operating sensor has yet been demonstrated using this approach, relevant theoretical and experimental studies have been reported. The proposed sensor is based on a Mach-Zehnder interferometer constructed from metal stripes on a membrane, and includes means for exciting the interferometer as well as for extracting an output signal. The Mach-Zehnder interferometer is of interest because the output signal intensity depends on the phase relationship between the two arms; thus, this structure is capable of detecting substances or chemical reactions that change the optical phase along one of its arms. Note that, in addition to the intrinsic sensitivity of the mode, the great advantage of the metal stripe on a membrane is that it can be used in gaseous media as well as aqueous solutions. Long-range plasmons also have great potential within the context of active photonic components such as switches or modulators. Since the modes need a symmetric environment to propagate, it is possible to gain control over their propagation by inducing a slight refractive index mismatch along their optical path. Researchers have successfully demonstrated this approach using electro- or thermo-optic effects to change the material properties around the metal. For example, a simple yet efficient attenuator can be formed by sandwiching a metal stripe between two media that have the same refractive index at room temperature but different thermo-optic properties. [ Sensing applications ] A Mach-Zehnder interferometer divides an input into two waves and then recombines them after a certain propagation length. (Top) A schematic of such an interferometer for longrange surface plasmons implemented with thin metal stripes patterned on an ultrathin dielectric membrane. If one changes the optical path along one arm of the interferometer by flowing a substance in its vicinity, for example then the phase relationship between the two waves is modified, resulting in a change in the output intensity. (Bottom) A stitched microscope image of such a fabricated interferometer with a triple output coupler on a thin Si 3 N 4 membrane. OPN July/August

7 [ Active plasmonic devices ] Metal pads Polymer SiO 2 Substrate Au stripe T controlled region 1 mm 15 nm 15 mm Polymer SiO 2 Substrate Heated region The thermo-optic attenuator depicted here consists of a metal stripe sandwiched between a layer of SiO 2 and a polymer having different thermo-optic properties. At room temperature, the long-range plasmon can propagate because the chosen polymer is index-matched to SiO 2. When the temperature rises, the index of the polymer becomes different than that of the SiO 2. The resulting asymmetry strongly attenuates the mode, which becomes radiative. In this device, optically non-invasive thin metal wires connect the central stripe to metal pads. These pads are used to inject a current in the stripe, thus heating it along with the neighboring dielectric regions, as well as to monitor the temperature by measuring the resistance. In other words, the plasmon waveguide is also used as the heat source and a temperature sensor. By heating the structure, the refractive index of the substrate and the cladding evolve differently, resulting in a gradually asymmetric environment that is deleterious for the mode and therefore attenuates its propagation. In practice, the temperature of the device can be set by passing an electrical current in the stripe, which heats the metal by virtue of the Joule effect. Using this approach, attenuations between 10 and 20 db have been observed. The transition time between the non-perturbed (cold) and attenuated (hot) states is below 100 ms, but it takes a few milliseconds to revert to the initial state because the sample has not been optimized to dissipate the heat that has diffused in the substrate and the cladding. Interestingly, the stripe can also be used as a thermal monitor because its resistivity varies as a function of temperature. In other words, the whole attenuator is based on one single component the metal stripe, which simultaneously plays the role of an optical signal carrier, a heat controller and a temperature sensor. This device thus illustrates the great flexibility of design offered by long-range plasmon waveguides. In contrast, the same functionalities would have been much more difficult to implement using dielectric waveguides because it would have been necessary to integrate external heating and sensing elements along with the optical circuitry. Conclusion As the need of miniaturization and increased functionality in optical networks is growing, it is of paramount importance to explore new ways of guiding and manipulating light. In this regard, long-range surface plasmon waveguides offer promising complementary approaches to existing photonic circuits, while still being compatible with current technologies and bandwidth requirements. To date, all the fundamental features of long-range plasmon propagation have been elucidated, and scientists are starting to learn how to harness these modes in sensing applications and active photonic components. t [ David R. Smith (drsmith@ee.duke.edu) is director of the Center for Metamaterials and Integrated Plasmonics and professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Duke University in Durham, Member N.C., U.S.A. Aloyse Degiron is a post-doctoral fellow in Smith s research group. Pierre Berini is a professor of electrical engineering at the University of Ottawa in Canada. ] [ References and Resources ] >> G.J. Kovacs. Optical excitation of surface plasma waves in an indium film bounded by dielectric layers, Thin Solid Films 60, (1979). >> M. Fukui et al. Lifetimes of surface plasmons in thin silver films, Phys. Stat. Sol. (b) 91, K61-K64 (1979). >> D. Sarid. Long-range surface-plasma waves on very thin metal films, Phys. Rev. Lett. 47, (1981). >> P. Berini. Plasmon-polariton waves guided by thin lossy metal films of finite width: bound modes of symmetric structures, Phys. Rev. B 61, (2001). >> W.L. Barnes et al. Surface plasmon subwavelength optics, Nature 424, (2003). >> T. Nikolajsen et al. Surface plasmon polariton based modulators and switches operating at telecom wavelengths, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, (2004). >> A. Boltasseva et al. Integrated optical components utilizing long-range surface plasmon polaritons, J. Light. Technol. 23, (2005). >> R. Charbonneau et al. Passive integrated optics elements based on long-range surface plasmon polaritons, J. Light. Technol. 24, (2006). >> A. Degiron and D.R. Smith. Numerical simulations of long-range plasmons, Opt. Express 14, (2006). >> G. Gagnon et al. Thermally activated variable attenuation of long-range surface plasmon-polariton waves, Journal of Lightwave Technology 24, (2006). >> P. Berini et al. Long-range surface plasmons on ultrathin membranes, Nano Letters 7, (2007). >> P. Berini et al. Long-range surface plasmon-polariton waveguides and devices in lithium niobate, J. Appl. Phys. 101, (2007). >> A. Degiron et al. Experimental comparison between conventional and hybrid long-range surface plasmon waveguide bends, Phys. Rev. A 77, (R) (2008). >> T.W. Ebbesen et al. Surface-plasmon circuitry, Physics Today 61, (2008). 34 OPN July/August 2008

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