Comparing RNA and DNA
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1 RNA
2 The Role of RNA Genes contain coded DNA instructions that tell cells how to build proteins. 1 st step in decoding these genetic instructions = copy part of the base sequence from DNA into RNA. 2 nd step = RNA then uses the base sequence copied from DNA to direct the production of proteins.
3 Comparing RNA and DNA Each nucleotide in both DNA and RNA is made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are three important differences between RNA and DNA: 1. The sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose. 2. RNA is generally singlestranded and not doublestranded. 3. RNA contains uracil in place of thymine.
4 Comparing RNA and DNA DNA and RNA are similar to the master plans and blueprints used by builders. Master plan (DNA) - all the information needed to construct a building. Builders never bring a valuable master plan to the building site, where it might be damaged or lost. Blueprints (RNA) -Instead, they prepare inexpensive, disposable copies of the master plan Cells use DNA master plan to prepare RNA blueprints.
5 Functions of RNA RNA controls the assembly of amino acids into proteins. Each type of RNA molecule specializes in a different aspect of this job. The three main types of RNA: 1. messenger RNA 2. ribosomal RNA 3. transfer RNA.
6 Messenger RNA (mrna) Most genes contain instructions for assembling amino acids into proteins. The RNA molecules that carry copies of these instructions are known as messenger RNA (mrna) They carry information from DNA (in the nucleus) to other parts of the cell.
7 Ribosomal RNA (rrna) Proteins are assembled on ribosomes, small organelles composed of two subunits (pieces). Ribosomes are made of rrna
8 Transfer RNA (trna) When a protein is built, a transfer RNA (trna) molecule transfers each amino acid to the ribosome as it is specified by the coded messages in mrna.
9 Types of RNA Summary Messenger RNA (mrna) carries the message of the DNA out of the nucleus Ribosomal RNA (rrna) builds the protein Transfer RNA (trna) transfers the amino acids to the ribosome
10 How Does a Cell Make RNA? Transcription: sections of DNA serve as templates to produce complementary RNA molecules. 1. RNA is made in the nucleus 2. RNA moves to the cytoplasm 3. RNA used to make proteins
11 Transcription Practice Nucleus: DNA to mrna mrna leaves Nucleus and goes to cytoplasm A A T G C C T A A T G C A
12 Protein Synthesis
13 The Genetic Code DNA is read three letters at a time, so Each word is three bases long Each word goes with one amino acid. The first step in decoding genetic messages is to transcribe a nucleotide base sequence from DNA to mrna = Transcription mrna is a code for making proteins.
14 Macromolecules REVIEW All macromolecules are made by joining together smaller subunits to make a long repeating chain Monomers à Subunits that serve as building blocks of a polymer (links) Mono = one Polymers à Large molecule made up of monomers linked together (chain) Poly = many monomer + monomer + monomer + monomer + monomer + monomer à polymer
15 Proteins are Macromolecules Monomers: Amino Acids Polymer: Polypeptide or Protein
16 The Genetic Code Proteins are made by joining amino acids together into long chains, called polypeptides. There are 20 different amino acids The specific amino acids in a polypeptide, and the order in which they are joined, determine the properties of different proteins.
17 The Genetic Code RNA contains four different bases Adenine Cytosine Guanine Uracil (instead of Thymine) The bases form a language, or genetic code, with just four letters : A, C, G, and U. CODON- Each three-letter word in mrna 3 bases = 1 amino acid
18 How To Read Codons Four different bases in RNA à 64 possible three-base codons (4 4 4 = 64) Circular table shows which amino acid goes with which codon To read a codon, start at the middle of the circle and move outward. EXAMPLE: AAG à Lysine
19 How To Read Codons Most amino acids can be specified by more than one codon. For example, six different codons UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, and CUG specify leucine. Conversely, only one codon UGG specifies the amino acid tryptophan.
20 Codon Practice UAU: UCC: CGA: GCA: UGA:
21 Start and Stop Codons The genetic code has punctuation marks. The methionine codon AUG = Start All proteins start with AUG Following the start codon, mrna is read, three bases at a time, until it reaches one of three different stop codons, which end translation. There are 3 STOP Codons UAA, UAG, UGA
22 Translation What do ribosomes do? cookbook analogy Ribosomes (rrna) and trna work to together to read the mrna codons to build proteins Translation: mrna à Protein The forming of a protein requires the folding of one or more polypeptide chains Folded Protein
23 Steps in Translation mrna is transcribed in the nucleus and then enters the cytoplasm for translation 1. rrna (the ribosome) attaches to a mrna molecule in the cytoplasm 2. rrna reads each codon of mrna 3. rrna directs the first trna to bring the correct amino acid into the ribosome 4. rrna attaches that amino acid to the polypeptide chain 5. rrna has a second binding site for the second trna to slide into place
24 Steps in Translation 6. rrna bonds the 2 amino acids 7. The trna lets go of the animo acid 8. The trna then exits the ribosome 9. rrnamoves to the next codon
25 Steps in Translation 10. rrna reaches a stop codon 11. rrna lets go of the mrna and the polypeptide 12. translation is complete
26 Translation in Action
27 Anticodons Each trna molecule: Carries one amino acid has three unpaired bases, called the anticodon which is complementary to one mrna codon EXAMPLE: trna for leucine has the anticodon GAU GAU base pairs with CUA which codes for leucine
28 Central Dogma of Biology Central Dogma = a big deal This is how everything in our body happens DNA à RNA à Protein DNA (transcription) RNA (Translation) Protein
29 RNA Summary Proteins are microscopic tools, each specifically designed to build or operate a component of a living cell. Gene expression is the way in which DNA, RNA, and proteins are involved in putting genetic information into action in living cells. DNA à RNA à Protein DNA carries information for specifying the traits of an organism. The cell uses the sequence of bases in DNA as a template for making mrna. The codons of mrna specify the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Proteins, in turn, play a key role in producing an organism s traits.
30 Let s Watch! Real Time Visualization Translation
31 Gene regulation and Expression
32 Gene Regulation Cells do not need to transcribe all of their genes at the same time Saves time and resources Why make a protein that you don t need? Turn genes on or off. This is gene regulation If a gene is Turned Off transcription and translation is NOT happening Turned On = Transcription and translation happen
33 Cell Specialization Many eukaryotes are multicellular Different cells have very different job but yet all have the same DNA. Only a fraction of the genes in a cell are expressed at any given time. Cell specialization requires genetic specialization The differences between a nerve cell and a skin cell are based on which genes are expressed in the particular cell.
34 Mutations
35 Mutations Mutations à changes in DNA that affect genetic information Two types of Mutations: 1) Gene mutations produce changes in a single gene 2) Chromosomal mutations produce changes in whole chromosomes
36 Gene Mutations Point mutations changes in one or a few nucleotides Substitution THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT THE FAT HAT ATE THE RAT Some point mutations are caused by errors during DNA replication when DNA inserts an incorrect base (once in every 10 million bases)
37 Missense Mutation Point mutation leads to an incorrect amino acid which may produce a protein that doesn t work
38 Nonsense Mutation Point mutation leads to a stop codon happening early.
39 Silent Mutation Remember: there is more than one codon for each amino acid. So. Some mutations have NO EFFECT on the protein They are SILENT
40 Gene Mutations Frameshift Mutations à shifts the reading frame of the genetic message Can change every amino acid that follows the point of the mutation Can alter a protein so much that it is unable to perform its normal functions Insertion THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT THE FAT HCA TAT ETH ERA T Deletion THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT TEF ATC ATA TET GER AT
41 Chromosomal Mutations Changes in the number or structure of chromosomes Original Chromosome ABC * DEF Deletion AC * DEF Duplication ABBC * DEF Inversion AED * CBF Translocation ABC * JKL GHI * DEF
42
43 Significance of Mutations ~ vary widely ~ Most are neutral Eye color Some are harmful Sickle Cell Anemia Some are beneficial Better camouflage for an animal
44 What Causes Mutations? Mutations can be inherited (genetics). Parent to child Mutations can be acquired. Environmental damage (mutagen) Mistakes when DNA is copied
45 Acquired Mutations: Environmental Damage Mutagens - chemical or physical agents in the environment Two Types of Mutagens: Chemical mutagens - pesticides, natural plant alkaloids, tobacco smoke, and environmental pollutants Physical mutagens electromagnetic radiation, such as X-rays and ultraviolet light
46 How do they cause mutations? Mutagens interact with DNA, causing changes to occur Can interfere with base pairing Errors in DNA replication Can weaken DNA strand Breaks, inversion, chromosomal mutations Sometimes cells can repair damage When they can t, a mutation occurs
47 Effects of Mutations EXAMPLE: Sickle cell disease is caused by a point mutation in one of the polypeptides found in hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen in our blood.
48
49 Connection to Cancer DNA mutations happen. Usually our body takes care of the cell Sometimes it doesn t If the mutation disrupts the cell s ability to control cell growth it can lead to cancer. Cancer = uncontrolled cell growth
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