The structure, type and functions of a cell are all determined by chromosomes:

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1 DNA Basics

2 The structure, type and functions of a cell are all determined by chromosomes: They are found in the nucleus of a cell. These chromosomes are composed of DNA, the acronym for deoxyribonucleic acid.

3 This DNA determines all the characteristics of an organism, and contains all the genetic material that makes us who we are. This information is passed on from generation to generation within a species, and is utilized by the offspring throughout their lifetime.

4 Structure of DNA and Nucleotides DNA is arranged into a double helix structure where the two backbones of the DNA are intertwined with one another. Technically, the molecule is actually two chains of smaller monomers (subunits). The two chains are composed on repeating sub-units called Nucleotides. The two chains are bonded together in the middle. Forming a ladder shape that then twists into the double helix.

5 This is the structure of a nucleotide, the building blocks of DNA: Each nucleotide is composed of: Deoxyribose Sugar, Phosphate Group, Nitrogen Base (A, T, C, G). There are four different types of nucleotides possible in a DNA sequence: adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine. There are billions of these nucleotides in our genome, and with all the possible sequences; this is what makes us unique.

6 Nucleotides Four different Nitrogen Bases. Placed into 2 categories: Purines (Two Ringed): Adenine Guanine Pyramidines (One Ringed): Thymine Cytosine

7

8 Nucleotides are situated in adjacent pairs in the double helix. The following rules apply in regards to what nucleotides pair with one another: Thymine and adenine will only pair with one another. Guanine and cytosine will only pair with one another.

9 Deoxyribose Structure: Made of a ring of 5 Carbons and 1 Oxygen. Carbons are numbered in a clockwise pattern. The 5 (five prime) carbon is bonded to the phosphate. The 3 carbon will bond to the phosphate on the next nucleotide down in the chain.

10 Phosphate Group The phosphate attached to the 5 Carbon on the deoxyribose possesses a negative 2 charge. This gives DNA as a whole a negative charge that will be important to the process of DNA fingerprinting.

11 DNA nucleotides are linked together by covalent bonds to form a single strand. Two nucleotides can be linked together by a covalent bond between the Deoxyribose of one molecule and the Phosphate of the next molecule. More nucleotides are added in the same manner until they form a chain of molecules.

12 DNA consists of two nucleotide chains that are arranged into a ladder-like structure called a Double Helix.

13 The 3 Carbon of one Deoxyribose and the Phosphate group of another nucleotide are bonded together (in large numbers) to form a chain.

14 Complementary bases bond together on opposite chains of nucleotides to form the double helix.

15 Complementary bases bond together on opposite chains of nucleotides to form the double helix.

16 Complementary bases bond together on opposite chains of nucleotides to form the double helix.

17 Because of this complementary base pairing, the order of the bases in one strand determines the order of the bases in the other strand.

18 Because the bases must bond together in the middle of the molecule, one backbone must be upside down. One backbone runs 5 to 3, and the other runs 3 to 5. This is called anti-parallel.

19 DNA is structured in a double helix fashion, as shown. This continuous string of nucleotide bases and the sequence they are in, determine an organisms' structural, physical and anatomical features. DNA double helix is formed using complementary base pairing & hydrogen bonds. Two strands of these nucleotide chains are bonded together into a single molecule. Hydrogen bonds link these two strands together, forming between the bases of each pair of nucleotides.

20 Structure Review: Trait Number of backbones: Sugar in the backbone: Bases: Bonding: Shape: Built from smaller subunits: Bond formed in backbones: Bond formed between bases: Description of DNA 2 = Anti-parallel Deoxyribose A,T,C,G A = T, & C = G Double Helix Nucleotides (DNTP s) Phosphodiester Bond Hydrogen Bond

21 If a gene is a section of DNA that codes for a specific protein: A. Each unique gene has a unique sequence of bases. B. This sequence of bases will code for the production of a unique protein. C. Unique proteins & combination of proteins give us a unique phenotype. DNA Gene Protein Central Dogma of DNA Trait

22 DNA Replication Cells do not live forever, and in light of this, they must pass their genetic information on to new cells. That means they must be able to copy the DNA to be passed on to offspring.

23 It is essential that the replication of DNA is EXACT. In order for this to occur, the following must be available: The actual DNA to act as an exact template (original copy of the DNA). A pool of freely available nucleotides (called dntp s before they added to the chain being replicated). A supply of the relevant enzymes to stimulate reaction. A supply of energy for these reactions.

24 The energy is provided by the dntps. The nucleotides and the energy all in one: dntp.

25 The Enzymes: This whole process is controlled by a series of enzymes. Each one has a specific job. Enzyme: Helicase RNA Primase DNA Polymerase III RNAse H DNA Polymerase I DNA Ligase Assorted Nucleases Function: Unwinds and unzips the two backbones. Builds Primers (of RNA) to start replication. Builds the DNA by adding 1 dntp at a time into the new backbone. Removes the RNA primers once replication has started. Replaces RNA primers that were removed with DNA nucleotides. Repairs the backbones that were not sealed when primers were removed. Scan the DNA and fix mistakes.

26 Helicase and RNA Primase: When replicating, Helicase uncoils the double helical structure so that the bases on each backbone of the DNA can be exposed. The area where the DNA is being separated is called the replication fork. Once the nucleotides are exposed, RNA Primase will create a short, complimentary piece of RNA at the beginning or the area being replicated.

27 DNA Replication Rules: DNA Polymerase Rule #1: New backbones can only be build in the 5 to 3 direction.

28 DNA Polymerase Rule #2: The enzyme must have something to build onto in order to build a new backbone. It cannot start from scratch. Once primers have been added to the strand, DNA Polmerase III will attach to the primer and begin bonding new nucleotides into the chain.

29 dntps carry 3 phosphates. Two of these will be broken off as the nucleotide is added to the new DNA backbone. The breaking of the bonds that hook these phosphates to the nucleotide releases the energy needed to build the new backbone.

30 Since the replication fork moves through the DNA like a wave, one backbone can replicate by following behind the fork, the other must wait for enough of the template DNA to be revealed to build a primer. The leading strand is assembled in one long piece, The lagging strand is assembled in fragments that will need to be joined together later.

31 Replication proceeds in both directions on the DNA strand, there would be 2 replication forks that form and spread apart.

32 The small fragments formed on the lagging strand are called Okazaki Fragments.

33 Once the new DNA is replicated, the RNA Primers must be removed. This is accomplished by an enzyme called RNAse H. DNA Polymerase I will replace the removed RNA primers with DNA nucleotides.

34 The backbones between the individual Okazaki Fragments are not connected. This needs to be fixed before the DNA will be complete. This is accomplished by an enzyme called Ligase.

35 When all nucleotides are paired up with their new partners, they re-coil into the double helix. As there are two strands of DNA involved in replication, the first double helix produces 2 copies of itself via each strand.

36 It is said that the replicated DNA is semi-conservative, because it possesses 50% of the original genetic material from its parent. These 2 new copies have the exact DNA that was in the previous one. This template technique allows genetic information to be passed from cell to cell and from parents to offspring.

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