Units 4: How Does Life Change and Respond to Challenges Over Time?

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1 Units 4: How Does Life Change and Respond to Challenges Over Time? Area of Study 1: How Are Species Related? Area of Study 2: How Do Humans Impact on Biological Processes? Area of Study 3: Practical Investigation Conducting Controlled Experiments Types of Errors Accuracy, Precision and Validity Presentation of Data Background Genetics Genes, Alleles and Genotypes Environmental Influences and Phenotype Genetic Engineering Tools and Techniques Isolating Cells Obtaining the Cells DNA Restriction Enzymes Ligases Plasmids Recombinant DNA and Gene Cloning Transformation of Bacteria Identifying Recombinant Cells Reverse Transcriptase and Copy DNA Methods of Gene Transfer Making DNA Visible for Gel Electrophoresis Gel Electrophoresis Southern Blotting Fragments Used in Gel Electrophoresis RFLPs Intact Alleles (e.g. cystic fibrosis) Minisatellites in DNA Fingerprinting Microsatellites (STRs) in DNA Profiling Mitochondrial DNA (Hypervariable region) Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Features Distinguishing DNA Profiling from DNA Fingerprinting DNA Sequencing

2 Changes in Allele Frequencies in Populations Monogenic Traits Polygenic Traits Continuous and Discrete Variation Gene Pool Allele Frequencies Mutations Point Mutations Substitutions Frameshift Mutations (Insertions and Deletions) Block Mutations Translocations Inversions Duplications Deletions Chromosomal Abnormalities Non-Disjunction of Chromosomes Aneuploidy and Polyploidy Variation, Natural Selection and Evolution Species Types of Variation Causes of Genetic Variation Sexual Reproduction Mutation Gene Flow Genetic Drift Environmental Selection Pressures Heterozygote Advantage Adaptation and Natural Selection Development of Evolutionary Theory Isolating Mechanisms Involved in Natural Selection Prezygotic Isolating Mechanisms Postzygotic Isolating Mechanisms Forms of Natural Selection Allopatric Speciation Selective Breeding Loss of Genetic Diversity Due to Selective Breeding Increase in Genetic Abnormalities Due to Selective Breeding Summary of Causes of Genetic Change in a Population Biodiversity in Fragmented Populations Extinction Earth s Geological History Significant Changes in Biodiversity Over Time Mass Extinction Events Examination Questions Book 1

3 Evolution Evidence for Evolution 1. Fossils Fossilisation Dating Fossils Index Fossils Absolute Dating Transitional Fossils Living Fossils Continental Drift 2. Distribution of Present Day Organisms 3. Living Organisms in Process of Change 4. Comparative Anatomy Homologous Structures Analogous Structures Vestigial Structures 5. Comparative Embryology 6. Molecular Homology The Molecular Clock Mitochondrial Eve DNA Hybridisation DNA Sequencing Possible Modes of Evolution Divergent Evolution Adaptive Radiation Convergent Evolution *Parallel Evolution Evolution: Gradual or Punctuated Equilibrium? Phylogenetic Trees and Cladograms Master Regulatory Genes Evolution Through Changes in Master Regulatory Genes

4 Hominin Evolution Geological Time Scale in Relation to Humans Chordate Evolution Classification of Mammals Human Evolution Primate Features Living Primate Groups Hominoids, Hominids and Hominins Primate Evolution (Phylogenetic Tree) Humans Comparative Features of Humans and Other Apes Comparative Features of Humans and Gorillas Transitional Hominin Skulls Fossil Primates Hominins Hominin Fossils Sahelanthropus tchadensis Ororrin Ardipithecus Australopithecus Homo habilis Homo rudolfensis Homo ergaster/erectus Homo floresiensis Homo naledi Homo heidelbergensis Homo neanderthalensis Homo sapiens Proposed Hominin Phylogenetic Trees Modern Human Origins Out of Africa or Regional Continuity? Hominin Evolution Theories Upended in Asia Hominin Summary Cultural Evolution Technological Evolution Human Intervention in Evolutionary Processes Uses of Genetic Technology and Associated Issues Gene Cloning Transformation and Transfection Potential and Real Uses of Transgenic Organisms Other GM Issue Case Studies GMO or TGO? CrispR Cas9 and Gene Editing Genetic Screening Gene Therapy

5 Challenges in Treating New Infectious Diseases Emergence of New Infectious Disease Misuse of Antimicrobial Drugs Strategies to deal with the Emergence of new Diseases Chemical Agents Against Pathogens Viral Defence Epidemics and Pandemics Rational Drug Design EXAMINATION QUESTIONS Techniques for Improving Examination Performance