Genetics Effective Use of New and Existing Methods
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1 Genetics Effective Use of New and Existing Methods
2 Making Genetic Improvement Phenotype = Genetics + Environment = + To make genetic improvement, we want to know the Genetic value or Breeding value for every animal, so we can select the animals with the highest genetic value to be parents
3 Selection Genetic prediction is used to determine the probability that an animal will have desirable traits that it will pass to its offspring This can be done through observations of offspring or through DNA testing Main DNA testing companies Pfizer (Zoetis) GeneSeek/Merial (Igenity)
4 Selection vs Mating Selection involves choosing which animals will be parents Mating involves selecting mating pairs
5 Selection by Observation How do we evaluate animals with traits controlled by one or few genes that are: Autosomal recessive Autosomal dominant
6 How do we select animals with traits controlled by many genes or are additive?
7 How do we evaluate animals for additive traits? Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (BLUP) or Bayesian equations are used to produce breeding values (BV) or estimated progeny differences (EPD) Genomic Enhanced predictions are used to produce molecular breeding values (MBV) or molecular estimated progeny differences (MEPD) sometimes also called genomic enhanced EPD (GE-EPD or GEPD)
8 How is GEBV calculated? Reference population is genotyped and phenotyped Effects of individual SNPs are calculated Effects of loci that contribute to genetic variation are captured Effects are of the SNPs or haplotypes are summed across the whole genome to predict the GEBV
9 Using (G)EPD s or (M)Breeding Values EPD s are relative not absolute values Breeding a bull to your cows with a +30 EPD for weaning weight will not result in calves weighing 30 lbs heavier EPD s only have meaning when compared to EPD s of other animals EPD s should only be compared when they are from the same sire summary
10 EPD Example Angus Weaning Weight Sire EPD ACC ALC Big Eye Rito 112 of Difference 13 ALC Big Eye Rito Interpretation: If Rito and Big Eye are randomly bred to cows of equal genetic merit for Weaning Weight, you would expect the average progeny from Rito to be about 13 lbs. heavier at weaning.
11 Using DNA to Make Selection Decisions Marker assisted selection Using a few DNA markers to select for one or more traits Genomic selection Using thousands of DNA markers to provide a DNA profile to select for multiple traits
12 Markers What are DNA markers? DNA region that is variant between animals Allele may be associated or predictive of a phenotype The variation in the DNA may be detected in different ways SNP
13 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) A SNP is when one nucleotide is substituted for another. Animal 1: tgcatcgacttacggatcgatcatactgatccg Animal 2:.c... Animal 3: t Animal 4:.a. Animal 5: g.. Animal 6:....
14 Application of Marker-Assisted Selection Utilizing genes and markers that are associated with animal traits Provides an opportunity to enhance response to selection, particularly in: Traits with low heritability Phenotypes that are difficult to measure (behavior), expensive to obtain (disease resistance), or are late onset (carcass)
15 BIF accuracy How much will a DNA test improve Accuracy? Own record Own + parents records DNA information only (assuming test explains 25% genetic variation in trait) Own + parent records + DNA information Trait Heritability Van Eenennaam et al., 2011 DNA testing is most useful for traits without records or traits with low heritabilities
16 Marker Assisted Selection Types of markers Causative Nucleotide difference being measured is responsible for the phenotype May be due to a single or many genes Linked Nucleotide difference being measured is not responsible for the phenotype but is predictive of the phenotype May be due to a single or many genes Mostly the case in genomic selection
17 Accuracy of Marker Assisted Selection Depends on: Causative mutation Closeness of marker (if not causative mutation) Number of genes involved in trait (polygenic) If gene has a major effect on the trait If genes interact to cause the trait (epistasis) Environmental effects Mode of inheritance
18 Linkage Mapping For Markers that Aren t the Causative Mutation Based on linkage disequilibrium Nonrandom distribution of alleles of linked markers into the gametes.
19 Linkage Mapping A B C a b c Mendel s law would predict that there was no preference for A and B or B and C to be in a gamete over A and b or B and c Linkage When alleles of different genes are not randomly inherited (AB or BC are more common than Ab or Bc)
20 A B C a b c Linked Markers When markers are in linkage disequilibrium, their alleles DO sort with each other more often The closer they are the more often the alleles sort together Measured in % recombination or centimorgans
21 Linkage Mapping If there is 10 centimorgans (cm) between two genes (A & B), then 90% of the time those two alleles will be inherited together If they are 50 cm or greater, the alleles are inherited independently A B C a b c
22 A B Parent a b At 10 cm, A & B stay together as in the parents, 90% of the time Gametes 90% 10% A B a b a B A b 45% 45% Non-recombinants 5% 5% Recombinants
23 If unlinked (>50 cm) A & B stay together (as in the parents) 50% of the time A B a b 50% 50% Gametes 25% 25% 25% 25% A B a b a B A b Non-recombinants Recombinants
24 A B C a b c Linkage Mapping Linkage disequilibrium can be used in marker assisted selection as a predictor of the causative mutation Use the marker to select animals even though you don t know the status of the causative mutation Causative mutation
25 How do bigger panels (50K SNPs to 778K SNPs) affect Accuracy? Van Eenennaam et al., 2011
26 Using Bigger Panels Over Multiple Breeds May Help Identify the Causal Mutation Van Eenennaam et al., 2011
27 Using DNA for Selection If the causal mutation for the trait is tested, then selection is 100% accurate This is the case for health traits like arthrogryposis multiplex
28 Marker assisted selection and genomic selection may aid in: Increasing accuracy Identifying causal mutation Increasing genetic rate of change Ability to select for difficult traits as described previously Improve profitability
29 Changes in Accuracy due to Inclusion of Genomic Data in National Genetic Evaluation in the US (Weigel et al 2009) Trait Holstein Jersey Brown Swiss Net merit +24% +8% +9% Milk Yield +26% +6% +17% Fat Yield +32% +11% +10% Protein Yield +24% +2% `+14% Fat Percentage +50% +36% +8% Protein Percentage +38% +29% +10% Productive Life +32% +7% +12% Somatic Cell Score Daughter Pregnancy Rate +23% +3% +17% +28% +7% +18%
30 Increasing Rate of Genetic Gain Potentially lead to a doubling of the rate of genetic gain through selection and breeding from bulls at 2 years of age rather than 5 years by reducing generation interval Even larger gains could be made by genotyping potential dams of young bulls and selecting them on GEBV (Schaeffer, 2006) or increasing selection intensity Opportunity to reduce inbreeding
31 Marker assisted and Genomic Selection Challenges Because linkage disequilibrium decays over generations (through recombination at meiosis), SNP effects must be periodically re-estimated By using multiple breeds in the reference population this can be minimized because the SNP must be very close (in high LD) to be associated with the trait
32 Genomic Selection Including individuals from all target breeds in the reference population improves the accuracy of GEBV However it doesn t account for the possibility that: Genes have different effects in different breeds and populations Mutations affecting production traits are not necessarily polymorphic in different breeds
33 Determining the Value of Genomics Genomic information should not require any fundamental changes to the development of breeding objectives or the use of selection indexes for the selection of the next generation of breeding stock or mating, but it will speed genetic gains
34 Conclusions Marker-assisted/genomic selection has the potential to deliver the largest increase in the rate of genetic gain seen in the past 20 years Genomic selection is already underway in the US and other countries GEBV increases reliabilities from 2 to 20% over EBV for bull calves with no records
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