CROP PRODUCTION AND BIOTECHNOLOGY: Successes and Challenges

Transcription

1 CROP PRODUCTION AND BIOTECHNOLOGY: Successes and Challenges Prof. T. T. Isoun Honourable Minister, Federal Ministry of Science and Technology, Federal Secretariat, P. M. B 331 Abuja, Nigeria A paper presented at the Agricultural Science and Technology Conference Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso on the 21 st 23 rd June 2004.

2 Background information Crop development and the use of new or improved food, fiber and plant made pharmaceutical products through biotechnology have been the subject of widespread discussion and debate. Examples of these new products include plants that make more protein or resist pests better than conventional varieties. But what is biotechnology? How does it work? Are the products safe? What are the successes and challenges of this technology? Biotechnology is an old technology that acquired modernity with the initiatory work of Gregor Mendel and subsequently that of James Watson and Francis Crick. It employs molecular biology and genetics to create improved medicines, agricultural and industrial products. Different scientists have defined the term biotechnology. These definitions reflect the particular perspective of the scientists. To some, it is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of materials using biological agents, to provide goods and services (Bull et al. 1982). To others, it refers to any technique that uses living organisms or substances from living organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals or to develop microorganisms (Persely et al. 1993). From the definitions above, it is obvious that the concept of what started as the science that deals with the application of living organisms to provide goods and services has now been modified to the more recent definition of the commercialization of the products of genetic engineering based on the use of new techniques of recombinant DNA technology, monoclonal antibody technology, new cell and tissue culture methods; hence, the now two clear groups of traditional and modern biotechnologies. The traditional biotechnologies such as biological nitrogen fixation, plant and animal breeding and microbial fermentation are based on the use of whole, living organisms. Modern biotechnology on the other hand, deals with the more recently developed technologies based on the use of recombinant DNA technology otherwise known as genetic engineering, new cell and tissue culture techniques, bioprocessing, etc. The range of biotechnologies available demonstrates the range of complexity as shown in Fig. 1. From agricultural perspective, the term biotechnology is not really very new at all. For thousands of years, people have altered the genetic makeup of plants and animals to make them more useful, e.g. growers have improved the characteristics of crops by planting seeds 2

3 selected from the biggest and best individual plants. Through this selection process, desirable characteristics have been promoted. Plants have been cultivated and animals have been domesticated, changing them from their wild beginnings to forms more useful to humans. While this process is slow, it has been quite successful. Plant breeding as a science began in the 19 th century with the work of Gregor Mendel. Not all plants of a given species are identical; some have different traits that make them more desirable for agricultural production, e.g. higher yield or greater resistance to diseases and drought. Plant breeders select plants with desirable traits after the exchange of genes by cross fertilization between two parents. They then ensure that these traits will be passed on to future generations, thus creating a new variety of plant. For most major crops, breeders collections are sufficiently large to provide an adequate source of additional genetic material. About 30 40% of productivity gains overall have relied on genetic contributions from land races (FAO, 2003). However, the difficulty of crossing different species using conventional methods has until now limited the use of this genetic resource. The conventional breeding process being the basis for the development of essentially all varieties of plants used in African agriculture today is slow, commonly requiring 10 years before a new variety is ready to be released. One of the biggest problems with this process is that a desirable characteristic being sought to improve a given species may not be found among any of the plants of that species in the world. Improvement by conventional breeding can thus reach a dead end for that desired trait. For example, if resistance to a particular insect is needed in a given crop species and no such resistance is found in any plant of that species in the world, then protection of that crop may be dependent upon insecticides which can have environmental consequences. Recombinant DNA technology has the potential to avoid some of the difficulties limiting conventional techniques and brings the possibility of introducing into cultivars traits from an unlimited gene pool. The same method could be used to increase yield, improve cold hardiness, drought resistance, or add any desirable characteristic. Such crops are commonly referred to as genetically modified (GM) crops. They are only the last development stage in a long row of breeding method enhancements, and the list is fast on the increase. Biotechnology is therefore a valuable tool in plant breeding to transfer new genes into crop varieties and introduce desired characteristics, as well as a tool for acquiring knowledge. Impact of biotechnology in crop production The top three crops that provide the world s calorific intake are wheat, rice and maize (corn). Wheat occupies 230 million hectares, rice 151 million hectares and maize 140 million hectares of all global cropland. Within these dominant crop species, there are many hundred thousands of varieties adapted to local climates, farming practices, etc. Productivity of crop plants is challenged by abiotic and biotic stresses. Abiotic stresses include water challenges drought, temperature extremes, soil infertility, acidity, alkalinity and salinity. Biotic stresses include weeds, insects and plant pathogens such as fungi, viruses and bacteria. About 35 42% of the world s food and fibre is lost from damage by pests (Pimentel, 2001) Weeds cause 10 13% loss, insects 13 16% and pathogens 12 13%. Without pesticides and other pest control measures, it has been estimated that the losses would increase to 70% with an economic loss of $400 billion USD per year (Oerke and Dehne, 1997). Weeds are a major problem in many crops, so herbicides are important tools in these crops. Herbicide tolerant crops can provide an opportunity to reduce herbicides in farming systems. In the US, an average 10% reduction in herbicide usage was seen with herbicide tolerant soybean from (Hin et al. 2001). In the EU, a standard maize herbicide program 3

4 uses approximately 1740g of active ingredient per hectare but this amount could be reduced by 30 60% if GM crop technology were adopted (Phipps and Park, 2002). Similar levels of herbicide reductions were projected for winter oil seed rape (for UK) and sugar beet (for Denmark) of GM crops with herbicide tolerance were adopted in these countries (Phipps and Park, 2002). The most sustainable practice is the shift from more toxic herbicides to glyphosate (Carpenter et al. 2002). Control of other pests is critical in a number of crops. High levels of insecticide are used to control ravaging insects in many of the world s cotton growing areas. Adoption of insect protected cotton has impacted on the level of insecticides used (James, 2002). In the US, the estimated savings in metric tons (MT) of active ingredient are 848 in 2001 (Gianessi et al. 2002), 907 MT in 1998 and 1224 MT in 1999 (Carpenter, 2001). In China, an 80% reduction in kg of formulated product used was seen due to the adoption of GM cotton (Huang et al. 2002). Introducing GM cotton in Spain would lead to a 60% reduction in volume of pesticide used and nearly a 40% reduction in active ingredient used (Phipps and Park, 2002) Specify Biotech interventions in insect control during crop production include: A) Insect control (i). Bt Crops Success Bacillus thuringensis (Bt) has been used as a bio control agent for over 20 years. A naturally occurring bacterium that produces protein crystals that is toxic to insects. Bt genes for control of an insect species have successfully been incorporated into tomatoes, tobacco, cotton and corn with good results. China showed the greatest growth with a 40% increase in its Bt cotton area from 1.5 million hectares in 2001 to 2.1 million hectares in Argentina increased its GM crop area by 14% from 11.8 in 2001 to 13.5 million hectares in South Africa increased its growings by 20% to 0.3 million hectares in US and Canada both showed a growth rate of 9%. GM cotton area in Australia decreased by half in 2002, due to the very severe drought conditions. India, Colombia and Honduras grew transgenic crops for the first time in Overall, the number of countries that grew GM crops increased from 13 to 16 in 2002 ( 9 developing countries, 5 industrial and 2 Eastern Europe countries (James, 2002). Bt corns are protected from insect pests such as corn borers. Bt maize hybrids consistently performed better than conventional maize hybrids in terms of yield, production cost, profitability and capacity to meet subsistence needs of farm families. Bt corn yield in the Phillipines the first country in Asia to approve the planting of a biotech food crop were between 41 and 60% higher than yields for conventional varieties. Bt corn is planted on about 19,830 hectares of land in the Phillipines. Different strains of Bt to control plant and animal parasitic nematodes, animal parasitic liver flukes, protozoan pathogens, and mites have also been identified. Challenge Bt proteins are highly specific to particular insect species with activities against some species of caterpillars, mosquitoes, flies and beetles. Therefore, to achieve control of several different insect species at one time, many different gene codes would have to be incorporated into the plant s genetic makeup. Research on Bt has followed two approaches, the first is the selection 4

5 and development of Bt strains that are specific for other pests or that produce higher concentrations of the compounds. The second approach is to move the gene that controls the production of the Bt proteins into crop plants. The incorporation of Bt into plants causes concern that insects will likely develop resistance to the Bt strain. The probability is especially high in current cases where the gene is expressed throughout the plant. For example, if three to four generations of an insect feed on the plant leaves or fruits throughout the growing season, the insect would be constantly exposed to the chemical. It is likely that the insect will develop resistance to the chemical. Strategy It may be possible to direct the expression of the Bt products to only the fruit tissues, meaning that only one generation of insects would be exposed. It may also become possible to incorporate the genes in such a way that they are expressed only after an insect begins to feed on the plant e.g. like Phytoalexins in the case of a fungal infection on plants. Several different Bt genes may be introduced at one time, making the development of resistance more difficult. (ii). Cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI) Research has been conducted on developing insect resistance mechanisms that can be used in different plant species. The work has centered on a chemical complex known as the cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI). Success CpTI has been shown to control a wider range of insects than the specific Bt products. In experiments on tobacco, good control of foliage feeding caterpillars was achieved. There appear to be no adverse effect on humans because CpTI comes from the cowpea and has not appeared to cause health problems when cowpeas are eaten raw or cooked. Challenge There is still the challenge to ensure production of cowpea plants with resistance to Maruca species for this important protein source for most W. Africans. A combined team of Nigerian and foreign scientists are beginning to address this problem through financial assistance of USAID. B) Weed control (i). Herbicide tolerance Herbicide tolerance is a plant s ability to endure the effects of a herbicide at the rate normally used in agricultural production. It is the ability of a plant to be unaffected at any feasible rate of herbicide application. Success Biotechnology has provided plant scientists with additional tools to determine the chemical and genetic modes of action of many of these herbicides and also the mechanisms that account for a plant s natural tolerance or resistance to herbicides. As a result scientists use this knowledge to incorporate herbicide tolerance into crop plant species. 5

6 Most crops are resistant to one or more herbicides. For example, corn is naturally resistant to atrazine, corn and soybeans are tolerant to alachlor (Lasso) and metachlor (Dual), but soybeans are not tolerant to atrazine. One of the first commercial uses of biotechnology involves the genetic improvement of crop tolerance to herbicides. Monsanto s Roundup Ready Soybean has been a very good example of success in this regard. Strategy Different methods have been successfully used to develop herbicide resistant crop varieties: a) Closely related species that has herbicide tolerance or resistance is identified and through classical breeding techniques, the trait is incorporated into the desired plant. This process has been successfully applied to canola (oilseed rape) b) Cells and tissues of many different lines of plants are used to test for tolerance to specific herbicide through tissue culture. The lines that tolerate the herbicide tested are selected. Pioneer Hi Bred has been able to develop three corn hybrids for use with Pursuit, a herbicide that typically kills conventional corn hybrids. c) Specific gene or genes within a plant or microbe for tolerance or resistance to a specific herbicide are determined. The gene or genes is(are) then inserted into the plant of interest, which is then tested for tolerance to the herbicide. Cotton tolerant to the herbicide bromoxynil (Buctril) and soybeans tolerant to glyphosphate (Rounndup) has been developed through this method. 2. Bioherbicides Biotechnology will probably influence weed control in the production of bioherbicides. Bioherbicides are fungal and bacterial products selected for their ability to cause disease in specific plants, such as weeds, without harming desirable plants. They may be applied in the same manner as conventional herbicides. At present, two bioherbicides are being marketed for the control of specific weeds that are normally hard to control: DeVine for the control of strangler vine in Florida citrus and Collego for control of northern jointvetch in rice and soybeans in Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. Similar products are being developed in Egypt for the control for several plant diseases. Success DeVine has been so successful in destroying strangler vine that the market for the product has almost been lost. The reason for its great effectiveness is that the product remains in the soil and gives 95 to 100% control for 6 to 10 years after a single application. Challenges There are other bioherbicides in various stages of research and development for such things as control of prickly sida in cotton and soybeans, control of sicklepod in cotton and soybeans, control of spurred anode in cotton, control of velvetleaf, and growth suppression of water hyacinth. Strategy Biotechnology will play a major role in helping overcome problems in manufacturing bioherbicides by the development of better fermentation processes, as well as assisting in the isolation of the genetic determinants of virulence, specificity, sporulation capacity, toxin production, and tolerance to climatic stresses. 6

7 C. Natural control compounds Natural control compounds show promise in the development of microbial and secondary plant products for use as herbicides. Efforts have been devoted to determining the actual compounds associated with allelopathy (the ability of one plant to influence the growth of others by releasing chemical compounds). Success A herbicide herbiaceae derived from chemicals found in a naturally occurring microbe is being marketed in Japan. Herbiaceae exhibits strong herbicidal activity against a wide spectrum of grass and broadleaf weeds when it is applied to foliage. Several companies have developed chemicals based on this natural herbicide chemistry. It is believed that the naturally occurring herbicides will be safer for the environment because many of them are degraded rapidly in the soil. Challenge Many of these compounds have limited selectivity and a lack of stability. Strategy A more important role for these compounds is to provide models for the development of new chemicals that could be produced as commercial herbicides. It may be possible to produce synthetic derivatives of these chemicals that are more stable under field conditions, have greater selectivity than the natural chemicals, or have other advantages over the original chemicals. D. Disease Control Majority of disease control advances has been in the control of viral diseases and this has been a subject of great interest for biotechnology. Because most viruses are spread mechanically or through insect vectors, control efforts have traditionally revolved around the control of vectors and destruction of diseased plant materials. (i) Viral control Viruses are composed of two parts the viral DNA and a coat protein that surrounds the viral DNA. Researchers have known about the phenomenon of cross protection: that infection of a plant by a mild strain of virus can often protect the plant from a serious infection by a more virulent related strain. Researchers have also discovered that it is the presence of the coat protein that restricts the infection by the virus in cross protection. By incorporating the genes for the coat protein into the plant it is possible to have the plant itself produce low levels of the coat protein. These low levels of the coat protein delay or restrict infection of the plant by the virus. An example is the incorporation of genes for the production of the coat protein of the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) into tomato plants. Untreated tomato plants infested with TMV showed up to 60% loss in yield, whereas resistant plants showed no yield decrease after inoculation with the virus. Tobacco plants have been successfully protected with a gene for resistance to potato virus Y (PVY). The level of the viral coat protein in transgenic plants (those that contain genetic material from a different organism) is lower than that found in plants infected with endemic strains of the virus. Virus protection of plants is possible with Cross protection via gene transfer offers a number of advantages. The first is that the protection is essentially permanent, similar to that afforded animals by vaccines. The need for the use of chemicals to control insect vectors is also reduced. 7

8 (ii) Fungal control Fungal resistance is an area of interest, but no great progress has been made yet. However, garden peas have been transformed for disease resistance to root rot. Biotechnology will enhance our understanding of the mechanisms that control a plant s ability to recognize and defend itself against disease causing fungi. Other Biotechnology Impacts on Crop production Although biotechnology efforts have focused primarily on pest management, there are other potential applications to crop production. The possibilities are highly varied, and new applications are developing so quickly that it is difficult to keep up with all of them. Here are a few examples of current biotechnology research on plants. a) Enhancing the Value of Plant Products Many other categories of crops different from crops with herbicide and pest tolerance, and viral resistance are currently being developed. Such crops offer additional benefits, for example improved nutrition and quality traits, drought tolerance or those designed to produce valuable pharmaceutical ingredients and are being optimized for renewable energy. A large number of GM crops with enhanced nutritional values have been developed and are expected to come into market in the nearest future. One of the best known traits that will offer fortified rice meals is known as the Golden Rice (Potrykus 2001). Two rice varieties, with anticipated consumer benefits, are those containing Pro Vitamin A or an increased level of iron in the product, which were develop by Potrykus and Beyer (Beyer et al. 2002). Golden rice can provide increased levels of crucially important micronutrients (Vit. A). It could make a valuable contribution where other means of obtaining sufficient levels of vitamin A are more difficult to provide. There are other research projects on breeding or genetically modifying crops for nutritional fortification, e.g. Cassava, potato, maize, beans, etc (Welch, 2002; King 2002). It emerges now clearly with the most recent breeding technologies at hand that biofortification will change the food security scene in the developing world. b) Plant made Pharmaceuticals (PMPs) New advances in biotechnology have made it possible to produce new therapeutics from plants that may treat and cure diseases afflicting millions of people, including cancer, cystic fibrosis, multiple sclerosis, AIDS heart disease, arthritis, diabetes, Alzheimer s disease and others. Plants can potentially offer a cost effective, sustainable and fast production method for therapeutic proteins that are essential to the development of new biopharmaceuticals. Today proteins from a wide variety of plants, ranging from rice to corn to tobacco, may be able to provide patients with access to new treatments, which would not otherwise be possible. In 2002, the total US test trials of plant made pharmaceuticals consisted of 20 permits governing 34 field sites for a total of 53 hectares. In March 2004, the California Rice Commission approved an application from Ventria Bioscience to grow rice producing pharmaceuticals at a commercial scale in ten counties in the state. The company is producing two medically important proteins (lactoferrin and lysozyme) using gene splicing in biotech rice. These proteins, which are naturally found in human body, have anti infection, anti inflammatory and iron binding properties. When used together, the proteins have the potential to treat severe diarrheal diseases. 8

9 However, regulators have created storm clouds. They have recently denied a request from Ventria Bioscience to scale up the cultivation of the same rice varieties. However, the health and environment risks of such rice varieties are negligible rice is self pollinating, so genes are not readily transferred from one plant to another, and the newly synthesized proteins are natural and completely gentle. Significance of the commercialization of biotech crops In the US, commercialized biotech crops (cotton, soybean, corn and canola) have already created $20 billion worth of value at the farm level. In California, the 2002 biotech cotton crop in the state was valued at $404 million, the second most valuable in the country. About 33% of California s total cotton crop was devoted to biotech varieties, the seventh highest in the country. In 2003, 39% California s total cotton crop was biotech; of that 9% was insect resistant, 27% was herbicide resistant, and 3% was stacked gene varieties. A 2002 study by the National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy (NCFAP) quantified the potential impact of biotechnology on 10 of California s key crops, including herbicide resistant lettuce, tomatoes, sugar beets, rice, cotton and alfalfa; insect resistant broccoli and cotton; and bacterial resistant grapes and apples. The study estimated that if these biotech crops were all approved and deployed in California, it would increase the state s food and fiber production by 29 million pounds, increase farm income by $206 million and reduce pesticide use by 66 million pounds. Biotech corn creates big income gains to Filipino families since the government gave the approval to allow the commercial planting of biotech corn in Bt corn offers unique opportunity to provide developing countries with safer and more affordable food and feed, which can make a major contribution in alleviating the hunger and malnutrition that claim 24,000 lives a day in Asia, Africa and Latin America (James 2002). Bt cotton is now planted by more than half of China s cotton farmers and is widely used in South Africa and in many other developing countries. I understand Burkina Faso has now joined, we probably will learn from their experience in this gathering. Impact of biotechnology on crop production in a developing economy Developing economies such as those of developing countries have consistently used plant cells and tissue culture techniques to manipulate crops and other environmentally important plants to achieve maximum productivity. These include: Micropropagation for clonal and mass propagation of elite crop plants to achieve rapid multiplication and availability as planting materials for increase productivity. Meristem or shoot tip cultures of selected superior lines of crops in order to produce disease free planting stocks Callus cultures, cell suspension cultures and somatic embryogenesis that would produce somaclonal variation and eventually lead to the selection of improved crop lines Raising embryo rescue and culture Fast breeding through anther and pollen culture Embryogenesis of haploid plants Tables 1 and 2 shows proportion of functional laboratories in selected National Agricultural Systems (NARS) in West and Central Africa and available manpower for biotechnology and biosafety, respectively. Most developing countries are yet to create enabling environment for the full exploit of the benefits of recombinant DNA technology application. Thus, they resort to restricted field 9

10 trials of transgenic crops from developed economies. For example, the field studies of Bt cotton in Bourkina Faso and transgenic cassava in Nigeria. Table 1. Proportion of labs in functional state in selected NARS of West and Central Africa Functional laboratories (%) Country Tissue culture DNA markers Fermentation Number of labs examined Burkina faso Cameroon Cote d'ivoire consolidated Ghana Mali Nigeria Senegal after W. S. Alhassan (2003) Table 2. Available manpower for biotechnology and biosafety in NARS of West and Central Africa Number of Personnel Biotechnology Biosafety Total Graduate Technologist Graduate Biotech. Tech. Biosafety % in Biosafety Burkina faso Cameroon Cote d'ivore Ghana Mali Nigeria Senegal Total after W. S. Alhassan (2003). In a developing economy like that of our sub region, there are many limitations that must be resolved if we must participate in this gene revolution. These include Insufficient Funding Capacity building human and infrastructural requirements High costs of research capital intensive. The lack of coherent research strategy and the impact of legislation are tampering the successful use of new tools and methods in plant genetics to conventional farming. Absence of regulatory systems for the approval and monitoring of the products of biotechnology in the system. Lack of intellectual property laws to protect inventions and patents will limit the potential for profitable applications of biotechnology to many crops. Poor Public Private sector linkage Lack of Advocacy and Public awareness 10

11 Concluding Remarks Modern biotechnology in the field of medicine and human health has been accepted as a safe and effective means to provide more and better treatments. But the extent to which the technology is fully utilized in agriculture and crop production depends on the support for innovation and improvement in farming and crop production systems as well as support for scientifically sound regulatory policies that protect against safety risks. However, with the continuing accumulation of evidence of safety and efficiency and the absence of any evidence of harm to the public or the environment, more and more consumers are becoming as comfortable with agricultural biotechnology as they are with medical biotechnology (Alan Mchughen, 2002). Only recently, the European Union lifted a six year moratorium on genetically modified maize called Bt 11 developed by the Swiss biotechnology company Syngenta. The maize is to be canned and labeled as GM food and sold for human consumption in supermarkets. Whereas Europe calls GM foods Frankenstein foods and argue that such foods may cause cancer or fatal allergy, Scientific evidences point to the fact that the foods are safe (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 2004 annual report). FAO s message is that farmers in Africa struggling with a patch of millet, cowpeas or cassava armed only with a hoe and a prayer need crops engineered to resist drought or local pests. Agriculture is the livelihood of 70% of the world s poor, a population that is growing considerably, even as soil and water are depleted. Billions of people are already malnourished because their staple crops supply few nutrients. Genetic engineering can help. The poor need a gene revolution to follow the 1960 s green revolution which helped hundreds of millions by increasing yields of wheat, rice and other crops. The world will have 2 billion more mouths to feed during the next 30 years. The possible solution to feeding them is to enable poor farmers grow genetically modified crops that are higher yielding. The UN agency found no health or ecological drawbacks to GM crops. The benefits to poor farmers are that GM seeds offer higher yields and are resistant to disease, pests and droughts, and have environmental benefit of needing less chemical fertilizers and pesticides as well as herbicides. The Agency rightly urges wealthier agricultural nations to develop and disseminate GM seeds for poor farmers and to develop GM seed for orphan crops millet, sorghum, cowpeas typically grown in poor countries as well as such Third World crops as bananas, cassava and rice ( A call for gene revolution New York Times (Editorial), May ). About half of all the corn and more than 80% of all the soybeans being planted in the US this spring are genetically enhanced, according to the US Department of Agriculture. These figures have been rising steadily since biotech crops first were introduced commercially about a decade ago and will increase even more in the years ahead. That s because biotechnology has improved the bottom line for farmers. It has enabled the boosting of productivity and the growing of crops in cleaner fields. A friendlier environment for wildlife and the reduction of soil erosion is being created. Soybean is one crop in the world where the transgene has been so successful in raising yields such that within the next 18 months to two years it will be all but impossible to find secure supplies of non GM varieties. Soybeans and soymeal are grown mainly in the United States, Argentina, Brazil and parts of Asia. They have wide use in the food chain and are used in large quantities as a high protein feed for animals, as well as in processed foods for humans. They come very close to being the ubiquitous food crop, ranking alongside wheat and corn. An application to conduct field trials on GM potatoes at six sites in South Africa has been submitted to the government. The application is by the Agricultural Research Council and is for trials designed to test potatoes that have been genetically manipulated to prevent damage by moth larvae that feed on the plants, and damage by antibiotics. 11

12 China, India and the Phillipines are getting good responses from the field trials of GM rice, but their first commercial crop may be about three years to five years. Argentinean grain production underwent a dramatic increase in grains production (from 26 million tons in 1988/89 to over 75 million tons in 2002/2003). Many factors contributed to this revolution, but perhaps the most important was the introduction of new genetic modification technologies, specifically herbicide tolerant soybeans. Institutional factors that led to the successful adoption of GM technologies, include the early availability of a reliable biosafety mechanism, a special intellectual property rights situation, the favourable market pricing for GM soybeans and glyphosate and agreeable trade relations. GM crops are being grown extensively in North and South America and China and have become part of the normal diet there. In Europe the contention continues despite the fact that millions of US citizens eat GM soya without any ill effects. European consumers opposition to GM foods has had serious repercussions for plant research, for the commercial development of new crops and, most importantly, for developing countries that could benefit most. Several countries in Africa and elsewhere have resisted growing them, mainly for fear of being unable to export them to European market. These concerns have resulted in an unprecedented effort to investigate those anxieties and communicate with public, particularly in the UK. From all these success stories, its only reasonable to recommend that African nations join the bandwagon or we shall forever be left behind as in the green revolution era. A review of agricultural biotechnology in Sub Saharan Africa in 1999 shows that the major players in this new technology are the International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs) such as International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria and International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; some national agricultural research services (NARS) and various University Departments (ISNAR 1999). South Africa has an extensive research base in plant biotechnology. Several countries Botswana, South Africa, Swaziland and Zambia increased their investments in scientific research. Both South Africa and Zimbabwe have enacted legislation to regulate the safe introduction of GM technology. South Africa has undertaken over 200 field trials with GM plants produced through collaborative arrangements using international and local technology. South African government has granted approval for the commercial production of four GM crops (insect tolerant cotton, insect tolerant maize, herbicide tolerant cotton and herbicide tolerant soya). Egypt, Nigeria, Cameroon, Uganda, Kenya, Malawi, Zambia, Namibia and Mauritius have draft regulations ready for submission to parliament. Of these countries Egypt, Uganda, Kenya and Zambia have carried out GM trials under confined conditions. Mauritius has locally developed GM sugar ready for field trials, but is awaiting the adoption of a biosafety framework and protocol to initiate tests. Twenty-eight countries have signed the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and have either developed or are beginning to develop their respective national biosafety regulations. Nigerian has biosafety guidelines that have been approved by the Federal Executive Council and its about to complete its national biosafety framework. South Africa, Kenya, Zimbabwe, and Egypt are obviously ahead of the rest of Africa in the adoption of Biotechnology as a tool for ensuring increased agricultural productivity. Other African governments should ensure that mechanisms are put in place to create enabling environment for the successful conduct of research in biotechnology. Finally, appropriate infrastructures and agricultural policies, access to land and water are allimportant for crop production. GM crops can contribute to substantial crop production. The crops can also be used to prevent environmental degradation, and to address specific ecological and agricultural problems, which have proved less responsive to the standard tools of plant breeding and organic or conventional agricultural practices. 12

13 The use of GM crops should however, be on a case by case basis. Agro ecology and the economy of the countries within Africa vary and, therefore, it is important to know how the use of GM crop compares to other alternatives in each country. It is pertinent to note that the use of GM crops can have considerable potential to increase yields of crops thereby improving agricultural productivity and the livelihood of the rural populace. This will contribute to the reduction of poverty and to improve food security and economically valuable agriculture. Let me end by reminding us of this statement by scientists Eco friendly Genetic Manipulation will provide the Answer to Agriculture s Greatest Challenge Selected references Alhassan W. S. (2003). Agrobiotechnology application in West and Central Africa. IITA, Ibadan. 107 pp. Beyer P, Al Babili S Ye X, Lucca P, Schaub P, Welsch R and Potrykus I (2002). Golden Rice: Introducing the beta carotene biosynthesis pathway into rice endosperm by genetic engineering to defeat vitamin a deficiency. The Journal of Nutrition 132, Bouls H (1996). Enrichment of food staples through plant breeding: A new strategy for fighting micronutrient Malnutrition. Nutrition reviews 54; , Bull, A. T., Geoffrey, H. and Lily, M. D. (1982). Biotechnology: International trends and perspectives, OECD, Paris. Appendix 1 lists II. definitions. Carpenter JE (2001). Case study in benefits and risks of agricultural biotechnology: Roundup Ready Soybeans and Bt Corn. In, National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy, Carpenter JE, Felsot A, Goode T. Hammig M, Onstad D, Sankula S. (2002). Comparative environmental impacts of biotechnology derived and traditional soybean, Corn and Cotton crops. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. Printed in the United States of America, CAST, Ames, Iowa, FAO (2003). Biodiversity in Food and Agriculture. How does biodiversity benefit naturalo and agricultural ecosystems? In, vol FAO, FAOSTAT (2003). Faostat, Agriculture data. In vol FAO, Gianessi at the AAAS meeting in Denver February 2003: Gianessi LCS, Sankula S and Carpenter JE (2002). Plant Biotechnology: Current and potential impact for improving pest management in US agriculture, an analysis of 40 13

14 case studies. In vol 2003, Download individual case studies: and the slide from a contribution of L. Hin CJA, Schenkelaars P, Pak GA (2002). Agronomic and Environmental impacts of commercial cultivation of glyphosate tolerant soybean in the USA. In. Dutch Center for Agriculture and Environment, Uttrecht, James C (2002). Preview No.27: Global status of commercialized transgenic crops ISAAA Briefs 27, and King JC (2002). Biotechnology: A solution for improving Nutrient Bioavailability. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 72: 7 12, King JC (2002). Evaluating the impact of Plant Biofortification on Human Nutrition. Journal of Nutrition 132: 511S 5113S Mchughen, A. (2002). Biotechnology & Food for Canadians: Risk controversy series 2. Publishers the Fraser Institute, Center for Studies in Risk and Regulation, Vancouver, British Columbia. pp 69 Oerke EC and Dehne HW (1997). Global crop production and the efficacy of crop protection Current situation and future trends. European Journal of Plant Pathology 103: Persley, G. J., Giddings, L. V. and Juma, C. (1993). ISNAR Research Report 5: Biosafety The safe application of Biotechnology in Agriculture and the Environment. Pp Phipps RH and Park JR (2002). Environmental benefits of genetically modified crops: Global and European Perspectives on their ability to reduce pesticides use. Journal of Animal and Feed Sciences!!: 1 18 Pimentel D (2001). Pricing Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Bioscience 51: Potrykus I (2001). Golden Rice and Beyond. Plant Physiology 125: Welch RM (2002). Breeding strategies for biofortified staple plant foods to reduce micronutrient malnutrition globally. Journal of Nutrition 132: 495S 499S 14