Section 1 Information: Nature, Role and Context 1. Section 2 Information: Management and Manipulation 73. Section 3 Coursework 177

Transcription

1 Contents Section 1 Information: Nature, Role and Context 1 Section 2 Information: Management and Manipulation 73 Section 3 Coursework 177 Section 4 Information Systems in Organisations 195 Section 5 Information: Policy, Strategy and Systems 285 Appendix A AQA Specification Summary 351 Appendix B Book List 365 iv

2 Table of Contents SECTION 1 Chapter 1 The Role of ICT 2 Computing a look backwards 2 Computers and employment 2 The changing nature of employment 2 What is Information and Communications Technology? 3 Personal qualities for ICT professionals 4 Chapter 2 ICT in Business and Commerce 6 ICT in banking 6 Shopping on the Internet 6 Advantages to business 8 Advantages to the customers 8 Doing the weekly shopping online 8 The drawbacks of online commerce 9 Case study: Fake ebay site 9 Business-to-Business 10 Finding new suppliers 10 Setting up a Web site 10 Chapter 3 ICT in Manufacturing 12 Introduction 12 Case study: The sweet smell of success 12 Computer-aided design (CAD) 12 Computer-aided Manufacturing (CAM) 13 Case study: Subcontracting sector uses ICT 13 Robots 14 Why use robots? 14 Chapter 4 ICT in a Caring Society 16 Introduction 16 Computers in medicine 16 Case study: Robot surgeon operates 16 Case study: Computer simulation cuts clinical trial cost of new drugs 17 Expert systems used in medical diagnosis 17 Computers and the disabled 19 Case study: Eyes in the sky 19 Chapter 5 ICT in Education 21 Computers in schools 21 Will computers replace teachers? 21 Case study: An educational experiment 21 Multimedia in schools 22 The Internet in schools 22 Restricting access 23 Chapter 6 Role of Communication Systems 24 Introduction 24 The Internet 24 The World Wide Web 24 Electronic bulletin boards 24 Intranets 25 Electronic mail ( ) 25 Case study: Monitoring employee 27 Hardware required to access the Internet 27 Software and services required to access the Internet 28 Telephones 28 Case Study: The Internet revolution 28 Facsimile transmission (Fax) 29 Voice mail 29 Teleconferencing 29 Chapter 7 ICT at Home 31 Introduction 31 Statistics on Internet usage 31 Using a search engine 32 Case study: About Google 32 Uses of the Internet 32 Case study: Friends Reunited 32 Teleworking 33 Benefits of teleworking 33 The problems of teleworking 33 Case study: Teleworkers use Modems not Motors 34 Chapter 8 Data, Information and Knowledge 36 Input-process-output 36 Data and Information 36 Garbage in, garbage out 37 The encoding of data 37 Knowledge 37 Access to knowledge 38 Case study: Collecting information 39 Sources of data 39 Encoding information as data 39 Case study: Nightmare scheme to track every pupil 40 Quality of data 40 v

3 Chapter 9 Information as a Commodity 42 The importance of information 42 Case study 42 Collecting and analysing data 42 Information as a commodity 43 Usefulness of data 43 Coding value judgements 43 The benefits of ICT 44 Case study: Ford and Microsoft invest in joint venture 44 Limitations in the use of information technology systems 44 Chapter 10 Computer Crime and the Law 46 Computer crime and malpractice 46 Hacking 46 Theft of data 47 Fraud on the Internet 47 Case study: Cyber theft to net millions 48 Viruses 48 Logic bombs 49 Digital crime and the law 49 The Computer Misuse Act of Case study: Online blackmailers 50 Software and music copyright laws 50 Case study: Spears warns against piracy 50 Chapter 11 Protecting ICT Systems 52 Internal and external threats to ICT systems 52 Case study: Safety and Privacy of NHS records 52 Measures to protect ICT systems from illegal access 53 Case study: Numbers up as encryption code cracked 53 Types of backup 54 Other security measures 54 Issues surrounding access to the Internet 55 Case study: Caught on the Net 55 Chapter 12 Data Protection Legislation 56 Personal privacy 56 Case study: James Wiggins a true story 56 The Data Protection Act 56 The Data Protection Principles 57 Useful definitions from the 1984 Act 57 Data Subjects 57 The Data Protection Registrar 58 A data user s Register entry 58 Exemptions from the Act 59 The rights of data subjects 59 Case Study: A universal entitlement card 60 Chapter 13 Health and Safety 61 Computers and health 61 Stress 61 Case study: Information overload 62 Repetitive strain injury (RSI) 62 Case study: Bank staff driven to injury 63 Eyestrain 63 Extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation 64 Case study: Health risks of mobile phones 64 Computers, health and the law 64 Classrooom menace: ignore it and you may end up in court 65 The ergonomic environment 65 Software can be hazardous to your health 66 ICT1 Sample Questions and Answers 67 SECTION 2 Chapter 14 Introduction to Computer Systems 74 The components of a computer 74 Input and output devices 74 The processor 74 Main memory 75 RAM and ROM 75 Auxiliary storage 75 Internal storage of data 76 The ASCII code 76 Chapter 15 Data Capture 78 Keyboard data entry 78 Key-to-disk systems 78 Voice data entry 79 Scanners and OCR 79 Case study: Automating college enrolment 79 Mouse, joystick, light pen, touch screen 80 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) 80 Magnetic stripe 80 Smart cards 81 Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) 81 Bar code reader or scanner 82 Benefits of using bar codes 82 Other uses of bar codes 83 Hand-held input devices 83 vi

4 Chapter 16 Verification and Validation 85 Data capture 85 Types of error 85 Batch processing 86 Validation checks 87 Check digits 87 Verification 88 Detecting transmission errors 88 Accuracy and validity 88 Case study: Market research survey 89 Chapter 17 Introduction to Databases 91 What is a database? 91 Retrieving information from a database 91 Databases vs. Database Management Systems 92 Flat files 92 Problems with flat files 92 Redundant data 93 Errors on input 93 Problems with updating data 93 Problems with modifying data 93 Summary 93 Using multiple tables 93 Solving the problems of single table databases 94 Flat file information storage and retrieval systems 95 Chapter 18 Relational Databases 97 Relational databases 97 Putting data into the correct tables 97 Creating a database table in MS Access 100 The significance of field types 100 Primary key 101 Chapter 19 Tables, Forms, Queries and Reports 102 The basic components of a database 102 The tables for the Library application 102 Forms 104 Queries 105 Creating the Loan form from the new query 106 Reports 106 Selecting a suitable output format 107 Chapter 20 Systems Software 109 What is an operating system? 109 Functions of an operating system 109 Utility programs 110 The DOS operating system 110 The command-driven interface 110 The Apple Macintosh graphical user interface (GUI) 110 The Windows operating system 111 UNIX 112 Linux 112 Chapter 21 Categories of Software 113 Categorising software 113 Systems software 113 Applications software 113 General purpose software 114 Integrated packages and software suites 114 Common user interface 115 Generic and specific software 115 Chapter 22 Generic Software 116 Generic software 116 Word processing 116 Spreadsheets 118 Spreadsheet features 119 Databases and Electronic Mail 119 Presentation Graphics 120 Application generators 120 Report generators 120 Web browsers 121 Facilities offered by a browser 121 Search engines 122 Working with the Web 123 Chapter 23 Capabilities of Software 125 Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) 125 About linked and embedded objects 126 The need for portability of data 126 Problems with portability 127 Upgradability 127 Criteria for selecting a software package 128 Evaluating software 128 Software reliability 128 Chapter 24 Modes of Processing 130 Processing methods 130 Transactions 130 Master files and transaction files 130 Batch processing 131 Stages in batch processing 131 Interactive processing 132 Real-time and pseudo real-time processing 132 Criteria for choice of processing mode 132 vii

5 Chapter 25 Processing Different Types of Data 134 Types of data 134 Representing numbers 134 Binary arithmetic 135 Real numbers 135 Digitised sound 135 MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) 136 Bitmapped graphics 137 Bitmapped versus vector-based graphics 137 Chapter 26 Storage Devices 139 Primary and secondary storage 139 File processing concepts 139 Floppy disks and Zip disks 140 How data is stored 140 Hard disks for microcomputers 140 Hard disks for minis and mainframes 141 Magnetic tape 141 Uses of magnetic tape 142 CD-ROM 142 CR-R disks 142 CD Rewritables 142 Case study: Computers in court 143 Chapter 27 Security of Data 144 Issues of privacy 144 Case study: TRW Information Service 144 Threats to information systems 144 Data integrity 144 Standard clerical procedures 145 Write-protecting disks 145 User IDs and passwords 145 Access rights 146 Securing against fraudulent use or malicious damage 146 Protection against viruses 147 Biometric security measures 147 Case study: Iris recognition technology 147 Communications security 147 Disaster planning 147 Case study: Safe as Houses 147 Periodic backups 148 Backup strategies 148 Backup hardware 148 Backing up on-line databases 149 Factors in a backup strategy 149 Recovery procedures 150 Ink jet printers 152 Laser printers 152 Plotters 153 Visual display unit (VDU) 153 Communicating with the CPU 154 Parallel and serial data transmission 154 Buffering 155 Spooling 155 Installing hardware devices such as a printer 155 Chapter 29 Network Environments 156 Communications networks 156 Advantages and disadvantages of LANs 156 Network topologies 156 Star network 157 Advantages of a star network 157 Disadvantage of a star network 157 Bus network 157 Ring network 158 Server-based vs peer-to-peer networks 158 Wide area networks 160 Communications links 160 Communications media 160 ISDN lines 161 Bridges and gateways 161 Hardware required for networking 162 Chapter 30 User Interfaces 163 Introduction 163 The importance of good interface design 163 Designing usable systems 163 Interface styles 164 Command-line interface 164 Menus 164 Natural language 165 Advantages and disadvantages of natural language dialogue 165 Forms and dialogue boxes 166 The WIMP interface 167 Advantages of a common user interface 167 Speech input (voice recognition) 167 Speech/sound output 168 Case study: Putting patients in the picture 168 ICT2 Sample Questions and Answers 170 Chapter 28 Output Devices 151 Printers 151 Dot matrix printer 151 viii

6 SECTION 3 Chapter 31 Tackling a Minor Project 178 Planning the time schedule 181 The project requirements 181 Chapter 32 Specification and Analysis 182 Selecting a project 182 Investigating the user s requirements 182 Establishing the objectives 182 Writing up the specification 183 Chapter 33 Design 184 Design tasks 184 Database design (for a database project) 184 Data descriptions 184 Input 185 Output 185 Menu design 186 Test plan 186 Writing up the design and implementation 186 Chapter 34 Implementation and Testing 187 Organisation is the key 187 The implementation 188 Testing objectives 188 Steps in software testing 188 Drawing up a test plan 189 Selecting tests for the test plan 189 Presenting the test results 190 Chapter 35 Documentation 191 Introduction 191 Should the documentation be wordprocessed? 191 Word-processing skills 191 Putting it all together 192 The title page 192 Table of contents 192 Specification 192 Design and Implementation 192 Testing 193 User manual 193 Evaluation 194 SECTION 4 Chapter 36 Organisational Structure 196 How organisations work 196 Ingredients for success 196 Focus on people 197 Focus on organisation 197 External pressures on an organisation 199 Case study: Preservation vs. the people 199 Focus on technology 199 Organisations and information systems 200 Data processing systems 200 Knowledge work systems 201 Management information systems 201 Chapter 37 Management Information Systems 202 Introduction 202 Information systems vs. data processing systems 202 Internal and external information 202 Information flow 203 The role of a management information system 203 What managers do 204 Types of decision 205 Stages of decision-making 205 Case study: Buying a new car 207 Desirable characteristics of a MIS 207 Factors influencing success or failure of MIS 207 Chapter 38 The Information Systems Life Cycle 210 Overview of the systems life cycle 210 The waterfall model 211 What prompts a new system? 212 Feasibility study 212 Requirements analysis 213 Case study: Computer-dating the customer 213 System design 214 Implementation 214 Methods of conversion 214 Post-implementation review 215 System maintenance 215 Prototyping 216 Benefits of prototyping 216 ix

7 Chapter 39 Implementation of Information Systems 218 What is implementation? 218 Successful implementation 218 Why do information systems fail? 219 Case study: Tiptree Book Distributors 220 Factors in successful implementation 221 Chapter 40 Information Systems Strategy 223 Introduction 223 Formulating an information system strategy 224 End-user computing 225 ICT for competitive advantage 225 Case study: Just-in-time at Wal-Mart s 226 Chapter 41 Expert Systems 228 Definition 228 Uses of expert systems 228 Benefits of expert systems in organisations 228 Limitations of expert systems 229 Chapter 42 Information 230 Sources of information 230 Levels of information 230 Quality of information 230 Case study: Clearing off to College 231 Channels of communication 232 Case study: Guides need information 232 Presenting management information 232 The intended audience 233 Graphs and charts 233 Guidelines for presentations 234 Keeping everyone informed 234 Marketing information 234 Chapter 43 Data 236 Data capture 236 Using bar codes 236 Other uses of bar codes 237 Magnetic stripe cards 237 Linking customers and suppliers through EDI 237 Smart cards 238 Case study: A smarter way to pay 238 Keying in data 238 Case study: Bradford & Bingley 239 Chapter 44 The Management of Change 241 Outcomes from ICT investments 241 Valuing the workforce 241 Reasons why ICT systems fail 241 Case study: London Ambulance Service 242 Managing change successfully 243 Case study: Pindar 244 Implications of change 245 Chapter 45 Security Policies 246 Threats to security and integrity 246 Risk analysis 246 Layers of control 247 Building and equipment security 247 Authorisation software 248 Communications security 248 Operational security 248 Audit trail 249 Case study: Harold Shipman, GP and serial killer 249 Personnel safeguards 250 Corporate ICT security policy 250 Case study: War on the Web 251 Chapter 46 Disaster Recovery 252 Effects of negligence 252 Stages in disaster planning 252 Contents of a security plan 253 Disaster recovery plan 253 Case study: Trust in the Virtual World 253 Criteria used to select a contingency plan 254 Chapter 47 Implementation of Legislation 255 Laws relating to ICT 255 The Data Protection Act 255 A data protection policy 255 Software copyright 256 Health and Safety 258 Encouraging ownership of workspace 258 Taking regular breaks 259 Providing the right equipment 259 The employer s responsibility 259 Chapter 48 User Support 260 The need for support 260 The help desk 260 Technical support 260 Help desk software 261 Case study: Call centres 262 Bulletin boards 262 x

8 User booklets 263 Newsletters and support articles 263 On-line help 263 Documentation 264 Chapter 49 Training 265 The need for training 265 Training in the use of information technology 265 Training for senior managers 265 Training for middle managers 265 Training for users 266 Methods of training 266 Computer-based training 266 Instructor-led courses 267 Skills updating 267 Corporate training strategy 267 Chapter 50 Project Management 269 Introduction 269 Selection of a project manager 269 The tasks of a project manager 269 The project team 269 Project planning and scheduling 270 Project reviews 271 Characteristics of a good team 271 Chapter 51 Codes of Practice 272 Ethics and computing 272 Factors in ethical decision-making 272 Formal guidelines in the computing industry 272 Codes of practice 274 Employee code of conduct 274 Using informal guidelines to make ethical decisions 274 Case study Case study Case study ICT4 Sample Questions and Answers 277 SECTION 5 Chapter 52 Policy and Strategy 286 The challenge of information management 286 Consistency with business priorities 286 Centralisation vs. decentralisation 286 Different user needs 287 Hardware and software choices 288 Emulation software 288 Upgrading hardware and software 289 Future proofing 289 Offers from TIME computer systems: Future proof? 290 Chapter 53 Security and Backup Policies 291 Introduction 291 Backup strategies 291 Full backup 292 Incremental backup 292 Hardware for backups 293 Grandfather-father-son backups 294 Chapter 54 Software Evaluation 296 Introduction 296 Choosing software 296 Tailoring the software 297 Upgradability 297 Other evaluation criteria 297 Benchmark tests 298 Checking out the manufacturer 298 Evaluation report 298 Chapter 55 Data Modelling 300 Traditional file approach 300 The database approach 300 The Database Management System (DBMS) 301 The conceptual data model 301 Types of relationship 302 Entity-relationship diagrams 302 Chapter 56 Relational Database Design 304 What is a relational database? 304 Linking database tables 304 Normalisation 305 First normal form 305 Second normal form Partial key dependence test 307 Dealing with a Many-to-Many relationship 307 Third normal form Non-key dependence test 308 Comparing a flat-file system with a relational database 308 Chapter 57 Database Management 310 Database Administration (DBA) 310 The data dictionary 310 xi

9 The Database Management System (DBMS) 311 Querying the database 311 Using SQL 312 Client-server database 312 Chapter 58 Communication and Information Systems 314 Centralised processing systems 314 Dispersed systems 314 Local area networks (LANs) 315 Client-server and peer-to-peer networks 315 Wide area networks (WANs) 316 Distributed processing 316 Case study: Pubs get a new round of touch tills 316 Distributed databases 317 Advantages and limitations of distributed databases 318 Using telecommunications for competitive advantage 318 Case study: United Parcel Service (UPS) 319 The Internet and the World Wide Web 320 The role of servers and routers 321 Chapter 59 Network Security and Accounting 323 Introduction 323 Training users about security 323 Access privileges 323 Access control 323 Firewalls 324 Audit controls 324 Performance management 324 Data encryption 325 Accounting software 326 Chapter 60 Data Communications and Standards 327 Communications software 327 Speed of transmission 327 Modems 327 Serial and parallel transmission 328 Telecommunications standards and protocols 328 The development of de facto standards 329 Case study: Microsoft s MS-DOS 329 Internet protocol 329 Addressing mechanisms on the World Wide Web 330 Chapter 61 Human-Computer Interaction 332 Computers in the workplace 332 Psychological factors 332 Short-term memory 333 Long-term memory 333 Designing good software 334 Text versus graphics 334 Chapter 62 Software Acquisition and Testing 336 Make or buy? 336 End-user-written software 336 Writing software in-house 336 External consultants 337 Buying a package 337 Leasing software 337 Modifying existing packages 337 Criteria for selecting a software solution 338 Software testing 338 Alpha testing 339 Beta testing 339 Failure of software testing 339 Software maintenance 340 Maintenance releases 340 ICT5 Sample Questions and Answers 342 Appendix A AQA Specification 351 Appendix B Book List 364 Index 367 xii