CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction of Bricks Brick, the most important tiny piece for construction works is used by human for many years back.

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1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction of Bricks Brick, the most important tiny piece for construction works is used by human for many years back. Its history goes back to some of the earliest times in the civilization of men. Many world famous archaeological excavations provide much information about the brick uses in different parts of the world. Many years back, bricks were made at warm places and simply placed in the Sunlight for hardening. The hand-shaped, Sun-dried, mud bricks were made and used during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic Period. The oldest examples of brick use were first found in Southern Turkey. The Sumerian palace at Kish, in Mesopotamia, was another great example of the ancient use of bricks. In the 5th century B.C., burnt bricks were used in the wall of the city of Babylon. The ancient Egyptians also used Sun dried clay bricks in their numerous world famous historic monuments. During the period of the Roman Empire, the use of bricks spread throughout the Europe and spread in Italy and the Byzantine. In the 11th century, use of bricks in the construction work had spread from these lands to France. During the 12 century, bricks were reintroduced to northern Germany from northern Italy. This created the brick Gothic period which was a reduced style of Gothic architecture, previously very common in northern Europe. The buildings around this time were mainly built from fired red clay bricks. Brick Gothic style building can be found in Baltic countries Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Germany, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus and Russia. In England, the art of brick making was well advanced by the time of Henry VIII ( ). After the great fire of London in 1666, the city was rebuilt with mainly brick structures. In America, bricks were used in Virginia since 1611 and also Sundried bricks were made and used for centuries in Central America, particularly in Mexico. During the renaissance and Baroque periods, exposed brick walls became unpopular and brickwork was generally covered by plaster.only during the mid of 18 th century visible brick walls again regain popularity. Beautiful examples of bricks have been found in the 20 th century in India. 1

2 Brick production was done by hand until about In the middle of the 19 th century brick manufacturers began the development of mechanical production. Due to the development in different sectors, enormous expansion of house and demand for bricks lead to mechanized production of bricks. Progress in making bricks was greater in England than in any other country.brick manufacture commenced in America in the middle of the 17 th century, but it was not until the latter half of the 19 th that the industry began to develop in that continent, when the English machine makers went to seek a market. In Netherlands, Belgium and France no real technical progress was made in manufacture of bricks, until the end of World War I, although clay working in other artistic branches reached a high state of perfection in France before the end of the 19 th century.(encyclopedia Britannica) Though a common structural material, till now brick is the cheapest one. This small unit is used very systematically by an expert hand for many different types of construction for long time. Technically, clay bricks fall under the category of heavyclay products. Heavy clay products are those that are mainly made from single clay with very little addition of other raw materials. Different types of bricks with different names in different parts of the world are being produced for structural purposes. Generally the classifications were done on the basis of size, colour, use and quality. (Narayanswami,1993). Some of important bricks types are- FBS-Face Brick Standard: Clay bricks that are selected or produced for their durability and uniformity of size and shape. NFP-Non-Facing-Plastered:-Clay bricks suitable for general building work that is to be plastered. FBX-Face-Brick-Extra: Clay bricks that are selected or produced for their durability and high degree of uniformity of size, shape and colour. NFX --Non-Facing- Extra: Clay bricks suitable for use, plastered or unplastered, for general building work. FBA-Face- Brick- Aesthetic: Clay bricks that are selected or produced for their durability and aesthetic effect deriving from non-uniformity of size, shape or colour. E-Engineering Units: E bricks are manufactured at extremely high temperatures, forming a dense and strong bricks, allowing the bricks to limit strength and water 2

3 absorption. E bricks offer excellent load bearing capacity and chemical resisting properties. Concrete Bricks:-Concrete bricks are made from solid concrete.concrete bricks are usually placed in facades, fences and provide an excellent aesthetic presence; these bricks can be manufactured in different colours. Fly ash clay bricks: Fly ash clay bricks are manufactured with clay and fly ash, at about 1000 degree C. Some studies have shown that these bricks tend to fail poor produce pop-outs, when bricks come into contact with moisture and water, causing the bricks to expand. Sand lime bricks: Sand lime bricks are made by mixing sand, fly ash and lime followed by a chemical process during wet mixing and then moulded under pressure. Common Burnt Clay Bricks:-Common burnt clay bricks are also called hard bricks and made of clay.such bricks are formed by processing in molds and then dried and fired in a kiln.these bricks are used in general works with no special attractive appearances. Sewerage Bricks: such bricks are specially designed to construct sewers. Sewerage brick can resist corrosion/abrasion and also bears load of passing traffic and hydrostatic pressure from ground or surface. (Satya P, 1996, Ghoshal,2008, Types of Bricks Brick Industry in India Brick Kiln Industry is a demand based industry, which fulfills the growing demands for urban expansion and economic development. Such industries are categorized as small scale industries and traditionally situated in rural and peri-urban areas to fulfill local requirements of building construction. Brick kiln Industry is an important part of the rural and urban economy as it is based on local resources of the area. Like other rural based small industries, the Brick kiln Industry also provides income and employment opportunities by employing many people, both men and women during agricultural off season.(gupta,1993). Brick making is an age-old small-scale industry and has been the main stay of construction since olden times. The excavation of Mohenjodaro reveals the fact that the art and science of brick making were well known to the village people even that period. The villagers of that area have been practicing it for over 5000 years. (Mathur1995). 3

4 Use of box shaping brick may be taken to be a technological advancement and firing of green brick may be considered to be another one. These technical improvements took shape in and around 3000BC (Damle1996).From different historical evidence, it is found that manufacturing of clay bricks is a very old industry in the human civilization. Good numbers of world famous very old historical buildings in India are still in existence and prove that brick was the predominant building material in different period of time. (Ghoshal, 2008).The design, shape and weight of bricks have undergone numerous historical changes. Indian Brick industry, the second largest producer of bricks in the world, is next to China and commands 60.45% share in the net domestic product of the country, but is clearly away from the ambit of state regulation and protection (Daniel.2009). Such informal, small-scale, often unlicensed (unregistered) and unregulated brick kiln industries are running as unorganized sector. (Daniel 2009, Maithel et.al 2010).The industry has an annual turnover of more than Rs140 million, with an estimated coal consumption of around 25 million tons per year, as the third largest consumer of coal after thermal power and steel sector of the country(gupta and Narayan2010).Indian brick industry, the second largest producer of bricks, run as a small sector with more than 150,000 brick fields throughout the country, each unit manufacture on an average between million bricks per year. Brick is the back-bone of construction activity In India, The Gangetic plain of north India accounts for 65% of the total brick production. Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and west Bangle are the major brick producing states in this region. Gujarat, Maharastra, Orissa.Tamilnadu, Madhya Pradesh are the important brick producing states in the Peninsular Plateau and coastal area of India.(Gupta and Narayan2010). Bricks are prepared, processed and baked in kiln at the cottage, village and rural enterprise level. Being situated in the remote country side, the brick kiln industry portrays a unique model of industrial relations- Tripartism (Iqbal2006).Brick making is a low technology industry which is characterized by distinct division of labor, employing skilled and semi-skilled labor comprising men, women and children during agricultural off season. The bricks are hand-molded, sun dried and then fired in a pit or clamp kiln. Complete mechanization in production is yet to be taken place in India. In between the simple and the advanced methods of making bricks i.e. an 4

5 intermediate technology is most commonly used. Brick kiln industry is the second largest sector after the construction sector with floating labor population; these workers are mostly seasonal migrants. They belong to the poorest and weakest sections of the rural society and they migrate to brick kiln industry in search of employment during the lean period of agriculture (Gupta 2003). Migrant brick kiln workers belonged to low caste and tribal communities and migrate with their family. The entire family lives on the site and work on one unit. (Kainth2009).Migrant brick kiln workers who are semi skilled workers, are one of the most exploited, un-organized and un-regulated labor force (Daniel2009).In the brick sector, labour is brought in through a contractor a from distance place. Since, they are not regular labour and not directly appointed by the owner, they are not covered under the current Labour Laws, like minimum wage act. The characteristics of Bonded Labor restricted freedom, hiring workers against advances, long working hours, under payment and physical and verbal abuse by contractors and employers are very common in Indian Brick industries. Labors involved in brick industries are bonded in the sense that they all take advance money and have to work to repay their debt (Bhukunth 2005).The brick kiln industry is a significant employer of women and children with a piece-rate-wage system through sarder in an advance payment mode (Gupta 2003).Brick kiln labours are paid on the basis of quantum of work and against completion of certain tasks such as moulding of 1000 bricks, transportation of 1000 green bricks etc. The seasonal nature of brick production generates employment for a limited period of 6-7 months in a year. Majority of workers has no option, but to engage as labours (generally as agricultural labour) for the rest of the year. (Danieal, K.2009).The employers usually employ more casual labourers in order to avoid the fixed cost of employing permanent workers. Such type of casualisation of workforce becomes a remarkable features of unorganized sector,(unorganized sector implies insecure, unprotected employment, labour-intensive output with poor value added production i.e. long hours of works with little reward).(bandyopadhyay,2003) In India, brick kiln industry is the only industry where modernization has not taken up (Maithal et al 2010).Most of the industries still follows the traditional manual brick making process and conventional kilns. The industries generally collect topsoil from nearby age old paddy fields and coal, fire wood, agricultural waste are used to 5

6 burn the green bricks. The inefficient and age old method like hand moulding and sun drying bricks under open sunlight and the use of open clamp burning system force the Industry to operate for a period of 6-8 months only during a year, depending upon the climate conditions, which made it a seasonal one. Coal is major fuel of brick industry and burning of coal result in the release of several air pollutants in the form of GHG (mainly carbon dioxide) particulate matter, Sulphur dioxides, carbon monoxide etc. At local level (in the vicinity of a brick kiln) some of these gases are injurious to humen health, animal and plant life. At global level, pollutions like carbon dioxide contributes to the phenomenon of global warming and climate change(maithel2010).this industry owing to its temporary, inefficient technology using and polluting nature together with total absence of professional management including quality control can t be termed to be organized sector in its true sense(gupta2003). Brick production in India, is widespread and situated as cluster. Most units use continuous kiln, (mainly Bull's Trench).The remaining kilns are of the intermittent type like clamp, scoved, scotch kilns etc. On an average, all units produce 4 million bricks season, usually, has a pit measuring about 15 acres (from 5-35 acres). ( Maithal, 1999). As a raw material, local clay is used to produce bricks. Sand also sometimes uses to get the right properties. Generally, agriculturally fertile lands are consumed by each brick kiln (3-4 ha), which get converted into wastelands as a result of industrial operation in the life of a brick kiln from 8-12 years. (Gupta and Narayan 2010). Digging, mixing, molding etc are all manual operations. Both men and women are employed, but in general, the women workers are employed for unskilled works like carrying green bricks to the kiln. All workers works on piece rate system, except the skilled workers. Indian bricks are generally produced according to the recommendation of The Bureau of Indian Standards.7.5"x3.5" x3.5" and 7.5"x3.5"x1.5" as two recommended sizes for modular bricks and 9"x4.25"x2.75" size for non-modular bricks. In western part of India, the most acceptable size is 9"x6"x4" (called double size bricks) and other parts of India usually produce 10"x5"x3"size of bricks. Besides it, 1 st class,2 nd class and 3 rd class bricks(grades) are some commonly practiced brick production in all over India. 6

7 1.2.i. Kiln Construction in India Kiln is the most important part of brick manufacturing process and it is the place where bricks are burnt in large in permanent structures. In fixed chimney, the green bricks are burnt to make solid final product with very little change in the shape. The industry needs environmentally sound technologies for firing bricks, which primarily concern about local environment and at the same time which enhance energy efficiency and reduce GHG emissions. Local environmental concerns have led to the formulation of emission standards for brick kilns that were announced by the Government of India in April, 1996, the emission standards specify the permissible limits for suspended particulate matter in flue gases from brick kilns. The standards also propose ban on the use of moving chimney Bull s Trench Kiln (BTK) for firing brick by June (TERI, 1998.Stake emission and energy monitoring of fixed chimney brick kilns. Project Report No98IE 41.New Delhi: Tata Energy Research Institute, Google.com.) Green bricks are heated from to c in a kiln to get the finished product. The production capacity of kilns generally ranges from ,000 bricks per rotation. The arrangement of bricks in a kiln depends on the types of fuel used. The kilns are generally classified into (a) Intermittent Kilns. (b) Continuous Kilns. An intermittent kiln without permanent kiln structure is commonly called as clamp. Clamps are generally used when production volume is small. Intermittent kilns have low energy efficiency and most of the unit remains unutilized. Continuous kilns include Bulls Trench Kilns with moving and fixed chimney, Hoffmann kiln, High Draught kiln and VSBK. Brick Kilns are also classified on the basis of production capacity. The Gazette Notification on emission standard for the brick kilns into three categories (Maithel 2003) (1) Small (Production capacity less than bricks per day). (2) Medium (15000 to bricks per day.) (3) Large (more than bricks per day.) 7

8 1.2. ii Highly practiced kiln in India: Fixed Chimney Bull s Trench Kiln The Bull s Trench Kiln is commonly used and popular Chimney Kiln in India. It was patented by a scientist named W. Bull in Germany in 1876 and its continuous operation is based on the famous Hoffman principle. The Kiln is oval, circular or rectangular in shape and has a fixed chimney at its centre. At least a third of its total height is normally below ground level and it can work on fuel. The chimney sucks in hot flue from the burning zone and draws it through raw bricks and cools down the fired product simultaneously. By comparing with other kilns, the Bull s trench kiln is at least 30% more fuel efficient. (Damley, 1993) 1.3.i. Brick Industry in Assam: Many historical monuments and age-old administrative buildings of Assam are proving the practices of brick used in many years ago. The different shapes, sizes and colours of old bricks clearly proved that the different types of bricks were used in different period of time in Assam. In Assam, manufacturing of clay bricks had started in the early part of last century. During that period, bricks were produced not for commercial purposes; only to fulfill the particular demand arises for specific construction where bricks were burnt in country clamp.from different primary sources, it is found that in the year 1920, the Assam Bangle Railway Company manufactured clay bricks for the construction of Railways in Nagaon District at Senchowa. During pre and post-independence period, along with economic development and growth of the economy, the brick manufacturing units were increasing but the rate was very slow in Assam. Brick making on purely commercial basis had started in mid-eighties of last century. The increasing number of units in Assam (Table 1.1), which gives an idea about the increasing number of brick manufacturing units which got the shape of an industry step by step. Like other parts of India, in Assam, brick manufacturing is done by using traditional method and all units are located in semi urban and rural areas.majority of the units are medium and small production units and operate only during dry season (5-6 months in a year) by using the resources locally available. This traditional industry has low level of mechanization and a high labour intensity. Burning of bricks is an energy intensive process and it is a source of air pollution, in the form of GHGs. 8

9 Setting up of Brick Kiln industries involves some formalities and guidelines adopted by the Government of Assam. Completion of such formalities is mandatory. The brick kilns are classified as factories under the Factories Act 1948.The factories have to be registered under this act with the Directorate of Labour Welfare which is the Inspectorate of Factories. The inspecting officers paid visits to the brick kilns and collected data about the employment and ownership and filed papers for the registration of the industry under The Factory Act, 1948.A statutory consent from the State Pollution Control Board, Assam is a pre-requisite for obtaining registration. No Objection certificate (NOC) from Revenue Department of Assam and village local authority are some of other pre requisite conditions for set up a brick kiln industry. On the basis of the burning capacity of the kiln, the following rate of sale taxes has to be paid by the producer in two installments in every year. I) The kiln with capacity of >20 (payas/miyan ) has to pay Rs 60000/ II) The kiln with capacity of >25(,,) has to pay Rs 80000/. iii) The kiln with capacity of 25< has to pay Rs / Besides it, the entrepreneur has to procure a license from the labour department as the industry is labour-intensive and to a great extent, has to depend on migrant labourers. Once the unit is registered under the Factory Act, it comes under the preview of the following Acts as well. 1. The contract Labour (Regulation &Abolition) Act Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment &Condition of service). 1979,Act. 3. Payment of Gratuity Act, Employees Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, Employees State Insurance Acts, Payment of Bonus Act Maternity Benefit Act,

10 Table: 1.1 District wise distribution of registered brick manufacturing units in Assam ( ) SL No Name of districts Dhubri Kokrajhar Bongaigaon Goalpara Borpeta Nalbari O Kamrup Darrang Sonitpur Lakhimpur Dhemaji Morigaon Nagaon Golaghat Jorhat Sivsagar

11 17 Tinsukia Dibrugarh Karbi anglong N.C.Hills/ Dima Hasao Cachar Karimganja Hailakandi Baksa Chirang Udalguri Total Source: Statistical Handbook of Assam, different period.( ) 11

12 1.3. ii. Registered Brick industries in Assam (From ) Due to the tremendous expansion of construction sectors and increasing demand of bricks encourage the entrepreneur to set up brick kiln industries during last few years. The trend of the bricks manufacturing industries in Assam is shown in the following figure. Figure : 1.1.Registered Brick manufacturing industries in Assam ( ) *The serial number showing in the horizontal axis indicate different years (from ) and vertical axis indicates the Industries numbers. 1.3.iii. The relative importance of brick kiln industries in comparison to other registered factories ( ) The relative importance of brick manufacturing industries in comparison to other registered factories existing in the manufacturing sector of Assam can be shown by the following representation. 12

13 Table: 1.2: Percentage share in number brick kiln industry and others manufacturing registered Factories in Assam from SL No Time period No of total register Factories in Assam BKI (No of non metallic Industries in Assam.) (15.9%) (15.82%) (16.73%) (16.83%) (17.96%) (19.55%) (19.79%) ( 20.86% ) (19.23%) ( 20.27% ) (22.96%) (23.28%) (25.38%) (26.56%) (27.5%) (31.7%) Sources: Statistical Hand Books of Assam in different years, from 1997 onwards. The above representation gives an idea about the existence of industrial units in nonmetallic sector and total number of registered factories in Assam. The Brick kiln industries are categorized as non-metallic mineral product according to NIC (The Nonmetallic Mineral Product Manufacturing subsector includes establishments that manufacture products, such as bricks, refractory, ceramic products, and glass and glass products,nationalindustrialclassification( TM.) In Assam, there are no other industrial units other than brick manufacturing ones in the non metallic mineral product sector. 13

14 Figure :1.2: Trends of total register Factories and Non Metallic Mineral Industries (BKI) in Assam ( ) Registered Factory &BKI Registered Factory & BKI in Assam Year Registered Factory in Assam BKI Assam 1.3.iv. Number of workforce engaged in BKI and other registered factories ( ) Brick kiln industry is highly labour intensive industry. All concerned manufacture process is done by different types of workers. From the point of view of employment generation and engagement of workforce the importance of the Brick kiln industries can easily be realized from the following Figure 1.3. It is clearly shown that the number of workers engaged in Non Metallic mineral sector is significant in comparison to the total number of workers engaged in other registered factories in Assam. The following Table and figure shows the number of workers engaged in different BKIs and other registered factories of Assam. Though the BKI workers are not very high, but it is very significant as the brick industry engage much illiterate and unskilled labour. 14

15 Table : 1.3. Number of workforce engaged in Brick Kiln Industries and other registered factories in Assam, ( to ) SL No Time period Total workforce engaged in Total workforce engaged in registered Factories in non metallic Industries Assam (BKI) in Assam (11.63%) (14.06%) (16.47%) (18.82%) (20.1%) (22.48%) (27.68) Sources: Statistical Hand Books of Assam. From the above analysis, it is observed that with the increasing number of brick industries in Assam, the total workforce engaged in such industries are also increasing. The importance and significance of an industries can be shown by its relative position in terms of its contribution towards the net value added and net income generated by the industrial sector of that economy. The position of Brick industries in Assam can be shown by the following figure 1.3. Figure:1.3 Number of workforce engaged in Brick Kiln Industries and other registered factories in Assam, from

16 1.4. Increase Demand of Bricks Brick industry is basically a demand based industry. The growth of brick industries is the result of growing demands for bricks. Due to the emergence of various developmental factors, mainly housing, urbanization and infrastructure lead a high demand for bricks.the rate of urbanization, growth of per capita income are some of the important indicator of growing demand for bricks i. Urbanization The rate urbanization or increasing number of Small Township in Assam is an important factor for growing demand for bricks. This process can be measured in terms of increased housing and commercial facility and increase in urban amenities like transport, communication, sewerage etc. All these require higher building materials including bricks. To have a glimpse about the progress of urbanization in Assam (during the period of ) can be considered. Table:1.4 Trend in urbanization in Assam, Census Total number of Total Total urban % urban Year UAs/Towns population population population NA NA NA NA Source: Rural Urban distribution, Assam (provisional population Total) Census of India, 2011 The above table shows the increasing trend of urbanization and urban population in Assam during the period of The number of urban areas and 16

17 towns has increased from 12 in 1901 to 189 in 2011 Census. From 1921 to 1951 the increase was minimal. Suddenly it increased to 50 in 1961 from 24 in urban areas and towns were increased between1991-and 2001.Whereas, the increase between 2010 and 2011 is 79, which is the largest. Along with increasing number of urban areas and towns, the number of inhabitants also increases.the increasing trend of urbanization results increase demands for different inputs of housing including bricks also. Besides housing, Government also provides other amenities for urban development. This indicates continuous rising demands for construction materials. The growth of urbanization in Assam, particularly during the last two decades can be taken to be a factor in the rising demand for bricks in the state ii Increasing trend of state per capita income: The rising demand for bricks can also be perceived with continuous rising trends of state per capita income. From the changing scenario of housing pattern in Assam, it can be easily perceived that the demands for bricks are continuously rising in the state along with the other parts of India because there is a close relation between per capita income and brick demands. Other traditional building materials are become scarce and costly and they are temporary in nature. As a result, the time and money spent on such non-permanent housing gradually replaced by permanent dwellings. These houses might even eventually become valuable assets for the owner. Besides it, the use of concrete structures increases the status of the owner, which considered a sign of being modern and wealthy. Thus, the per capita income gives an idea of standard of living of the people. Table 1.6 shows the increasing trend of per capita income of Assam and India during the period of at constant ( ) prices. From Table 1.5,it is found that the per capita income of both Assam and India, increasing gradually during the period of It indicates the rising purchasing capacity of people and rising standard of living.the rising demand of bricks also a sign of higher living of standard.the growing change in the pattern of household from temporary structure to semi-permanent one are also some other indicator of rising demand for bricks. 17

18 Table. 1.5: Per Capita Incomes (at current prices) Year Assam India Per capita Growth rate Per capita Growth Rate Income (in Rs) (%) Income ( in Rs) (in %) Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Assam & Central Statistical Office, New Delhi, Economic Survey,Assam, In Study Areas Nagaon is an important district situated in the middle part of Assam.The district is spread over an area of 3973 sq.km. The district is bounded by Golaghat district in the east, Marigaon district in the west, Darrang and Sonitpur district in the north and Karbi Along district in the south. There are three sub-division in Nagaon district namely Nagaon,Hojai and Kaliabor. 108 registered (under State Pollution Control Broad) and some unregistered brick kiln units are operating in Nagaon District in three sub-divisions. Nagaon subdivision ranks highest with 71 units, next Kaliabor sub-division with 29 and in Hojai sub-division with 08.Table1.5 shows the sub-division wise distribution of units. Since 1996, as per India government rule, all existing units are required to compulsorily register under State Pollution Control Board. Each unit produces annually lakhs bricks on an average in every season. Few units are in operation for four to six decades, but more than 50% units came into existence during last 5-10 years. The industry employing on an average 150 workers as the male workers counted only the muster rolls of the employer and it is a also a significant employer of women and child as well. Due to its localized nature, brick production provides employment opportunities to villagers in many ways, directly and indirectly. 18

19 Table:1.6:Registered Brick Kiln Industries,(During to )in Nagaon District) Year N.Div K.Div H.Div Total Source: Field study, Records of State Pollution Control Board Office Nagaon, and unpublished records of Factory office Nagaon,and Published records of Chief Inspector of Factories,Assam,2009. The Brick manufacturing units in Nagaon district have been set up for nearly two decades now. With simple modification of production technique, the industry followed simple, labour intensive traditional method. Brick production is a seasonal activity dependent on some skilled and semi-skilled labour. In early years, the industry has to depend on migrant labours from Bihar, Jharkhand, Ranchi, Orissa, but now most of the labours are locally(within the state) available. Most of the industries are small scale industries registered under Factory Act1948.Though some of the labour laws officially applicable, but they are violated in the brick fields and the workers remain unprotected, insecure and unorganized. 19

20 Brick making has started in October, after the ritual performed by the owner (on the day of Vijaya Dasmi) and the labour Sarders are sent to bring the labourers to the brick fields. Making green bricks has started in November after all the batches of skilled workers (Patheras) have arrived and the final step for burn the Sundried green bricks begin after one month. The brick fields commonly known as Bhattas, are open cast and work start from 5 am to 6 pm in the evening. The whole process of brick making is spilt into a number of tasks performed sequentially in different locations within the brickfields. Each phase of production is assigned to different sets of workers, who are traditionally differentiated in terms of sex, skill and place of origin. All workers have a specific name for the assigned activity in production process but a worker of a certain category cannot participate in a task not designated for the group. Brick making is a labour intensive industry, which are characterized by continuous and cyclic process of manufacturing. In Nagaon district, clay is the only raw material for brick production and it is the most economical also. It starts with the raw clay, which is first ground and mixed with water to the desired consistency. Generally the collected alluvial soil (collected from agricultural fertile land) is mixed with water and kneaded into dough.the clay is then pressed into a wooden box (known as Forma). Once the bricks have slightly dried, the rough edges are removed with a wooden plate. The shaped bricks are (commonly named as green bricks) are kept open for Sun-dry for few days, approximately 1 week. It depends on the Sunshine. When the drying stage will be over, the dried out bricks are transported to the kiln by labour (Rejja) or somewhere done by cart. The dried bricks are stacked in the kiln in a systematic manner. The stacked bricks are covered with clay and red bricks and holes are left for pouring fuel (coal).now the kiln is ready to burn with the aid of coal, firewood, kerosene, old tyre etc. In this final stage, bricks are allowed to remain under the required temperature (Generally when the smoke changes from black to white).finally, the sundried bricks are burnt by specialized skilled labour (males only) known as mistry/firemen or agonwala. The firing continues for approx 7 days and converted the green bricks to red clay bricks.as firing of a portion is completed the holes are covered with bricks to let them cool for a week. Then fired bricks are removed from the kiln and either transported directly to customer or is stacked outside the kiln for customer. 20

21 The kiln owner is the head of the operation.generally, the kiln owner spend much of their time at the kiln, dealing with sales and looking after entire operation. However, the owners rarely deals with workers themselves, delegating this task to the recruiter (Sarder).The kiln owners rarely own the land on which they operate. Most of the owner rent the land from local landowners years on lease. He has an assistant or accountant(commonly known as Munchi) that keeps track of the number of bricks produce daily in order to tabulate the wages earned on a weekly basis, based on a predetermined piece rate. The Bakider (carrier of burnt bricks from kiln) and Rejja (carrier of green bricks to the kiln) use a plastic token for every 10 units to keep the account. Bricks are counted and sold in multiples of thousand. Generally, the quality of bricks is depends on two major factors--- (a) The quality of soil that used for the purpose should contain suitable plasticity. (b) The proper burning of the bricks when the semi-processed bricks are sets in the kiln. The Labour Sarder is the middle-man between the owner and the workers who recruit labourers and remain responsible for any obligation. In case of skilled labour, (commonly known as Mistry or Firemen,) the level of technical knowhow or efficiency is the base on which the sarder fixes the monthly wage rate. Greenbrick makers (Patheras) are also recruited by sarder based on productivity and reliability. While the piece rate for such work is predetermined, the advance (Dadan) offers to the household which are capable of repaying over a given season. Generally the sarder, recruits households with a family, ethnic or community tie, which helps ensure that the workers will not run off without repaying their advances. If the workers do not pay back their advances, the sarder is responsible for it. The labour sarder is paid commission, which is deducted from the workers wages by the kiln owner (Ghosh, 1993) Statement of the problem: With the pace of economic development and growing volume of construction in both rural and urban areas, the demand for bricks goes up every year in Assam along with other parts of India. Being located in the heart of Assam, the trade and commerce of Nagaon District have shown considerable growth in recent years. The population of Nagaon District have increased at a high rate, which has led to an increase in the numbers of residential, educational, hospitals, public utilities, commercial, small scale, 21

22 medium industry, infrastructural structure and multistoried apartments. All this requires huge quantities of construction materials, which come from nearby areas. Economic Development is directly related to the continuous rise in demand for bricks. Increasing per capita income also an indicator of rising demand for bricks as construction of concrete houses increase the status of the owner and is considered a sign of being modern. Besides it, local materials traditionally used for permanent construction like timber, bamboo & thatch have become very scarce, while modern building materials are more expensive and have to be imported from outside the state. So clay bricks are widely, appropriately and effectively used as a main material for permanent construction both in rural and urban areas. In Nagaon District, Brick making units have been growing significantly in the recent years. Brick making on commercial purpose had started in the early part of the last century. During post-independence period, along with economic development, brick manufacturing units in Nagaon District took the shape of an industry very slowly. In view of the growing demand for bricks in the market there has been a production boom in the last two decades. Brick is the major building material in Nagaon and will remain so in the near future due to the higher cost of alternatives and scarcity. In Nagaon District, brick kiln industry follow the age-old traditional method, which has low level mechanization and high labor intensity. The brick making process mainly comprise two activities--- (a) Making of green bricks from good alluvial soil (b) Burning of green bricks by highly energy intensive thermal energy from coal. As fuel, coal is used continuously for almost 6 months, which may cause severe impact on environment. The mushroom growth of brick kiln and brick field creates a threat to the social and economic sustainability of the area (Patowary2010).All brick kiln units are operating in cluster and cause substantial level of air pollution and land degradation in the locality. Some environmental issues related with such activities as availability of good fertile alluvial land which is one of the most important conditions for establishing a brick industry that initiates the process of land degradation. As land is finite and fixed in an area, so loss of such land used by some manmade activities has raised the question of sustainability (Singh and Asgher2005).Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India has admitted that more than half of the total area of India is 22

23 suffering from serious land degradation due to some unwise and short sighted man made activities (National Environmental policy 2006). Brick kiln industry plays a significant role in both national and state level. Its contribution is too large to be defined as it contributes positively towards (i) Area occupied as industrial unit (ii) Brick making is a significant source of employment (iii) Generation of income for many skilled and unskilled labors (iv)generation of net value added (v) Total number of units as comparison with other manufacturing units in Nagaon District. Nagaon District has high potentiality to develop brick industry to absorb an important place in industrial scenario of the state. The district has an adequate infrastructure, there is high demand for bricks and its sale price is favorable, while exploring ways to ameliorate the performance of the industry, what is needed, is a more dynamic approach to implement the available knowledge. The contribution of this industry to the economy is largely positive. Significant progress could occur in national development, which could result in the consolidation of small industrial base. This would require significant efforts towards improving the management and technology. But this sector is still not regarded as an equivalent one to any well organized industrial sector. This is most particularly true of Assam. Therefore, there is a growing need for information about detailed economic performance of the industry to enhance productivity with less cost of production (both economic and social cost).research on this aspect is very limited, which creates the necessity of conducting research on detailed economic indicators not only profitability, but also input,prices factor market, product market etc. For this reason, this study will focus on in depth economic analysis in terms of cost, profit and productivity in Brick kiln industry Objectives of the study On the basis of the above discussion, the objectives of the study are stated below (1) To study the present status of Brick Industry. (2) Cost analysis of the brick industry. (3) To study the pattern of employment and income generation of the industry. (4) To examine the socio-economic conditions of the workers. 23

24 1. 8. Research Questions:- a) Whether the brick industry has any economic impact on the villagers of nearby areas? b) Whether brick manufacturing activities affect humen health in surrounding areas? c) Whether brick kiln activities affect the agricultural production of nearby agricultural land? 1.9. Likely Contributions of the Study The problems, role and contributions of this age-old industry have not received adequate attention from the scholars. Even, the name of brick kiln industry is not mentioned in different text books of Economics and Assam Government various records. Whatever the studies have done on outside Assam could not provide a clear picture about the problems and contributions of the industry in this area. Since, the industry play a significant role in the economy of Assam, there is significant need for extending the study to cover different aspects of brick kiln. Under these circumstances, the importance of this study is even more significant as it will explore some new ideas. It is also expected that the findings of the study will provide information, through which the manufacturers, consumers, workers and the Government will enable to assess the contributions and the present scenario of these industries. Moreover, the study will help the manufacturers to take rational decisions about the investment and adoption of new eco-friendly technology. It is also expected that this study will help the policy makers in formulating policies for upliftment of these industries, workers will be provided with better socio-economic measures Limitations of the study i. The findings of the study are based on information collected from limited number of respondents from 40 (forty) brick kiln units of Nagaon district, situated in three sub divisions. Thus, the outcome of the study can be generalized only in respect of identical circumstances. ii. The findings of the study are based on the information given out by the respondents. Hence, the possibility of prejudices and biases cannot be ruled out. 24

25 iii. Time to be devoted to the investigation and the resources supporting the undertaking were the major limitations encountered by the investigator The Structure of the thesis The thesis has been presented in six chapters. Chapter one is Introduction. It covers the brief history of bricks, a short review of Indian brick industry, with special reference to Assam as well as Nagaon brick industry. The statement of the problems, objectives of the study, research questions, likely contributions and the limitations of the study are included in this chapter. The second chapter dealing with the Review of Literature seeks to provide an insight into similar type of studies carried out by researchers in the past. The third chapter is Research Methodology. It expounds the sampling design, variables and the measurement, technique of data collection and statistical techniques adopted to analyze the data. The fourth chapter is Analysis of the Objectives. The findings of the study along with the discussion are presented here. The fifth chapter is discussion of research question titled as Impact of Brick Industries. The sixth chapter summarizes the content and draws the conclusions based on the results of the study and titled as Summery and Conclusion. Bibliography, Appendices and Schedule & Questionnaires are provided at the end of the thesis The Reference Period The personal interview was conducted for the study relates to the year &

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