Table of Contents. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...ii LIST OF FIGURES...xii LIST OF TABLES...xv LIST OF SYMBOLS...xvi CHAPTER 1:ABOUT THIS STUDY...

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1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...ii LIST OF FIGURES...xii LIST OF TABLES...xv LIST OF SYMBOLS...xvi CHAPTER 1:ABOUT THIS STUDY THESIS STATEMENT INTRODUCTION RESEARCH OBJECTIVES RESEARCH METHODOLOGY RESEARCH SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS THESIS ORGANIZATION... 6 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW HISTORY OF BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION Ancient Structures Ancient Structural Principles Trial and Error The Earliest Beginnings Timber Bridges Stone Bridges Aqueducts and Viaducts Religious Symbolism Vitruvius De Architectura Contributions of Ancient Bridge Building The Middle Ages Preservation of Roman Knowledge Bridges in the Middle East and Asia Revival of European Bridge Building Construction and History of Old London Bridge The Pont d Avignon Further Notable Medieval Bridges Purpose of Medieval Bridges Contributions of Medieval Bridge Building iv

2 2.1.3 The Renaissance Renaissance Trusses Palladio s I Quattro Libri dell'architettura Veranzio s Machinae Novae The Rialto Bridge French Renaissance Bridge Building English Renaissance Bridge Building Contributions of Renaissance Bridge Building The Industrial Revolution The Ironbridge Early Iron Structures Early Suspension Bridges The Menai Strait Bridge The Britannia Bridge Covered Bridges Railway Bridges Failure of the Tay Bridge Contributions of Bridge Building during the Industrial Revolution The Great Bridges The St. Louis Bridge The Brooklyn Bridge The Forth Rail Bridge The George Washington Bridge Failure of the Quebec Bridge Failure of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge The Severn Bridge Contributions of Bridge Building between Nineteenth and Twentieth Century The Era of Concrete Bridges and Beyond Concrete Characteristics Early Concrete Structures Concrete Arch Bridges Prestressed Concrete Bridges Concrete Bridges after the Second World War Cable-Stayed Bridges Recent Bridge Projects Contributions of Modern Concrete Bridge Construction FUTURE CHALLENGES IN BRIDGE ENGINEERING Improvements in Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Rehabilitation Improvements in Design Improvements in Construction v

3 Improvements in Maintenance and Rehabilitation Smart Bridges High-Performance Materials Strength and Other Mechanical Properties Workability Durability Composites Innovative Structural Concepts Enhancing Existing Structural Concepts Combination of Existing Structural Concepts Development of New Structural Concepts Kinetic Structures Underwater Bridges Stress Ribbon Bridges Multiuse Bridges High-Art Bridges Spatial Structures Concrete Trusswork Bioengineering Conclusion CHAPTER 3: THE DESIGN PROCESS OF SEGMENTAL BRIDGES DESIGN PHILOSOPHY The Nature of Engineering Current Issues in Engineering Education Functional Requirements for Structures and Interdependencies Design against Failure The Design Process Creativity at Work Conceptual Design Analysis and Dimensioning Design Process According to Leonhardt CONSTRUCTION PROJECT CHARACTERISTICS Project Life-Cycle Resource Utilization Economy Ecology vi

4 The Linn Cove Viaduct AESTHETICS AND ENGINEERING Aesthetic Values Character and Function Proportions and Harmony Complexity and Order Color and Texture Environmental Scale FACTORS INFLUENCING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION Environmental Factors Soil Conditions Topography River Crossing Protection of the Environment Climate Technical Factors Structural Type and Erection Method Construction Details Labor Factors Owner Needs CHARACTERISTICS OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING Modeling Reality Factor of Safety Structural Analysis CHARACTERISTICS OF CAST-IN-PLACE SEGMENTAL CANTILEVER CONSTRUCTION Segmental Construction Cantilevering Method Cantilevering Defined Low Strength of Young Concrete Prestress Losses Through Elastic Shortening Prestress Losses Through Time-Dependent Effects Redistribution of Internal Forces Further Considerations Importance of Accounting for Prestress Losses and Conclusion Cast-In-Place Construction Cast-In-Place Construction Applied to Cantilevering Quality Control Durability vii

5 Camber CONSTRUCTABILITY OF BOX GIRDERS Characteristics of Box Girders Webs Diaphragms Structural Behavior Implementation of Box Girders Width Depth Span Length Durability Appearance CHAPTER 4: THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF SEGMENTAL BRIDGES DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSED SEGMENTAL BRIDGES Degree of Prestressing Pre-Tensioning Post-Tensioning CONCRETE BRIDGE ERECTION TECHNIQUES Cantilevering Method Precast Construction Cast-In-Place Construction Balanced Cantilever Construction Progressive Placement Method The Linn Cove Viaduct Concluding the Cantilevering Process Cantilever Erection Equipment Form Travelers Launching Girders Launching Girder Slightly Longer Than One Span Launching Girder Slightly Longer Than Two Spans Incremental Launching Falsework Stationary Falsework Traveling Falsework Temporary Towers Span-By-Span Erection viii

6 4.3 CONSIDERATION OF CONSTRUCTION LOADS AND STRESSES Types of Construction Loads and Influences The Zilwaukee Bridge The West Gate Bridge Influence of Erection Method and Construction Sequence Existing Codes and Regulations American Concrete Institute American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials American Society for Testing and Materials American Welding Society Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute Other Institutions Federal Highway Administration Owner Specifications CHAPTER 5: CASE STUDY THE WILSON CREEK BRIDGE PROJECT CONCEPTUALIZATION General Project Overview Smart Road Project Objective of Smart Road and Overview Regional Traffic Infrastructure Bridge Overview Parties Involved Contractual Provisions Financial Provisions PROJECT DESIGN Member Designation Member Geometry Foundations Abutments Pier Shafts Pier Tables Superstructure Surrounding and Incidental Works Change in Design Quantities of Construction Materials Reinforcement and Related Details ix

7 Concrete Cover Prestressing Tendons, Tendon Ducts, and Anchorages Segment Reinforcing Schedule Further Construction Details Bearings Expansion Joints Accessory Details and Finishing Plan Documents, Structural Calculations, and Construction Manuals Plans Structural Calculations Geometry Control Manual Architectural Considerations PROJECT CONSTRUCTION Site Layout and Subsurface Conditions Site Preparation Foundation Construction, Drainage System, and Earthwork Substructure Construction Abutments Pier Shafts Change in Construction Superstructure Construction Pier Tables Form Travelers Other Construction Equipment Segment Casting Cycle Cantilevering Sequence Surveying and Construction Tolerances DISCUSSION OF CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION SUMMARY CONTRIBUTIONS RECOMMENDATIONS x

8 REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX A: LIST OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS APPENDIX B: CASTING CYCLE FOR WILSON CREEK BRIDGE VITA xi