Forest protection and regeneration under joint forest planning and management in Eastern Plains and Western Ghats of Karnataka, India

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1 70 Int. J. Environment and Sustainable Development, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2006 Forest protection and regeneration under joint forest planning and management in Eastern Plains and Western Ghats of Karnataka, India P. Sudha*, V. Ramprasad, P.R. Bhat*, I.K. Murthy, R. Jagannatha Rao, G.T. Hedge, B.C. Nagaraja, C.M. Shastri, M.D.V. Nagendra, H. Khan, D.M. Shetty, G.N. Hegde, K.S. Murali and N.H. Ravindranath Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India *Corresponding authors Abstract: Joint forest management in Karnataka, India was initiated in the Western Ghats and Eastern Plains. In Western Ghats, multispecies model was adopted, while in Eastern Plains 13 silvicultural models were adopted, of which assisted natural regeneration accounted for 43% of the plantation area that had rootstock. In addition, pre-jfpm plantations raised under social forestry were also included under JFM area in Eastern Plains. An ecological study showed that plantation approach in the Western Ghats and pre-jfpm model of Eastern Plains are comparable with high biomass and lower species diversity, and the Eastern Plains JFM areas are characterised by higher biodiversity index, lesser tree density, above ground biomass and mean annual increments. Keywords: joint forest management; Karnataka; Western Ghats; Eastern Plains; biodiversity; biomass. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Sudha, P., Ramprasad, V., Bhat, P.R., Murthy, I.K., Jagannatha Rao, R., Hedge, G.T., Nagaraja, B.C., Shastri, C.M., Nagendra, M.D.V., Khan, H., Shetty, D.M., Hegde, G.N., Murali, K.S. and Ravindranath, N.H. (2006) Forest protection and regeneration under joint forest planning and management in Eastern Plains and Western Ghats of Karnataka, India, Int. J. Environment and Sustainable Development, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp Copyright 2006 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

2 Forest protection and regeneration under joint forest planning 71 Biographical notes: P. Sudha holds a Doctoral degree in Botany from Bangalore University, India and she is working on the issues of Climate Change and Forestry with special focus on clean Development Mechanism, forestry mitigation, urban forestry, and institutional, ecological and economics of forest management in India. V. Ramprasad holds a Master s degree in Botany from Bangalore University, India is currently pursuing PhD at Department of Environmental and Plant Biology, Ohio University, Athens. P.R. Bhat holds a Master s degree from Karnataka University, Dharwad, Karnataka and currently working in Western Ghats region of India on issues related to forest and natural resource management, biodiversity conservation, management of non-timber forest products, and promoting awareness and community participation in resource management. I.K. Murthy holds a Master s Degree in Botany and Forestry from Baroda University, India and is currently working on issues of Climate Change and Forestry with regard to clean development mechanism, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, forest management and natural resource management. R. Jagannatha Rao holds a Bachelors degree in Agricultural Marketing and Cooperation and a Masters degree in Agricultural Extension from the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India. He has worked on watershed development, land tenure systems in the forested areas of Karnataka. G.T. Hegde holds a Master s Degree in Statistics from Karnataka University, Dharwad, Karnataka. He is currently working on joint forest management, non-timber forest products, forest regeneration in the Western Ghats region of Karnataka. Dr. B.C. Nagaraja has graduated from Bangalore University is working on issues of Forest Management, ecology and environmental issues. C.M. Shastry holds a Bachelors Degree from Karnataka University, Dharwad, Karnataka and working on joint forest management, natural resource management, biomass energy conservation. M.D.V. Nagendra holds a Master s Degree in Environmental Sciences and is currently working on issues related to joint forest management. H. Khan has a Master s Degree in Soil Sciences from Agriculture University, University of Agricultural sciences, Bangalore, India. He is currently working on issues related to Climate Change and Forestry with Special focus on soil organic carbon. D.M. Shetty is working on joint forest management, forest regeneration and NTFPs at the Western Ghats region of Karnataka. G.N. Hegde holds a Bachelors Degree from Karnataka University, Dharwad, Karnataka is working on joint forest management and Forest Regeneration at the Western Ghats region in Karnataka

3 72 P. Sudha et al. K.S. Murali graduated from the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. His interests cover evolutionary ecology concerning plant reproductive ecology, community forestry, conservation biology, tropical deforestation patterns, developing sustainability indicators for managers including micro finance and natural resource management. N.H. Ravindranath is an Expert on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. His areas of interest span biodiversity conservation, joint forest management, rural energy options and climate change. He is currently a Professor at the Centre for Sustainable Technologies and Associate Faculty at the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. 1 Introduction Joint forest management known as Joint Forest Planning and Management (JFPM) in Karnataka was initiated a decade back with objectives of decreasing damage from biotic interference and reviving the forest resources by actively involving the communities living in villages adjoining the forests in conservation, planning, protection, regeneration, development and management of degraded forests by formation of Village Forest Committees (VFCs). The JFPM is mainly implemented in degraded forestlands with a canopy cover less than 25%. The programme was initiated under the British funded Western Ghats Forestry Project (WGFP) during by forming 539 VFCs and developing 20,835 ha of forests. The Japanese assisted Forestry and Environment Project for Eastern Plains (FEPEP) was implemented in 23 Eastern Plains districts of Karnataka during with 3,100 VFCs protecting and managing about 3,23,990 ha. In total, there are 3,799 VFCs including those formed under state and centrally aided schemes, covering an area of about 3,44,825 ha of forests and wastelands (Sudha and Ravindranath, 2004). As JFPM is a large national programme involving communities in protection and management of forests, it is necessary to understand its impact on vegetation status. Thus, the objective of the paper is to assess the impact of management practices on vegetation status in JFPM area in Karnataka. 1.1 Forestry practices under Western Ghats project The silvicultural models adopted in the Western Ghats included gap planting and enrichment of natural forest, small-scale industry and artisan plantations and multipurpose plantations afforesting about 56,632 ha. Different silvicultural models were adopted in different zones based on the need and suitability of species (Table 1). But, under JFPM, rehabilitation of degraded patches was given high priority with plantations of fuel wood species, such as Casuarina equisetifolia and Acacia auriculiformis, and local timber species. To some extent, local species such as Terminalia crenulata, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Pterocarpus marsupium and non-timber forest product (NTFP) yielding species such as Mangifera indica and Anacardium occidentale were planted (KFD, 2000). Bamboos and canes were also raised in suitable sites. The focus was largely on the conventional plantation model, even though regeneration

4 Forest protection and regeneration under joint forest planning 73 model was part of the management strategy proposed in this region. The plantations were taken up predominantly on degraded forests bereft of rootstock and with a canopy cover of less than 25%. Table 1 Different models implemented in the Western Ghats and total area covered Model Area treated (ha) Gap planting and enrichment of the natural forest 28,358 Small scale industry and artisans plantations (bamboo and cane) 6,025 Local need s multipurpose forestry management, consisting of four 22,249 models Total area treated under different models 56,632 Source: KFD (2000) 1.2 Forestry practices under JFPM in the Eastern Plains Thirteen different silvicultural models were developed for implementation in the Eastern Plains of which natural regeneration model was predominant, wherein enrichment gap planting was done with native species such as Neem, Ficus, Terminalia, etc., in areas with good rootstock. About 81,357 ha were brought under this model accounting for 43.3% of total plantation area (Table 2). Table 2 Different models implemented in the Eastern Plains and total area covered Model Area (ha) Management of ecologically sensitive, archaeologically important areas 20,177 Natural regeneration 81,357 Trench mound cum pit plantation 17,625 Mechanised plantation 26,560 Irrigated bamboo plantation 5,924 Irrigated bamboo and teak plantation 4,151 Irrigated fruit orchard 9,596 Foreshore plantation 4,508 Strip plantation (roadside, railway line side and canal slide) 7,965 Urban forestry 4,505 Afforestation on institutional lands 3,271 Development of man-made tanks, parks and recreation spots in urban areas 2,081 Farm forestry* Total 187,720 *184.7 million seedlings. Source: KFD (2003) In many forest divisions of Eastern Plains, plantations done under social forestry, during s, and other central and state government sponsored schemes were also included as JFPM area for the village community to manage and protect. Such older plantations that were not raised under FEPEP programme have been studied separately and referred here as pre-jfpm areas.

5 74 P. Sudha et al. 2 Methodology Ecological studies were conducted in selected VFCs to assess the effect of management on vegetation status under JFPM. Sampling was done in the JFPM plantations representing six predominant models, the pre-jfpm model of the Eastern Plains and the JFPM model of the Western Ghats. Non-JFPM forest area, i.e., area in proximity to the JFPM area that reasonably represents the area prior to silvicultural treatment under JFPM was sampled to serve as control. A sample of 59 VFCs from nine forest divisions covering diverse geographic, socio-economic and vegetation composition was selected, of which three were in the Western Ghats region (Sirsi, Honnavar and Sagara) and six in the Eastern Plains (Belgaum, Gadag, Hassan, Tumkur, Bidar and Gokak). Selection of forest divisions was based on rainfall zones and area covered under JFPM. Within each forest division, VFCs adopted under different silvicultural models were selected. In each village, observations were made in JFPM plantations or natural forests and control plots. Four quadrats, measuring m were laid as tree quadrats, and all stems with more than 10 cm girth at 1.37 m height were identified to species level and their girth and approximate height recorded. At the corners of tree quadrat, four plots measuring m were laid to enumerate the shrubs and seedlings. Stem density, basal area, species diversity index and biomass were computed. Biomass was computed using species-specific equations developed by Forest Survey of India (1996). For those species without equations, biomass was computed as the product of basal area, height and wood density. Statistical analysis (Student s t-test) was conducted to test the difference in mean tree density between JFPM and control plots under Eastern Plains. 3 Results Ecological impact of JFPM was assessed based on species richness, species diversity index, tree density, basal area, biomass, biomass growth rate and regeneration. 3.1 Species richness and biodiversity The study indicates that initially, the plantation model adopted chiefly governs species richness of plantations. Furthermore, protection offered to plantations would enhance diversity depending on presence of rootstocks of natural species. In the Western Ghats, all the three divisions show high species richness ranging from 1 to 32 species. Species richness in sampled VFCs was highest in Sirsi division where an average of 23 species was recorded followed by Sagara with 22 species and Honnavar with 10 (Table 3). In Eastern Plains, species richness ranged from 1 to 21 with an average species richness of 12 in Gadag, followed by Gokak (10), Bidar (9), Hassan (7) and Tumkur (4) (Table 3). Comparatively, VFCs of Western Ghats are richer in species when compared to that of Eastern Plains.

6 Forest protection and regeneration under joint forest planning 75 Table 3 Species richness and biodiversity index of trees in JFPM and control plots Forest division Range of species found in VFCs Number of VFCs Shannon Weiner index sampled JFPM area* Control Western Ghats Honnavar Sagara Sirsi Eastern Plains Bidar ( ) Gokak (0 2.10) Gadag (0 2.52) Hassan ( ) Tumkur (0 1.38) Belgaum (0 2.38) *Numbers in parentheses are SWI of the naturally regenerating native species. Shannon Weiner species diversity index values in Western Ghats ranged from 0.09 to 1.71, while in control plots it ranged from 0 to 2.41 (Table 3). In Western Ghats, the VFCs were six to eight years old and the species diversity index was 0 in 5% plantations surveyed where only monoculture was found, 59% plantations had diversity index ranging between zero and one and 36% between one and two. The diversity index was higher in the control plots compared to the JFPM plots in the three forest divisions. In Eastern Plains, diversity index ranged from 0.06 to 2.58 in JFPM area and from 0 to 2.85 in control plots (Table 3). In general, control plots showed less diversity than JFPM forests, except in Belgaum, which being interspersed with southern tropical semi-evergreen forests characteristic of Western Ghats, is rich in biodiversity. It was observed that after establishment of JFPM plantations, there was a considerable increase in diversity index compared to native species present prior to plantation in 60% of the VFCs (Table 3). In 4% of VFCs, monoculture plantations were found; 44% VFCs have diversity index between 0 and 1, 33% between 1 and 2 and 18% between 2 and 3. The index shows a large diversity range in Bidar (Table 3), as the age of plantations ranges from 10 and 21 years, and protection was initiated after thinning (17% of total density are cut), and the cleared patches with open canopy have promoted regeneration of native species. Forest divisions of Hassan, Gadag and Gokak had comparable diversity index and species richness. Tumkur exhibited lowest diversity index, which can be attributed to lower plantation age (<=3 years) wherein the stems were in seedling category. Furthermore, the species planted, being NTFP species are slow growing. 3.2 Density of trees In control plots, the average tree density in Western Ghats and Eastern Plains region was 64/ha and 120/ha, respectively. Under JFPM, average tree density was 1070/ha in Western Ghats (ranging from 900 to 1300) and 600/ha (ranging from 260 to 1000) in Eastern Plains (Table 4(a) and 4(b)). The t-test shows that there exist large differences in density of control and JFPM plots of both Eastern Plains and Western Ghats,

7 76 P. Sudha et al. indicating improvement in tree density owing to planting and protection. Statistically, the tree density in JFPM forests was significantly higher than that of control in all the forest divisions except Tumkur (Table 4(b)). The occurrence of native stems in JFPM plantations was 28% in Western Ghats and 15% in Eastern Plains. In all the pre-jfpm plantations of Eastern Plains, naturally occurring species are very less, signifying that plantations were raised on degraded sites. In Eastern Plains, cut stems in JFPM area indicative of extent of disturbance accounted for stems/ha accounting for 4 17% of tree density in various forest divisions (Table 4(b)). Tumkur forest division has high proportion of dead stems (450/ha), especially of Hardwicikia binata seedlings, owing to successive drought in the past three years. Harvest of plantation patches and raising new plantations in the same area has been the practice and hence, it was difficult to assess the extent of illegal felling in the JFPM area. Table 4 Tree density (number/ha) in JFPM plantations Tree density (number/ha)* % Contribution of species to JFPM area Forest division JFPM Control Natural Planted (a) Western Ghats Honnavar Sagara 1, Sirsi 1, Average 1, Tree density (number/ha)* % Contribution of species to JFPM area Forest t-test division JFPM Control t P Natural Planted No. cut stems/ha (b) Eastern Plains Bidar 750 ± < Gokak 260 ± < Gadag 300 ± Hassan 449 ± < Tumkur 343 ± * Belgaum 1000 ± Average 600 ± ± ± 163 *Dead pits. 3.3 Basal area In general, higher basal area was observed in Western Ghats than Eastern Plains. This difference could be because of the age of plantations. In Western Ghats, JFPM plantations showed higher basal area (11.38 m 2 /ha) than corresponding control plots (Table 5). In Eastern Plains, the basal area of pre-jfpm plantations (11.73 m 2 /ha) is

8 Forest protection and regeneration under joint forest planning 77 almost ten times that of control plot, and for JFPM plantations (3.18 ± 2.83 m 2 /ha) it is 2.7 times. In the JFPM plantations of Eastern Plains, the basal area ranges from 0.56 m 2 /ha (1 4 years) in Tumkur to 7.92 m 2 /ha in Belgaum (Table 5). Contribution of native species towards basal area accounts for 25 38% of the total basal area in both the regions. In the Western Ghats, Sagara division has 60% contribution from the native species that is comparable to 43% contribution in Gokak division in the Eastern Plains. All the other divisions have more than 75% contribution from the planted species. Amongst the pre-jfpm plantations, the planted species account for 80 99% of the contribution in all divisions. Thus, planted species have, to a large extent, contributed to biomass in both the regions. Table 5 Basal area of JFPM area in the Western Ghats and the Eastern Plains Forest Basal area (m 2 /ha) Percentage of contribution to basal area in JFPM area division JFPM area Control Natural species Planted Western Ghats Honnavar ± Sagara 9.37 ± Sirsi 8.98 ± Average ± Eastern Plains Bidar (17.23 ± 9.7) 1.27 ± 0.57 (16) (84) Gokak 1.83 ± ± Gadag 2.19 ± ± Hassan 3.39 ± 2.37 (8.73 ± 5.71) (6) 91 (94) Tumkur 0.56 ± 0.59 (9.25 ± 11.55) 24 (1) 76 (99) Belgaum 7.92 ± Average 3.18 ± 2.83 (11.73 ± 4.76) (8) 75 (92) Numbers in parentheses indicate pre-jfpm plantations in the Eastern Plains. 3.4 Above ground biomass The above ground biomass (AGB) for JFPM forests in Western Ghats (44.53 t/ha) varied from 20 to 75 t/ha (Table 6(a)) and was higher than control plots (23.32 t/ha). In Eastern Plains, the AGBs of JFPM plantations (26.10 t/ha) and pre-jfpm plantations (58.08 t/ha) were larger than control plots (9.49 t/ha). The AGB varied from 1.54 t/ha in Tumkur to t/ha in Hassan, of which 69% of biomass was because of plantation. In pre-jfpm plantations in Bidar, Hassan, Belgaum and Tumkur, 84% contribution was from plantations (Table 6(b)).

9 78 P. Sudha et al. Table 6 Above ground biomass (t/ha) Forest division JFPM area Control plot (a) Western Ghats region in Karnataka Honnavar ± Sagara ± Sirsi ± Average ± Forest Above ground biomass (t/ha) Percentage of contribution to JFPM area division JFPM Control plot Natural species Planted (b) Eastern Plains region of Karnataka Bidar (80.44 ± 50.10) 5.09 ± 2.55 (22) (78) Gokak 7.74 ± ± Gadag 7.60 ± ± Hassan 9.60 ± (11) 88 (89) (46.21 ± 31.71) Tumkur 1.54 ± (1) 71 (99) (44.42 ± 58.94) Belgaum ± ± Average ± (58.08 ± 43.12) 9.49 ± (16) 69 (84) Numbers in parentheses are that of pre-jfpm area in the Eastern Plains. 3.5 Mean annual increment (MAI) of biomass Average MAI in Western Ghats ranged from 3.07 t/ha/yr in Sagara to 5.32 t/ha/yr in Honnavar with an overall MAI of 4.04 t/ha/yr. In Eastern Plains the overall MAI was 2.04 t/ha/yr, ranging from 0.29 t/ha/yr in Tumkur to 2.26 t/ha/yr in Hassan (Table 7). The pre-jfpm plantations showed higher MAI (3.35 t/ha/yr), ranging from 1.85 t/ha/yr in Tumkur to 3.9 t/ha/yr in Bidar. Table 7 Mean annual increment of planted species (t/ha/y) Forest division Age (years) Mean annual increment* Rainfall (mm) Western Ghats Honnavar ± 2.03 Sagara ± 4.45 Sirsi ± Average 4.04 ± 1.16

10 Forest protection and regeneration under joint forest planning 79 Table 7 Mean annual increment of planted species (t/ha/y) (continued) Forest division Age (years) Mean annual increment* Rainfall (mm) Eastern Plains Bidar (10 21) (3.9 ± 2.41) 907 Gokak ± Gadag ± Hassan 1 6 (5 27) 2.26 ± 2.79 (3.31 ± 4.43) 1041 Tumkur 2 4 (16 24) 0.29 ± 0.37 (1.85 ± 2.44) 688 Belgaum ± Average 1 6 (5 27) 2.04 ± 2.33 (3.35 ± 3.52) *Numbers in parentheses are that of the pre-jfpm plantations. 3.6 Regeneration status in the JFPM area In Western Ghats region, most planted and naturally occurring species were <10 cm in DBH. Trees in lower DBH class show good regeneration status of native species (Table 8), especially in Sirsi and Honnavar forest divisions. Table 8 DBH distribution of species in the VFCs of the Western Ghats and percent of naturally regenerated and planted species Natural regeneration Plantation Division <10 cm >10 cm <10 cm >10 cm Honnavar Sagara Sirsi In the Eastern Plains, planted species account for 85% of the trees (Table 4). Higher proportion (77%) of trees were between 5 and 15 cm DBH in Belgaum, Gadag, Gokak and Hassan, where the age of the plantations is from one to six. In Tumkur, most plantations were of two to four years of age and most stems were less than 5 cm in DBH. Bidar plantations were dominated by older plantations of years and had equal proportion of trees distributed across DBH classes. In all divisions in Eastern Plains, except Bidar, naturally regenerating species account for 10 14% of the standing tree density (Figure 1). Naturally regenerating trees were found in <10 cm DBH and 5 10 cm girth class. Only in Bidar, trees of higher DBH class (>20 cm) existed.

11 80 P. Sudha et al. Figure 1 Percent DBH distribution of naturally regenerating (NR) and planted (P) trees in the JFPM area of Eastern Plains 4 Discussion JFPM essentially seeks to protect the existing forests by easing the pressure, afforest degraded lands, reduce encroachments and promote people s participation in these activities. JFM has succeeded in halting further degradation of forests by preventing encroachments (Kumar, 2002), and has lead to a significant increase in plant diversity and biomass (TERI, 1999). Further, linking JFM to socio-economic activities has shown that sustainable resource management can go hand in hand with poverty alleviation (Jodha, 1992; Kumar, 2002; Saxena et al., 1997). To sustain community participation in forest protection and management, the critical issues to be addressed are regeneration, biodiversity conservation and biomass production. 4.1 Ecological impacts: community perspective A study conducted (Sudha et al., 2004) in Karnataka to understand the ecological impact of JFPM, based on community perspective, showed that nearly 75 80% of the VFCs reported an increase in canopy cover and tree density, 50% VFCs reported increase in species richness and about 57% VFCs perceived no change in the availability of fuel wood. With regard to fodder availability, in the Western Ghats, 60% of the VFCs perceived decrease in fodder availability owing to closure of tree canopy inhibiting grass growth. In the Eastern Plains, the converse is true where 42% of the VFCs reported increase, largely owing to closure of area to grazing.

12 Forest protection and regeneration under joint forest planning Biodiversity conservation through JFPM JFM is recognised as one of the viable alternatives for restoration of degraded forests and conservation, and sustainable use of biodiversity of tropical forests (Balaji, 2003). In Western Ghats, large-scale planting of teak and exotics such as Acacia auriculiformis and Casuarina equisetifolia, especially in areas with good rootstock, has decreased the diversity index of JFPM area. In majority of the Western Ghats VFCs, over 90% trees with <10 cm DBH were planted and a few VFCs even had 100% of them (Murthy et al., 2004). High planting density of fast growing species in areas with rootstock has decreased native tree species, and shrub, grass and herb species (Swaminath, 2004), as also opined by the communities. In areas bereft of rootstock with lateritic soils, the plantations have improved the site quality. Contrastingly, in Eastern Plains, species diversity in JFPM areas increased because of adoption of assisted natural regeneration model with gap filling of multiple equifrequency species. Thus, assisted regeneration strategies will go a long way in ensuring biodiversity conservation by selecting species keeping in mind their light demand, shade-tolerance, productivity and regeneration potential, and community choice. But in highly degraded areas as the case of pre-jfpm areas and few areas of the Western Ghats, plantation model should be considered. 4.3 Biomass production Under JFM, the main goal is to promote multispecies forestry to meet diverse biomass demands of community. Biomass production is a function of silvicultural models adopted, species, density, age and other factors like soil, rainfall, etc. Based on these factors, the growth rates of the JFPM plantation varied from 0.29 t/ha/yr in Tumkur to 5.32 t/ha/yr in Honnavar. All forest divisions except Honnavar, Sirsi and Bidar have MAI values lower than the national average for plantations, which is 3.6 t/ha/yr (Seebauer, 1992). Biomass productivity of monoculture plantations in Western Ghats and pre-jfpm areas is higher, owing to factors such as planting fast growing species, uniformity of stand, high density, ease of management, seedling material used for planting, high rainfall and management practices, compared to slow growing diverse native species planted in lesser density in the Eastern Plains. Fuel wood A study in the Western Ghats on comparison of annual biomass production in JFPM plantations, its sustainable extraction and fuel wood demand revealed that JFPM plantations have potential to meet only 18% of the total demand for fuel wood (Murthy et al., 2004). The village community also did not perceive any major impact because of closure of the area for fuel wood collection. Thus, it is essential to augment the biomass demand of the rural communities, as fuel wood is the principal component of rural domestic energy in India. To do so, promotion of fuel wood species desired by the village community through farm forestry, on degraded forest areas, and promotion of fuel wood conservation devices are essential.

13 82 P. Sudha et al. Fodder Decrease in grass availability in the JFPM area of Western Ghats region would lead to grazing pressure on other forest areas. Planting of trees with broader spacing, increasing the composition of light crowned tree species as per site conditions, promotion of grasses on patches with good soil moisture conditions and growing trees and other shrubs on less fertile, eroded patches are ways of addressing this problem. The programme can take up dedicated fodder plantations in large scale. Financial benefits The sustainability of the vegetation, to a large extent, depends upon ability of JFM to provide incentives to the local communities. JFPM plantations in the Western Ghats have reached rotation cycle and are yet to be harvested. At an average of 4.04 t/ha/yr for the afforested area of 20,000 ha, the average attainable standing biomass for a rotation cycle of seven years would be 5,65,600 tonnes. This would fetch an approximate financial return of Rs million to all the VFCs (50% of share) or Rs. 2,80,000 per VFC in addition to lops and tops as fuel wood. In addition, there is a potential of another 15,000 ha raised under social forestry to be included as JFPM area. Harvest/thinning of JFPM plantations has to be taken up by the Karnataka Forest Department at the earliest to sustain the interest of the communities in JFPM. In the Eastern Plains, 6031 ha of pre-jfpm plantations in 95 VFCs have been harvested providing an average benefit of Rs.93,000/VFC. 4.4 Sustainability of vegetation under JFPM In the biodiversity rich region of Western Ghats, monoculture plantations, though more productive, do not address issues of biodiversity conservation, especially in regions rich in rootstock. In the degraded areas without rootstock, the plantations have decreased the pressure on natural forests owing to reduced fuel wood extraction, thus indirectly conserving biodiversity. In highly degraded lands as in some of the pre-jfpm areas of Eastern Plains, monoculture is likely to be a suitable option. After harvest of monocultures, to ensure sustainable regeneration of the area, JFPM policy states that 25% of the financial returns need to be ploughed back to promote forest regeneration. In the process, based on the site quality, assisted natural regeneration with communities choice of multispecies needs to be promoted. Major interest of communities being NTFPs, promotion and enhancement of yields of NTFPs on long-term basis along with fuel wood species through silvicultural intervention would sustain community interest in JFPM as the revenue generated from timber is not continuous (Murali et al., 2004). In contrast, in Eastern Plains, forest recovery through assisted natural regeneration was adopted to restore degraded forests. Further, closure of area to grazing and fire protection by the communities has improved grass production and tree cover, and enhanced biodiversity. Thus, JFPM sites that were provided with better protection had higher tree density per hectare in the lower size-class leading to better regeneration. A study of four states of India (TERI, 1999) also indicates that 40% of the sites showed improvement in the regeneration status because of the efforts of the community and another 20% showed positive trends. Further, biomass removal should be minimal to maximise site quality resulting in ecological succession (Singh, 2000).

14 Forest protection and regeneration under joint forest planning 83 5 Conclusions The monoculture plantation approach of the Western Ghats is very similar to the pre-jfpm model of Eastern Plains in terms of species composition, tree density, basal area, above ground biomass and mean annual increments, implying that the approach adopted by Western Ghats forestry project was similar to that adopted for the social forestry plantations. The JFPM plantations of the Eastern Plains show a higher biodiversity index, lower tree density, above ground biomass and mean annual increments. To compensate the community for their efforts in protection and management of JFPM area, the pre-jfpm plantations with fast growing exotic species have also been brought under the purview of JFPM, thus providing the communities with benefits during the early years of VFC formation. From the comparative study of two projects, it is very clear that the Karnataka Forest Department has incorporated many of the lessons learnt from the Western Ghats project in the Eastern Plains. In case of monoculture plantations, since the site conditions would have improved, introduction of multispecies need to be considered. Acknowledgements The authors thank Ford Foundation for financial support to Ecological and Economics Research Network and Ministry of Environment and Forests for support to Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science. We would like to acknowledge the support and participation of Karnataka Forest Department at the head quarters in Bangalore as well as at the division level and the field staff. We also thank immensely our colleagues at the Centre for Ecological Sciences both at Bangalore and Sirsi. Our thanks to Professor K.C. Malhotra and S. Palit for their invaluable guidance. References Balaji (2003) Biodiversity concerns in joint forest management, Proceedings of the National Workshop on Technological Innovations and Research Advancements for Application in JFM, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, DehraDun, pp Forest Survey of India (1996) Volume Equations for the Forests of India, Nepal and Bhutan, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Dehradun, India. Jodha, N.S. (1992) Common Property Resources: A Missing Dimension of Development Strategies, Discussion Paper No World Bank, Washington, DC. KFD (2000) Western Ghats forestry project, Project Experience and Achievements, Karnataka Forest Department, Bangalore, India. KFD (2003) Forestry and Environment Project for the Eastern Plains of Karnataka, Karnataka Forest Department and Japan Bank for International Cooperation, Chief Conservator of Forests, Social Forestry, Karnataka Forest Department, Government of Karnataka, Bangalore. Kumar, S. (2002) Does Participation in Common Pool Resource Management Help the Poor? A Social Cost-Benefit Analysis of Joint Forest Management in Jharkhand, India, World Development, Vol. 30, No. 5, pp Murali, K.S., Murthy, I.K., Nagaraj, B.C. and Ravindranath, N.H. (2004) A decade of joint forest management and its ecological impacts, Root to Canopy: Regenerating Forests Through Community-state Partnership, Winrock International India and Commonwealth Forestry Association-India Chapter, New Delhi.

15 84 P. Sudha et al. Murthy, I.K., Hegde, G.T., Ramprasad, V., Bhat, P.R., Jagannatha Rao, R., Nagaraja, B.C., Shastri, C.M., Nagendra, M.D. V., Khan, H., Sudarshan, Shetty, D.M. and Hegde, G.N. (2004) The ecological impact of joint forest management in Karnataka, In Ravindranath, N.H. and Sudha, P. (Eds.): Joint Forest Management in India: Spread, Performance and Impact, Universities Press (India) Private Limited, Hyderabad, India, pp Saxena, N.C., Sarin, Singh, R.V. and Shah, T. (1997) Western Chats Forestry Project: Independent Study of Implementation Experience in Kanara Circle, Karnataka Forest Department, Bangalore. Seebauer, M. (1992) Review of social forestry programs in India, Final Report for the National Wastelands Development Board, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. Singh, H.S. (2000) Joint forest management issues of its progress and sustainability, Proceedings of the International Workshop on JFM on A decade of Joint Forest Management Retrospection and Introspection, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehra Dun, pp Sudha and Ravindranath (2004) Joint forest planning and management in Karnataka, Joint Forest Planning and Management in Karnataka: Institutional, Ecological and Policy Analysis, Compiled and Coordinated by Sudha et al., Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. Sudha, P., Bhat, P.R., Jagannatha Rao R., Nagaraja, B.C., Hegde, G.T., Shastri, C.M., Hegde, G.N., Shetty, D.M., Murali, K.S., Bhat, D.M. and Ravindranath, N.H. (2004) Joint forest planning and management in Karnataka: spread, performance and impact, in Ravindranath, N.H. and Sudha, P. (Eds.): Joint Forest Management in India: Spread, Performance and Impact, Universities Press, Hyderabad, pp Swaminath, M.H. (2004) Silvicultural practices and sustainable forest management under joint forest management, in Ravindranath, N.H. and Sudha, P. (Eds.): Joint Forest Management in India: Spread, Performance and Impact, Universities Press, Hyderabad, pp TERI (1999) National Study of Joint Forest Management, A report submitted to the Government of India, New Delhi, India, TERI Project Report No. 98 SF 64, Tata Energy Research Institute, Delhi.