OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY IN FORESTRY VOL. 1: ANALYSIS

Transcription

1 OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY IN FORESTRY VOL. 1: ANALYSIS

2 FORESTRY SCIENCES Baas P, ed: New Perspectives in Wood Anatomy ISBN Prins CFL, ed: Production, Marketing and Use of Finger-Jointed Sawnwood ISBN Oldeman RAA, et ai., eds: Tropical Hardwood Utilization: Practice and Prospects ISBN X Den Ouden P and Boom BK: Manual of Cultivated Conifers: Hardy in Cold and Warm- Temperate Zone ISBN Bonga JM and Durzan DJ, eds: Tissue Culture in Forestry ISBN Satoo T and Magwick HAl: Forest Biomass ISBN Van Nao T, ed: Forest Fire Prevention and Control ISBN Douglas J: A Re-appraisal of Forestry Development in Developing Countries ISBN Gordon JC and Wheeler CT, eds: Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Forest Ecosystems: Foundations and Applications ISBN Nemeth MV: The Virus-Mycoplasma and Rikettsia Disease of Fruit Trees. ISBN Duryea ML and Landis TD, eds: Forest Nursery Manual: Production of Bareroot Seedlings ISBN Hummel FC, ed: Forest Policy: A Contribution to Resource Development ISBN Manion PD, ed: Sc1eroderris Canker of Conifers ISBN Duryea ML and Brown GN, eds: Seedling Physiology and Reforestation Success ISBN Staaf KAG and Wiksten NA: Tree Harvesting Techniques ISBN Boyd JD: Biophysical Control of Microfibril Orientation in Plant Cell Walls ISBN Findlay WPK, ed: Preservation of Timber in the Tropics ISBN Samset I: Winch and Cable Systems ISBN Leary RA: Interaction Theory in Forest Ecology and Management ISBN Gessel SP: Forest Site and Productivity ISBN Hennessey TC, Dougherty PM, Kossuth SV and Johnson JD, eds: Stress Physiology and Forest Productivity ISBN Shepherd KR: Plantation Silviculture. 1986, ISBN Sohlberg Sand Sokolov VE, eds: Practical Application of Remote Sensing in Forestry ISBN Bonga JM and Durzan DJ, eds: Cell and Tissue Culture in Forestry. Volume 1: General Principles and Biotechnology ISBN Bonga JM and Durzan DJ, eds: Cell and Tissue Culture in Forestry. Volume 2: Specific Principles and Methods: Growth and Developments ISBN Bonga JM and Durzan DJ, eds: Cell and Tissue Culture in Forestry. Volume 3: Case Histories: Gymnosperms, Angiosperms and Palms ISBN (Set Vols. 1-3: ISBN ) Richards EG, ed: Forestry and the Forest Industries: Past and Future ISBN Kossuth SV and Ross SD, eds: Hormonal Control of Tree Growth ISBN

3 Operational Efficiency in Forestry Vol. 1: Analysis edited by U. SUNDBERG Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Garpenberg, Sweden C.R. SIL VERSIDES Prescott, Ontario, Canada SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

4 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Operational efficiency ln forestry / U. Sundberg. C.R. Si lversides, editors. p. cm. -- (Forestr~1 SClences ; 29-) Contents: v. 1. Analysis. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Forestry efflclency. 2. Forests and forestry--labor productivity. 3. Forestry englneerlng. I. Sundberg, U. <Ulf) II. S 1 1 ve r s i des, C. R. 1 II. Se r ies: For est r y se i e n c e s ; v. 29, etc. SD387.E '6--dc CIP ISBN nd printing 1996 AlI Rights Reserved 1988 by Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht OriginalIy published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1988 No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form Of by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording Of by any information stofage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner

5 v PREFACE It is our conviction - based on many years of teaching and practical experience - that professional skill in forestry will develop more readily and more efficiently if forestry students are presented with a clear understanding, at an early stage, of the impact of the physical factors that both enhance and inhibit forestry activities. Tnis knowledge is best aquired by adressing the physical world of forestry with a set of analytical tools through which an almost infinite number of variables can be listed in order, be measured and their interaction be explored and resolved. This is the main purpose of this joint effort, presented in two volumes, Part I and Part II. Part I is analytic, written as a basic text for undergraduates in courses such as logging, transport, forest engineering and even forest management. It deals with the fundamentals of technology in forestry as determined by the physical environment. Briefly it can be visualized as the application of forestry wi thin the parameters: space, time and energy. Forestry is a process with a long time horizon. Free solar energy creates biomass which, with the aid of other forms of energy, is converted into products and services. A knowledge of the dependecies and interactions is indigpensible for the forestry profession. The analytic approach serves two purposes: to bring about a clear understanding of the real world of forest and to develop tools through which efficiency and productivity can be explored and improved. Reality is somewhat simplified in order to better comprehend the dialectic nature of the phenomena discussed. In Part I large numbers of variables and complex computerized models are omitted because they tend to obscure the basic structures set forth. Complex mathematics and computers will be the next step. Part II will mainly deal with change and the ways and means to adapt to it. The spectacular increase in industrial productivity was achieved largely by bringing the production factors - labour and capital - together in factories, streamlined and designed for efficiency. Work places in forestry bear no resemblence to these standardized conditions. They constantly change and adaptions will always be necessary and important. Also the time perspective in forestry calls for special professional skill as time - duration and seasonal - in forestry makes special demands which must be mastered. The two volumes presented should be complementary to the technical books and journals in which the technology of today is described in more detail. Prescott, Ontario and Krylbo, Sweden 1987 C.R. Silversides and Ulf Sundberg

6 VII PREFACE 1. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION CONTENTS v 1.1 THE PROBLEM Material Flow Costs and Revenues Energy Concluding Remarks 1.2 WHY IS IT A PROBLEM The Problem of Forestry The Problem of Operational Efficiency in Forestry 1.3 WHAT DO WE NEED TO KNOW - THE SHOPPING LIST - MEASUREMENT Production Forms Ownership, Tenure of Land 1.4 LOGGING SYSTEMS General The Choice of Extraction Methods and Long Distance Transport 1.5 THE ROLE OF MAN-POWER IN FORESTRY Man-power Planning, Employment and Labour Productivity ERGONOMICS Work Physiology Use of Ergonomic Research Methods in Forestry Measuring the Energy Metabolism Ergonomic Studies and Work Efficiency MAN-MACHINE SYSTEMS AND WORK ENVIRONMENT ECONOMIC PARAMETERS METHODS OF ESTIMATING PRODUCTION General Production Ratios and Levels Human Variables APPENDICES TO THIS CHAPTER A. NOTES ON THE ERGONOMICS OF FOREST WORK 1. Physical Work Capacity 2. Nutrition and Work Capacity 3. Heat Stress 4. High Altitudes 5. Social and Psychological Factors 6. Work Motivation 7. Cultural Traditions 8. Health B. DERIVATION OF MACHINE COST 1. Depreciation 2. Interest 3. Insurance

7 VIII 4. Taxes 5. Operating Labour 6. Fuel 1. Oil and Grease 8. Servicing and Repairs (Except Tires for Hauling Rigs) 9. Tires (for Hauling Units Only) C. NOTE ON ACCOUNTING PRICES OR SHADOW WAGE RATES FOR LABOUR AND LAND IN FORESTRY DEVELOPMENTS Labour Land Conclusions PROBLEM ANALYSIS CRITERIA WORK STUDY THE FOREST RESOURCE Tree, Stand, Location and Accessibility INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORT THEORY IN FORESTRY The Components of Transport Variable Direct Cost of Transport Terminal Direct Cost of Transport Variable Indirect Cost - Cost of Transport Routes Terminal Indirect Cost ON SPACE AND TIME Distance Area Stereometry Time TRANSPORT SYSTEMS Introduction Modes of Transport at Varying Road Costs Modes of Transport at Varying Terminal Costs LINES SERVING AREAS - A ROAD NETWORK Optimum Spacing or Density of a Road Net Road Standard MEASURING ROAD DENSITIES ACCESSIBILITY OF A FOREST RESOURCE. SITUATION FACTORS DETERMINING TECHNIQUES AND COSTS Inventories and Data Needs Accessibility Measuring Location 90 APPENDICES TO THIS CHAPTER A. THE GEOMETRY OF FOREST TRANSPORT 117 B. CHECKLIST FOR LOGGING, TRANSPORT AND ROADING CONDITIONS 190

8 IX 3. APPLICATIONS AND QUANTIFICATIONS 3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 MODELS OF LINEAR TRANSPORT Transport Work and Travelled Distance Transport Along Lines Cost of Commuting 3.3 BREAK EVEN POINTS FOR MODES OF TRANSPORT 3.4 STATIONS SERVING LINES OR AREAS 3.5 LINES SERVING AREAS Road Spacing Road Standard Forest Management and Road Planning 3.6 COSTING OF MACHINES Thumb-rule Proceedures Detailed Costing Standard Costing Methods APPENDICES TO THIS CHAPTER A. EXAMPLE OF THE RATIO RCn:Qi AT DIFFERENT AGE DISTRIBUTIONS AND PLANNING PERIODS B. SOME CURVE FORMS AND FUNCTIONS 4. ENERGY ANALYSIS 4.1 ENERGY IN FORESTRY - AN INTRODUCTION 4.2 THERMODYNAMICS 4.3 PHOTOSYNTHESIS 4.4 PROCESS ANALYSIS SYSTEM BOUNDARIES ENERGY INPUTS IN FOREST WORK OPERATIONS 4.7 ENERGY IN SAWMILLING 4.8 INPUT OF ENERGY AND LABOUR Production Functions Application Studies on The Cost of Machine Use 4.9 BIOPHYSICAL ECONOMICS 4.10 CRITICISM OF ENERGY ANALYSIS - THE CONVERGENCE ISSUE APPENDICES TO THIS CHAPTER A. MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY B. WOOD C. WORK LOAD FACTOR - POWER RATING REFERENCES UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS