Country Key Issues Key Causes

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1 INTRODUCTION The South Pacific subregion comprises a total of twenty one countries and territories, which in this chapter, are presented under the following four groupings: Australia and New Zealand; Melanesian Countries (Papau New Guinea, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Fiji); Mid-sized open islands of Polynesia and Micronesia (Tonga, Samoa, American Samoa, French Polynesia, Palau, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands); and the Small island micro-states (Cook Islands, Kiribati, Tuvalu, Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Niue, and Nauru). The subregion is quite diverse, politically, economically, geographically, and ethnically. Australia and New Zealand tend to face issues of marine pollution, deforestation, and desertification, while the small island developing states face common environmental challenges in the threat of sea level fluctuation, isolation, exposure to disaster, and shortage of resources. The South Pacific has the lowest population of all the Asian and Pacific subregions (just over 30 million) and while it has a high rate of population growth, in a number of cases this has been absorbed through migration to the regions larger peripheral islands. The subregion has some of the lowest per capita arable land resources, together with the highest per capita marine resources. The South Pacific also has some of the highest marine diversity in the world up to species may be found on a single reef (SPREP 1993). The many thousand islands are surrounded by a rich complex of coastal ecosystems, including mangroves (around 10 per cent of the world s total habitat), seagrass beds, and estuarine lagoons. Terrestrial diversity is shaped by the endemic island ecology, coupled with the importation and invasion of foreign species. For example, over 75 per cent of the biodiversity of New Caledonia is endemic, including several plant species limited to one small area of one mountain. This chapter highlights the major environmental issues in the subregion with particular emphasis on shared concerns and challenges. Table 18.1 provides a summary of the region s key environmental issues and their causes. SHARED ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS The island nations of the South Pacific subregion control Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) of 200 nautical miles from their coasts. This represents a significant portion of the high seas fisheries and seabed mineral wealth of the global ocean hemisphere. Shared environmental problems are dominated by fluctuations in sea level, increasing vulnerability to natural disasters, decline in marine resources and erosion of the coastal zone. Other common problems of the subregion include those associated with the degradation and depletion of land and water resources, loss of biodiversity and deforestation. In prioritizing the region s shared environmental concerns, the most important are: Sea level and temperature fluctuations Temperature patterns of the marine Table 18.1 Key Environmental Issues and Causes in the South Pacific Region Australia and New Zealand 364 Country Key Issues Key Causes Melanesian Countries (Papau New Guinea, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Fiji) Mid-sized open islands of Polynesia and Micronesia (Tonga, Samoa, American Samoa, French Polynesia, Palau, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands) Small island micro-states (Cook Islands, Kiribati, Tuvalu, Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Niue, and Nauru Soil erosion; soil salinity; degradation of in-land and marine waters; depletion of wetlands; desertification; depletion of fisheries; loss of biodiversity. Deforestation; land degradation/soil erosion; loss of biodiversity; water degradation and limited access to potable water; local depletion of coastal fisheries. Deforestation; soil erosion; loss of biodiversity; local depletion of coastal fisheries; degradation of in-land and marine waters. Vulnerability to natural disasters; water degradation and limited access to potable water; coastal erosion. Source: Complied from WRI 1999; UNEP 1999; Counterpart International 1997; ADB 1997 and United Nations 1999 Overgrazing; poor farming practices; land clearance and deforestation; invasion of exotic species; overfishing; over development of the coastal zone; shipping pollution. Commercial logging; land clearance; mining; climate change; population growth and deficiencies in urban and rural infrastructure; over fishing. Expansion of commercial agriculture and agro pollution of run-off; population growth and expansion into marginal lands; indiscriminate collection of coral and shells; invasion of exotic species; overfishing; hunting, particularly of native sea turtles. Climate change; groundwater salinization; deficiencies in urban and rural infrastructure.

2 SOUTH PACIFIC environment regulate the distribution of plants and animals, and slight, short or long-term variations can have dramatic impacts. Problems have been witnessed with coral bleaching (see Chapter 16, Box 16.2), and species migration from traditional fishing areas. Cities, villages, agriculture, and infrastructure are all concentrated in the regions coastal zones, which are especially vulnerable to sea level rise. Determining the severity of this problem is especially complicated by natural and intricate sea level shifts associated with recurring ice ages, however there are many potential impacts which will require adaptive policy responses (see Table 18.2). Water scarcity and degradation Limited and decreasing supplies of potable waters resources are threatening many of the regions island populations (see Figure 18.1). At the same time, demand is increasing through tourism and agricultural related developments, and drought is a common problem. This is often compounded by pollution of groundwater, extensive leakage and clandestine connections to the existing system. Changing weather patterns are also a factor, with one of the subregions worst droughts on record recorded as a result of the reduced rainfall during the 1997/1998 El Niño event. Land erosion and degradation Widespread overgrazing in the larger countries, and water and wind erosion in the smaller islands, are common causes of land degradation. The increasing pressures from globalization and the use of chemicals in commercial agriculture are also degrading land resources, in addition to entering the terrestrial water and marine environments. Pressures on land also stem from the rise in urbanization and increasing developments in the coastal regions. Deforestation and biodiversity loss The biological diversity of the South Pacific subregion is some of the most critically threatened in the world (Given 1992). As the economies of many of the countries remain subsistence based, this is more than an environmental threat. Biodiversity is threatened by large scale deforestation and the pressures on marginal lands imposed through increasing population and shifting cultivation. Land-based sources of marine pollution are also thought to be one of the four biggest threats to marine diversity, together with the introduction of invasive species, and habitat destruction, including dynamiting. Table 18.2 Indicative List of Potential Impacts of Climate Change and Sea-level Rise Requiring Adaptive Responses in the South Pacific Subregion Coastal zone Inundation and flooding of low-lying areas Coastal erosion Possible increase in cyclone-related effects Changes in sediment production due to changes in coral reef systems Water Changes in freshwater lenses and other resources groundwater resources Salt intrusion of groundwater resources Changes in surface-water resources Changes in surface run-off, flooding and erosion Agriculture Changes in commercial crop yields Changes in subsistence crop yields Changes in plant pest populations Possible changes associated with changes in ENSO, drought and cyclone patterns Changes in soil quality Fisheries Changes in distribution and abundance of offshore fish species Changes in productivity of inshore fisheries Changes in fish breeding sites Ecosystems Coral bleaching and coral degradation (also possible increased upward coral growth) Changes in mangrove health and distribution Degradation of sea grass meadows Changes in forest ecosystems Changes in wetland systems Human Health Increased incidence of vector-borne disease such as malaria and dengue fever Increased heat stress and heat-related illnesses Indirect effects on nutrition and well-being secondary to effects in other sectors, such as agriculture and water resources Deaths, injuries and disease outbreaks related to possible increases in extreme events such as cyclones, floods and droughts Source: SPREP 1999c in UNEP 1999 Degradation of the marine environment Increasing economic development activities over the last ten years are placing imminent threats on the region s marine environment. Negative impacts have been observed to fisheries, mangrove forests, sea grasses, coral reefs, and surface conditions, including red (toxic) phytoplankton blooms; together with oil pollution, and floating and suspended solid wastes. Increasing levels of UVB penetration are also impacting on fish eggs and plankton 365

3 Figure 18.1 Percentage of Population in Selected Pacific Island Countries with Access to Safe Water Countries Vanuatu Tuvalu Tonga Tokelau Solomon Islands Samoa PNG Palau Niue Nauru Marshall Islands Kiribati Fiji Fed. States of Micronesia Cook Islands 23% 30% Source: UNDP 1996 in UNEP % 70% Percentage of population with access to safe water (%) species which occupy the surface waters of the South Pacific. Increasing vulnerability to natural disasters Physical natural disasters including volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones and droughts, threaten much of the South Pacific region, and the resilience of the fragile island ecosystems to disasters is increasingly impaired. The region s tropical and subtropical climate is punctuated by climatic extremes which have far reaching impacts on land use and serious environmental consequences. Melanesia, Guam, and the Mariana Islands are part of the Pacific Rim of 50% 65% 87% 88% 90% 92% 99% Fire (a region of severe seismic activity) for example. The impact of these disasters can be highly localized, but severe. In many other countries of the subregion, severe tropical storms and cyclones are accompanied by massive rainfall and the low pressure may cause the sea to rise as much as 2 metres, itself stimulating wide spread flooding, coastal inundation, land erosion, destruction of housing and gardens, loss of vegetation, and salinization of water supplies (see Figure 18.2). CAUSES Lifestyle changes dominated by the movement away from subsistence and towards consumer lifestyles have characterized much of the increasing pressures on the South Pacific environment. Climate change, population growth, and coastal urbanization are presenting an increasing strain on the region s fragile resources and deficient infrastructure. The average population growth across the subregion is estimated at 1.2 per cent per annum (ESCAP 2000), and indications are that GDP per capita has tended to decline, together with the standard of living (ESCAP 1999). However, while conventional economic and social indicators demonstrate that a significant percentage of the region s population experience a high poverty level, many still enjoy a degree of subsistence affluence which does not form part of the conventional calculation. Nevertheless, poverty is a serious emerging issue, particularly in relation to the growing levels of urban inward migration. Major socio-economic indicators of the subregion are provided in Table Figure 18.2 Estimated Levels of Vulnerability to Specific Natural Hazards in Selected South Pacific Islands Country Cyclone Coastal flood River flood Drought Earthquake Landslide Tsunami Volcano Fiji xxx xxx xxx xx x xxx x Fed. States of Micronesia xx xxx x xxx x x xxx Kiribati x xxx xxx x x xxx Marshall Islands xx xxx xxx x x xx Palau xx xx xx x x xx Solomon Islands xxx xxx xxx x xxx xxx xxx xxx Tonga xxx xxx xx xxx xxx x xxx xxx Tuvalu x xxx xx x x xxx Vanuatu xxx xxx xxx x xxx xxx xxx xxx Source: UNDHA 1996 in UNEP 1999 x Low xx Medium xxx High 366

4 SOUTH PACIFIC Table 18.3 Major Socio-Economic Indicators for South Pacific Countries Population Annual growth Population Urban Annual growth Total GNP Per capita Countries (2000) rate of density (person population as rate of urban (US$ millions) GNP (US$) (thousands) population (%) per km 2 ) % of total population (%) American Samoa Australia Cook Islands Fiji French Polynesia Guam Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia (Federated States of) Nauru New Caledonia New Zealand Niue Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Source: 1. World Bank 1999 and ESCAP United Nations 1998 POLICY RESPONSE A. National Initiatives Policies and initiatives in the region stem from a mixture of historic social and cultural values coupled with, in many cases, a recent colonial administration. The South Pacific subregion therefore has a wide range of systems of government. Nonetheless, strong national identities exist, together with a history of cooperation on issues of regional concern, and a well-developed legal and institutional framework through which to address them. However, it is only relatively recently that policies have taken account of strategic environmental dimensions, and a major challenge will be for the subregion to meet its emerging economic development needs, while sustaining its subsistence bases and its values of cultural and social cohesion. A number of common themes are observed in relation to present sustainable development limitations. Policy While capacity for the implementation of environmental policy is high in the developed countries of New Zealand and Australia, one of the most significant causes of unsustainable behavior in the smaller countries of the subregion is the lack of capacity for adequate environmental planning. In the independent South Pacific islands, government environmental units and planning units lack both human and financial resources. In many countries, environmental units have no direct input into the main decision making processes, and in most other countries, environment is marginalized as a department within a multi-function ministry. Legal While there is a strong legal framework (much of which stems from traditional community structures), there is a lack of enforcement or implementation of many policies or legislation, together with a growing weakness in the protection of the subregion s indigenous property rights. A number of regulatory mechanisms are also becoming out-dated and have failed to respond to changing paradigms of development. 367

5 Industrial Although the subregion is perceived as having a small industrial base, growing industrialization is particularly acute in terms of the micro- and small-scale industries. Greater effort is required promote research and development both within and across these industries and academia, of environmentally sound techniques and technologies. Focus is also required on the exchange and use of data and information relating to ocean and fishery sciences. The major agricultural, fishery, forestry, and tourist industries also need to be sustainably managed and more closely integrated into the planning framework. NGO Grassroots environmental NGOs are a recent development in many of the South Pacific islands, although they have been active in New Zealand and Australia since the 1920 s. Recent NGO activity has however witnessed some surprisingly effective success stories. A hard-hitting NGO media campaign was afforded the main responsibility in the rapid and powerful action of governments in the region to curtail the use of drift netting, for example. The full potential of many community-based and indigenous NGOs is still not fully recognized, often due to a lacking capacity in project management and implementation, in addition to weak accountability and monitoring. B. Subregional Cooperation Coordination of policy responses facilitates a necessary strategic approach to sustainable development and environmental problem solving in the region. The South Pacific is one of the two subregions (together with Southeast Asia) in Asia and the Pacific to have ratified subregional conventions on environmental protection (this is further discussed in Part V). Opportunities for cooperation in the subregion are promoted through a range of policies and programmes, in addition to national and international projects, which are outlined under the following two headings: the Council for Regional Organizations of the Pacific (CROP); and Other Cooperation Programmes in the Subregion. 1. The Council for Regional Organizations of the Pacific (CROP) CROP is the formal coordination mechanism for subregional organizations in the South Pacific. Formerly the South Pacific Organizations Coordinating Committee, it aims to ensure complementary mandates, common goals, and synergy of regional initiatives. Member organizations include (UNEP 1999): South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) SPREP was established in 1982 by the government and administrations of the South Pacific countries and four other countries with a direct interest in the region. It is the major inter-governmental organization charged with promoting regional cooperation, supporting protection and improvement of the South Pacific environment and ensuring its sustainable development. With the help of ESCAP and others under the Barbados Programme of Action, SPREP has assisted small island developing states in capacity building through development of National Environmental Management Strategies and legislation on environment. In the last ten years SPREP initiatives have focused on biodiversity conservation (see Box 18.1), waste management, climate change, impact assessment, and environmental assessment and awareness raising. Forum Secretariat This was established in 1971 from the independent and self-governing countries of the South Pacific. Its fifteen member countries are Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshal Islands, Federated Stated of Micronesia (FSM), Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. The Forum is responsible for facilitating maintaining and developing cooperation and consultation across it s membership on issues such as trade, economic development, transport, and energy. Forum Fisheries Agency FFA was established in 1979 with a broad mission to enable the region to obtain maximum sustained benefit from the conservation and sustainable use of its fisheries resources, with a particular emphasis on tuna. South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission It was originated in 1972 and its member countries are Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, FSM, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. SOPAC is involved in the provision of advice on the environmental effects of coastal zone developments, water and sanitation, pollution and health issues. Secretariat of the Pacific Community It was first established in 1947, and is mandated to 368

6 SOUTH PACIFIC Box 18.1 The Vatthe Conservation Area Big Bay, Espirito Santo, Vanuatu The Vatthe Conservation Area is located at the southern end of Big Bay on the island of Espirito Santo in Vanuatu. It is hectares of lowland alluvial rainforest owned by the villages of Sara and Matantas. The Vatthe Conservation Area Project was initiated in The basic idea for the project began in 1993 during a biodiversity survey of the area by the Vanuatu Environment Unit in collaboration with the Royal Forest and Bird Conservation Society of New Zealand. During the study there was some discussion with the community on the idea of setting up a national park. The project was developed by the Environment Unit and ran into some constraints in its early stages. It has been argued that involvement and therefore ownership was lacking with the local community, and a major, long-term land dispute between the two villages was initially seen as a serious problem for the project. In 1995, as the community became more involved in the work plan and budget, and SPREP arranged a trip to Fiji for the landowners where two conflicting groups were able to share new experiences and view the progress of other conservation areas together. The project planning sessions and discussions acted as a stimulus for peace between the two villagers and in 1995 a traditional ceremony united them to a common cause. By 1996, the communities had formed a Community Management Committee that began to assume control over work plans, activities and budget. Two conservation Support Officers were appointed by the Committee to work with the project manager on a part-time basis. By 1998, The community had built a small hotel with six bungalows and restaurant, installed a water supply system with fibreglass tanks and a roof catchment system, created three walking tours, a coconut crab hunt, a garden tour and custom dance. The project had trained local guides, established a handicraft centre, created two sub-committees (eco-tourism and conservation), and appointed a full time eco-tourism manager. The Vanuatu Energy Unit contributed solar powered lighting and the Department of Geology and Mines provided a new water well. A radio-telephone link was established with the main urban area to facilitate reservations. A forest fruit project and Alley cropping garden project has been established as a further source of income for the villages. Sources: Nari, R and Reti, I provide sustainable development assistance in the subregion. The Pacific Island Forestry and the Trees Support Programme awards provides a good example of an innovative SPC scheme aimed at promoting the adoption of sustainable forestry techniques. Other activities include management advice and applied research in the coastal/national fisheries sector and research on oceanic (mainly tuna) fisheries. Tourism Council of the South Pacific The role of TCSP is to market and promote tourism to the region, and to help the tourist sector enhance the quality of its product through a variety of programmes on training, tourism awareness, and preservation of the environment. University of the South Pacific The University was established in Fiji in 1969, and includes regionally focused research under its four schools of agriculture, humanities, pure and applied social and economic development. Pacific Island Development Programme It has 22 members including Pacific island developing countries and territories, and draws academic resources both subregionally and from international organizations to plan and conduct projects across a range of development issues. 2. Other Cooperation Programmes in the Subregion Fisheries departments in the Cook Islands, Tonga Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Papau New Guinea, Fiji, and Samoa (see Box 18.2) are at various stages of developing partnerships with local communities to sustainably manage their coastal resources, often with the support of external funding. The United Nations is supporting climate change programmes in Niue and Papau New Guinea, and integrated coastal zone management programmes are being implemented in Fiji, Marshall Islands, Samoa, and Tuvalu with support from Japan. Much attention has also be paid to the analysis of sea level fluctuations and their impacts to the subregion by the governments of USA, Australia, and Japan. Numerous projects are also underway to address the issues of potable water supply and sanitation, primarily with support through ADB, USAID, the European Union, and AusAID. Total financial injection to the sector amounts to around US$36 million. National programmes in New Zealand, Tonga, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu include the establishment of species and habitat conservation areas, and the promotion of eco-tourism activities. 369

7 Box 18.2 The Samoa Fisheries Extension and Training Project Coastal fisheries are an important source of protein for the people of the South Pacific islands. The advent of commercial fishing has, in some areas, resulted in over harvesting of fish and damage to coral reef ecosystems. Subsistence fisheries continue to operate, and expand, in parallel with efforts at commercializing coastal fishing efforts. Because of the diffuse, and multi-species nature of the fisheries, the small size of the fisheries departments, and the distances between islands, practical management of the subsistence fishery is beyond the capability of national fisheries officers. There is, therefore, little information available to document the state of the fisheries other than community perceptions of a decreasing catch. If the local communities willingly assume responsibility and control of their own fisheries resources, with guidance of experienced fishery biologists, some form of management may be possible. AusAID funded the Samoa Fisheries Extension and Training Project to work out how Government/Community partnerships might be developed. The project is one of the most innovative and successful examples of community/government partnerships for coastal fisheries management in the South Pacific region. The Samoa Fisheries Extension and Training Project began in 1995 by producing a series of information sheets (written in Samoan and English) intended for the Village Councils. Project personnel met with Village Councils and explained the need for local management and suggested the national government would be willing to assist the villages in producing local management plans. By 1998, 54 villages had joined the plan. Many had created and approved fisheries management plans. The plans include bans on use of explosives and chemicals, a reserve area, recognition of size limits and other restrictions. The plans also provide for strict enforcement of the regulations. The extension process takes about three months. The socio-biologist on the team believes this is the minimum time required for the people to take ownership of the project. The key to a successful village fisheries management plan was having the villagers develop it because they understood the issues and wished to protect their own fishery resources. If they had other motivations (expecting foreign aid or free goods and services) the project would not succeed. In helping villages to make the process their own, the extension officers do not provide answers or give instructions. They ask questions What is the condition of your fisheries? If the villagers report various problems the officer asks, What do you think is causing the problem? and later, after this is discussed, What do you think might be done to solve the problem? The project found that most village councils knew the answers to these questions, sometimes better than the fishery agents did. By asking questions, everyone learned and the villagers gained a feeling of ownership of the programme. Source: Chesher 1998a. SUBREGIONAL OUTLOOK Like the countries of Southeast Asia, South Pacific countries have a strong history of environmental cooperation, and a major challenge for the subregion is therefore the continuation and development of cooperation and coordination initiatives and to balance its economic development perspective with its long-term environmental goals and responsibilities. The sectoral and hierarchical structure of most South Pacific Islands governments (and the split between traditional governance verses colonial governance) has left its mark in respect to the existing vertical and horizontal communication capacity. Communications will need to be significantly strengthened in the process of mainstreaming environment as an integral component of the planning system. Among the major accomplishments of national governments in the subregion are steps in decentralization of environmental management responsibilities, and the development of partnerships with NGO communities. Such developments will need to be built upon, and links and partnerships will also need to be established and strengthened between all levels of society, industry, and the academic community. Finally, the growing pressures of climate change, economic reform, and access to genetic resources, are stimulating the rapid development of adaptive strategies, and these will require continued subregional cooperation and the timely implementation of concrete actions. 370