Grazing Ecology and Forest History

Transcription

1 Grazing Ecology and Forest History F.VV.M. Vera Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries Strategic Policies Division The Hague The Netherlands techmsctie univer.siifjt 0 arm start* FACHBEREiCH 10 nni.oglu B i b I i o t he k SchnittspahnstraBe 10 D Darmstadt tov.-nf. CABI Publishing

2 About the Author Preface Acknowledgements xi xiii xvii 1 General Introduction and Formulation of the Problem A Closed Forest as Natural Vegetation Formulation of the Problem The Null Hypothesis and the Alternative Hypothesis Outline of this Study 9 2 Succession, the Climax Forest and the Role of Large Herbivores Introduction History of the Concept of Succession Clements's Theory of Succession Tansley's Polyclimax Theory The Lack of Regeneration in the Climax Forest Secondary Succession from Grassland to Forest Regeneration of the European Primeval Forest The East of North America as an Analogy of Europe Pioneer and Climax Species Variations on the Succession Theme and the Gap Phase Model Catastrophes as the Mechanism of Succession, Regeneration and Diversity 38

3 vi Establishment Factors in Relation to Succession and Diversity Nutrients in Relation to Establishment and Succession The Role of Large Mammals in Succession Conclusions and Synthesis 57 3 Palynology, the Forest as Climax in Prehistoric Times and the Effects of Humans Introduction The Reconstruction of Prehistoric Vegetation The Forest in Palynology Palynology and Theories about Succession and the Forest as the Climax Vegetation Drawing up Corrective Factors for Pollen Frequencies The'Landnam'Theory The Closed Forest versus the Half-open Park Landscape The Situation in the East of the United States Conclusions and Synthesis 96 4 The Use of the Wilderness from the Middle Ages up to Introduction The Wilderness and the Concept of'forestis' The Meanings of the Term'Wald' The Meaning of the Terms 'Holt' and 'Bosch' in relation to'wald' Whatwasa'Silva'? Regulations on the Use of the Wilderness Regulations on Grazing Livestock Grazing Livestock in Relation to Coppices Seedlings of Trees in Scrub The Regeneration of Trees and the Grazing of Livestock Coppices-with-standards (Standing Trees) Growing in Scrub The'Hage'or'Haye' The Vegetative and Generative Regeneration of Trees in Relation to the Grazing of Livestock The Development of'natural'regeneration Grazing Livestock and the Destruction of the Forest 'Having but Little Wood, and that Oke like Stands left in our Pastures in England' European Mental Models in North America Conclusions and Synthesis Spontaneous Succession in Forest Reserves in the Lowlands of Western and Central Europe Introduction 189

4 5.2 La Tillaie and Le Gros-Fouteau in the Foret de Fontainebleau, France A brief description and history of the reserves The present situation The Neuenburger Urwald, Germany A brief description and history of the reserve The present situation The Hasbrucher Urwald, Germany A brief description and history of the reserve The present situation Gaps in the canopy in the Hasbrucher Urwald and Neuenburger Urwald Sababurg in the Reinhardswald, Germany Rohrberg in the Spessart, Germany A brief description and history of the reserve The present situation Priorteich in the Southern Harz, Germany A brief description and history of the reserve The present situation Forest Reserves in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany General characteristics The present situation The Oak Reserve Johannser Kogel in the Wienerwald, Austria A brief outline and history of the reserve The present situation The So-called Primeval Forest Reserve of Krakovo, Slovenia General characteristics The present situation The Unterholzer at Donaueschingen in the Black Forest, Germany Dalby Soderskog, Sweden A brief description and history The present situation The Forest of Bialowieza, Poland A brief description of the forest of Bialowieza The history of the forest of Bialowieza The present situation in the National Park ^ of Bialowieza Regeneration of oak in the thermophile oak forest {Potentillo albae-quercetum) Is the thermophile oak forest or the lime-hornbeam forest most similar to the original vegetation? Other Forest Reserves in Europe 274

5 viii 5.15 Spontaneous Succession in Forest Reserves in the East of the United States Conclusions and Synthesis Establishment of Trees and Shrubs in Relation to Light and Grazing Introduction Pedunculate Oak (Q. robur) and Sessile Oak (Q.petraea) " The reaction of pedunculate and sessile oak seedlings to reduced amounts of daylight The establishment of both species of oak in relation to the alternative hypothesis Beech (F. syivatica) The response of beech seedlings to a reduction in the amount of daylight A comparison of beech and sessile oak seedlings The establishment of beech in relation to the alternative hypothesis Broad-leaved Lime (Tiliaplatyphyllos) and Small-leaved Lime (T. cordata) The response of broad-leaved and small-leaved lime seedlings to reduced amounts of daylight A comparison of broad-leaved and small-leaved lime seedlings and pedunculate and sessile oak seedlings The establishment of both species of lime in relation to the alternative hypothesis Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) The response of hornbeam seedlings to a reduction in the amount of daylight The establishment of hornbeam in relation to the alternative hypothesis Ash (Fmxinus excelsior), Field Maple (Acer campestre), Sycamore (A. pseudoplatanus) and Elm (Ulmus sp.) The response of seedlings of ash, field maple, sycamore and elm to reduced amounts of daylight Ash, field maple, sycamore and elm in relation to the alternative hypothesis Hazel {Corylus avellana) The response of hazel seedlings to reduced amounts of daylight Hazel in relation to the alternative hypothesis 337

6 ix 6.8 Wild Fruits, Wild Apple {Malus Sylvestris), Wild Pear (Pyruspyraster), Wild Cherry (Primus avium), and Members of the Rowan Family (Sorbus spp.) The establishment of wild fruit trees Wild fruit and members of the rowan family in relation to the alternative hypothesis The Establishment of Blackthorn, Hawthorn, Juniper and other Thorny Shrubs in Relation to Grazing and Diversity Germination conditions The Establishment of Trees and Shrubs at the End of the Last Ice Age ' Grazing and the establishment of trees and shrubs in prehistoric times Continuity in diversity A Park Landscape in the East of the United States? Conclusions and Synthesis Final Synthesis and Conclusions The Null Hypothesis and the Alternative Hypothesis The Findings Final Conclusion ~ Epilogue 379 Appendix 1 Structuring the Use of the Wilderness 385 Appendix 2 The Use of the Wilderness 391 Appendix 3 ' p The Destruction of the Wilderness 393 Appendix 4 The'Hanau-MiinzenbergseForstordnung', the \ 'Mainzer Forstordnung' and the 'General-Verordnung' 397 Appendix 5 The Development of 'Natural' Regeneration 403 Appendix 6 The Selection System 407 Appendix 7 The Group Selection System 410 Appendix 8 Species of Trees and Shrubs in Landscapes Grazed by Large Herbivores. 412 Appendix 9 Species of Herbs on the Fringes of Scrub and Groves 414

7 Appendix 10 Species Characteristic of the Thermophile Oak Forest 415 Appendix 11 Situation and Some Abiotic Features of the Forest Reserves Described in Chapter 5 as They Are Presented in the Publications Mentioned 416 Appendix 12 Further Information on the Experiments Quoted on the Growth of Seedlings in Chapter References 426 Index ' 493