Reading Project Fuels Report

Transcription

1 Reading Project Fuels Report Debbie Mayer District Fire Management Officer 1

2 Reading Project Fuels Report Introduction: The Reading Fire started from a lightning strike in the Lassen Volcanic National Park (LVNP) on July 23, On August 8, 2012, fire burned from the LVNP onto the Lassen National Forest, Hat Creek Ranger District. The Reading Fire was contained on September 24, 2012, after burning approximately 28,079 acres of which 11,071 acres falls under the jurisdiction of the LNF. The LNF is proposing treatment of only 4235 acres of the 11071acres burned by the Reading Fire. Of the 11,071 acres that burned on National Forest ground 3928 acres burned at low to moderate severity while 6975 acres burned at moderate to high severity. The Reading Project area is bounded by the Reading Fire perimeter to the north, west, and east and the Lassen Volcanic National Park to the south. The Reading Fire burned in an area with slopes from 0 flat to over 35 percent. The range of elevation of treatment units vary from 5200 ft. to 7600ft. The fire burned in a variety of vegetation types: mixed conifer stands, ponderosa pine plantations, white fir stands, red fir stands, lodgepole pine, and various size brush fields. The Reading Project would be managed under the 1992 LNF Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP), as amended by the Sierra Nevada Forest Plan Amendment FEIS, FSEIS and RODs (USDA FS 2001a, 2001b, 2004c). Affected Environment Fire History Fire history for the project area reflects that most of the fires in the project area are small, under an acre. See Table 1 for fires that occur per decade. Past fires have had a variety of causes such as lightning, equipment, arson, smoking, and campfires. Fire record keeping began around 1920, with spotty non-complete documentation at the beginning. All starts in table 1 are for the project area. Fire starts by decade Table

3 The Thousand Lakes Wilderness area was part of a fire history study conducted by Penn State university students overseen by Dr. Alan Taylor. This fire history study showed that moderate to high severity fire occurred in the Thousand Lakes Wilderness more frequently than in other mixed conifer stands. In the Cub Creek Research Natural Area (Lassen National Forest) it was also shown that the frequency of moderate to high intensity fire was more frequent than expected. These fire characteristics of the fire regime in the Cub Creek Natural Research Area are different than those described for mixed conifer forests in the Sierra Nevada, the san Bernardino range, and the San Pedro Martir in Baja California and this suggests that there geographical differences in mixed conifer regimes along the Pacific slope (Beaty, Taylor 2001). The project area has seen repeated fire history of varying size and causes. See table 2 for large fires in and around the project area. Some of the largest fires in the project area were back in the early 1900 s with the Badger fire in 1920 at approximately 8500 acres and the Table Mountain Fire is estimated to be over 19,000 acres sometime in the 1920 s. The Badger Mountain fire that occurred in 1920 s had large areas of stand replacement fire (high intensity wildfire) as evident by the brush fields in the 1941 aerial photographs. This stand replacement fire happened before fire suppression and management practices altered the structure of the natural stands. The project area was also affected by the Badger fire in 1984 that started on Lassen Volcanic National Park and burned onto Badger Mountain. This project area experiences a high intensity fire event about every 46 years. It can be assumed based on past large fire history and fire history studies done in the vicinity that this project area would burn again and would burn in a high intensity manner. Large Fires In and Around the Project Area Table 2 Fire Name Year Activity Description Badger 1984 National Park: 1,066.3 acres; National Forest: 1,112.8 acres No name 1985 National Park: 325 acres Lost 1987 Forest Service: acres Snag Complex 1987 National Park: acres of wildfire Huffer 1997 National Park: 2,219.8 acres (1,089.3 acres Wildfire Use; 1,202.5 acres Wildfire) Bluff 2004 National Park: 3,118.4 acres of Wildfire Use Horseshoe Fire 2005 National Park: 1,451.6 acres of Wildfire Use Fairfield 2009 National Park: 1,662.1 acres Wildfire 3

4 Sugarloaf 2009 Forest Service: 6,871.2 acres Wildfire Reading 2012 Forest Service: 11,070 acres Total Acres: 28,073 Fire Regime A fire regime is a generalized description of the role fire plays in an ecosystem. It is characterized by fire frequency, seasonality, duration, scale (patch size) as well as regularity or variability (Laverty and Williams 2000). Table 3 shows the fire regimes that are recognized nationally. The vegetation in the project area falls into fire regimes 1, 3 and 4. Fire Regimes Group Frequency (years) Vegetative Types Severity I 0-35 Ponderosa pine, other long Low severity needle pine species, and dry site Douglas-fir II 0-35 Drier grassland types, tall grass Stand replacement prairie, and some Pacific chaparral and southern rough ecosystems III Interior dry site shrub Mixed severity communities such as sagebrush and chaparral ecosystems and mixed conifer IV Lodgepole pine and jack pine Stand replacement V >200 Temperate rain forest, boreal forest, and high elevation conifer species Stand replacement Table 3 Fire Hazard/Fire Risk Fire risk is the chance that a fire would occur. The project area experiences fires caused by both people and lightning, with the majority of the starts from lightning. Fire risk due to lightning cannot be changed. Prevention efforts already exist in the project area to educate the public about the risk of wildfire. Fire hazard is a combination of factors: slope, topography, fuel loading, vegetation structure and composition. Slope and topography cannot be changed. Fire hazard can be changed by reducing the surface fuels, by changing the structure of the vegetation and the composition of the vegetation. Fuel loading is managed through a variety of treatments by land managers. 4

5 Current Condition Fuels The current condition of the fuels varies across the project area depending on the severity of the burn. In areas of high intensity burning the majority of the surface fuels were consumed, including the duff layer, with an occasional large log left. In many of these areas most of the needles were burned from the trees. In the areas of moderate intensity fire much of the surface fuels have been removed with an occasional large log left. Some of the duff layer was left behind. Since many of the needles were just scorched the needles are falling to the ground to create a new surface fuel load. In the low intensity fire areas much of the surface fuels have been removed, the majority of the duff layer was left and there is a mix of green and red needles on the trees. As the dead needles fall they would create new surface fuels. The low intensity areas are not being treated as part of the project. Desired Fuels Conditions/Fire Behavior The fire was located within the Lost Creek and the Summit Management Areas, as described in the Lassen Land and Resource Management Plan. Salvage and restoration falls under the scope of the Sierra Nevada Forest Plan Amendment of The Standards and Guidelines for salvage can be found in the Record of Decision on pages 52 and 53. Objectives for restoration projects may include limiting fuel loads over the long term, restoring habitat, and recovering economic value from dead and dying trees. In accomplishing restoration goals, long-term objectives are balanced with the objective of reducing hazardous fuel loads in the short-term. Design projects to manage the development of fuel profiles over time. Activities would remove sufficient standing and activity generated material to balance short-term and long-term surface fuel loading, and protect remnant old forest structure (surviving large trees, snags, and large logs) from high severity re-burns or other severe disturbance events in the future. Desired post treatment would be a fuel loading that would result in a flame length of 4 foot or less. A 4 foot flame length allows direct attack by crews with hand tools. Also a fire with 4 foot flame length is a low intensity fire. Desired surface fuels loads is 15 tons/acre or less to meet 4 foot flame lengths. 5

6 Fire Weather The Manzanita Lake remote Automated Weather Station (RAWS) is the closed RAWS station to the project area and was selected to obtain 90 th percentile weather for use in fire behavior modeling. See table 4 for weather data. The 90 th percentile weather represents the average worst weather conditions for days when fires occur during fire season. Fire season on the Lassen National Forest on average starts around the middle of May and ends around the middle to end of October. Manzanita Lake Weather Data: Station #40609 Table 4 Air Temperature 82 degrees Relative Humidity 13 percent 1 hour fuels 3 percent 10 hour fuels 4 percent 100 hour fuels 8 percent Wind Speed 20 foot 5 mph Average Slope 15% data for 2012 Environmental Effects: Behave Plus 2005 (Andres 2005) was the analysis tool used for fire behavior modeling. All fire behavior was modeled for a surface fire. Behave assumes the following information: 1. Surface and vertical fuels are homogenous across the landscape, 2. Topography is homogenous across the landscape, 3. Weather is homogenous across the landscape, 4. The fire is a single point source (it does not take into account spotting), and 5. Fire spreads in an elliptical manner. Alternative 1 Proposed Action: Fire Regimes Fire regimes do not change following wildfire events, treating of the surface fuels or manipulation of the vegetation. The project area would still be in fire regimes one, three and four. See table 3 for definitions of fire regimes. Fire behavior/fuels Fire Behavior Modeling for this project was done with the use of BEHAVE Plus 2005 (Andrews 2005), the standard 13 fuel models (Anderson 1982) and the Scott and Burgan 40 fuel models (Scott, Burgan 2005). The following fuel models were selected 6

7 for this comparison based on professional judgment. TL1 (Low Load Compact Conifer Litter) this model represents the fire for the first several years in the treatment areas. Once the proposed action is implemented of logging and machine piling and burning the surface fuel bed would change. Due to breakage of the trees during logging and meeting the other resource needs for down woody material, there would be some surface fuels left in the project area. Two custom fuel models where designed to represent the treated areas post treatment. A timber litter and grass model was combined to represent the area 3-10 years post treatment and a brush and timber litter model to represent the project form years. See table 5 for tons per acre of surface fuels by years and fuel model type. Slopes in the project averaged 15%. The weather for the modeling runs is the 90 th percentile for the Manzanita weather station for 2012 see table 4. Proposed Action Table 5 Time (years) Fuel Model 0-3 Inches t/ac 3 plus inches t/ac Live Fuel (brush) Total t/ac 1-3 years TL1 2.6 n/a n/a TL4/FM1* n/a years TL4/FM5** * This is a custom fuel model combining a grass/slash model. **This is a custom fuel model combining a brush/slash model Proposed Action Fuel Model Flame Length Rate of Spread TL1.4 feet.3 chains/hour TL4/FM1 2.3 feet 9.0 chains/hour TL4/FM5 4.8 feet 8.1 chains/hour Table 6 The direct effect of the proposed action would be the management of the surface fuel bed in the project area over time. Firefighters are able to construct direct handline on fires with 4 foot or less flame lengths as stated on the hauling chart (Rothermel, 1983). Fuel model TL1 best represents the current condition of the project area, which is the fire removed the majority of the surface fuels in the moderate to high severity areas. Table 5 shows expected fire behavior of a flame length of.4 feet and a fire spreading.3 chains per hour. A fire patrol with one person can effectively manage this fire. As time progress the fuel model would change to a grass model with some surface fuels left 7

8 from the proposed action. This model has a spread rate of 6.7 chains per hour, but if fully exposed to the wind would have a rapid rate of spread. Due to the 2-3 foot flame lengths, this fire can be effectively fought with firefighters working directly on the fire edge. There are three engines within a minute response of this area that could handle a fire in the grass/surface fuels mix. After 10 years it is expected that enough brush would come in and change the fuel model and predicted fire behavior. A custom fuel model combining the brush and surface fuels was developed and used for fire behavior predictions. The estimated flame lengths in this fuel model are 4-5 feet. Crews would not be able to work directly on the fire edge and would have to construct indirect fire line. Line construction rates are slower through the brush due to the amount of brush that would need to be cut. The indirect effects long term to this project area is the establishment of the plantation with the associated brush species (30 years plus) and what it does to fire behavior. As seen during the Reading fire, plantations burn with high intensity fire behavior due to the inter-locking of the crowns and the vertical fuel bed that is created from the combination of the brush and trees. Snag Research Plots The Direct effect is the retention of 75 acres of research plots. Each research plot is 5 acres and there are a total of 15 plots. Leave amounts would vary from 0% to 100% in increments of 25%. The indirect effect of these research plots are that they would pose future fire hazards. Some of these plots would have the same effect as the no action alternative and increasing fuel loadings as the remaining number of snags goes down. In the plots with snags remaining suppression would be hampered as identified in the 2012 Chips Fire Behavior Case Study (Bauer, Ewell, and Fites). HazardTrees/Snags: The proposed action would reduce any hazard trees that could fall along roads and would reduce the number of snags in the treated areas. Snags create a safety issue for firefighters and slow down line construction rates. By implementing the proposed action fire fighter safety would be improved by removing the hazard trees/snags during salvage logging. Line production rates would be improved by allowing firefighters to work directly by the fire. If the hazard tress/snags are not removed, for safety, firefighters would have to work 2.5 tree lengths from any snag. This could lead to an increase in fire size and the numbers of resources need to suppress the fire. 8

9 Plantations The proposed action would create a plantation in the areas that would be reforested. Over time, these plantations would become more flammable as the trees grow and the tree canopy s touch. Young trees until self-pruning occurs have limbs that go from the ground to the crown. Brush would come back into this plantation due to the buried brush seed and the root burls that existed before the fire. This would create a vertical fuel bed depending on growing conditions around years in the future. Under the proposed action, once the salvage sale and machine piling is complete the treatment areas would be planted. The results of this planting would be the creation of a plantation. There were several plantations in the fire area all the results of previous wildfires. The largest plantations were the result of the 1920 s Badger fire and there was a smaller plantation created in after the Badger fire of 1984 burned onto the district from Lassen Volcanic National Park. Both of these plantations had areas of high intensity stand replacement fire behavior during the Reading fire. The best chance a plantation has for survival into the future is to have the slash treated, i.e. machine piled and burned. In the 1987 Wildfire Siege in Northern California it was shown that 8 plantations that received no treatment had the highest damage of the 222 units looked at (Weatherspoon and Skinner). The rest of the plantations had negative fire effects, but varied depending on aspect, elevation and site preparation methods. Cumulative Effects The area for the cumulative effects analysis discussion is the project area. The reason for using the project area is that the fuels (due to the fire) change dramatically outside the project boundary. The past actions of 23,974 acres of activities as defined in the Past, Present and Reasonably Foreseeable Future Actions (PFORA) in the project area and the Reading fire created the current condition of the project area. Present Actions: Present actions for the project area are the proposed action. The proposed action would reduce the fuels in the areas treated once machine piling and burning of the piles is completed. Future Actions: The only future actions planned for the project area would be the release of trees from any vegetation completion. 9

10 Alternative 2 No Action: Fire Regimes Fire regimes do not change following wildfire events, treating of the surface fuels or manipulation of the vegetation. The project area would still be in fire regimes one, three and four. See table 3 for definitions of fire regimes. Plantations: Under the no action alternative plantations would not be created. Snag Study: Under the no action alternative this study would not be conducted. Fire Behavior/Fuels Fire Behavior Modeling for this project was done with the use of BEHAVE Plus 2005 (Andrews 2005), the standard 13 fuel models (Anderson 1982) and the Scott and Burgan 40 fuel models (Scott, Burgan 2005). The following fuel models were selected for this comparison based on professional judgment. TL1 (Low Load Compact Conifer Litter) this model represents the fire for the first 1-3 years. A custom fuel model combining a grass model with a slash model (FM1 and TL4) was used to describe the project area from years It is assume that during this time period that surface fuels would start to increase from small diameter material falling down. After 10 years you would have a combination of brush and heavy surface fuels. The surface fuels would increase over time as more trees fall down. Slopes in the project averaged 15%. The weather for the modeling runs is the 90 th percentile for the Manzanita weather station see table 4. No Action Table 7 Time (years) Fuel Model 0-3 Inches t/ac 3 plus inches t/ac Live Fuel (brush) Total t/ac 1-3 years TL1 2.6 n/a n/a TL4/FM1* n/a years SB1/FM5** plus plus * This is a custom fuel model combining a grass/slash model. **This is a custom fuel model combining a brush/slash model. 10

11 No Action Fuel Model Flame Length Rate of Spread TL1.4 feet.3 chains/hour TL4/FM chains/hour SB1/FM5 5.2 feet 6.9 chains/hour SB1/FM1: Short Grass partially exposed to the wind SB1/FM5: Brush 2ft. or less partially exposed to the wind. Table 8 The direct effect of no action to the project area would be the lack of management of the surface fuels over time. The Reading fire burned in area that had burned in the 1920 s in a high intensity manner. As shown in the proposed action the fuel bed would go from a TL1 (representing the project area post fire) to a grass model to a brush model. The difference between the proposed action and the no action is the increase in surface fuels following the dead trees falling down and becoming a surface fuel. As the standing dead trees fall down they would create a heavy surface fuel loading. As shown in table 7 the expected surface fuel loadings would be at a minimum 35 tons per acre. Table 8 shows the expected flame lengths in the project area with no action. What this table does not show is the effect of snags on fire behavior due to spotting. There is currently no model in either fuel model system that effectively models the combination of brush, logs and snags. This potential combination of heavy surface fuels, snags and brush during a wildland fire increases resistance to control for wildland firefighters. The Chips fire on the Plumas National Forest in 2012 burned in a large portion of the Storrie fire from From the 2012 Chips Fire behavior Case Study (Bauer, Ewell, and Fites). : On the third day of the fire, the Los Padres Hot Shots tried to hold the fire on a ridge. As the fire burned through areas with high snag, down log, and shrub densities, the fire quickly increased in intensities and the fire crews had to move to a safer location. From July 30 thru August 1, crews observed rapid spread in the shrub layer, with spotting into and between down logs and especially snags. Spotting distances ranged from short range to long range spotting. Hazard Trees: The no action alternative would reduce the hazard trees/snags along the roads only. The hazard trees/snags would remain over the majority of the project area. Firefighter 11

12 safety would not be addressed. Hazard trees are a safety issue for firefighter. Under the no action alternative firefighter safety would not be improved until the majority of the hazard trees/snags fall down which could take between 5-20 years (observations from local fires). On August 12, 2012 firefighter Anne Veseth was killed when a hazard tree fell and hit another hazard tree as she tried to get out of the way of the first tree (Steep Corner Fire Fatality). The snags in the area in the event of a large fire would contribute to the intensity of the fire. As shown on the Chips fire snag densities where great in most areas and contribute substantially to fire behavior in terms of combustion, ember production and spotting receptors. One of the issues in the Big Meadows Escaped Prescribed burn was a spot fire in an area of a previous wildfire from the 1990 Arch Fire. The escape was perpetuated by snag to snag spotting, often at distances over 100 feet. The burning snags created an extremely difficult and hazardous situation for firefighters attempting to contain this fire (Big Meadow Prescribed Fire Review). Cumulative Effects The area for the cumulative effects analysis discussion is the project area. The reason for using the project area is that the fuels (due to the fire) change dramatically outside the project boundary. The past actions of 23,974 acres of activities as defined in the Past, Present and Reasonably Foreseeable Future Actions (PFORA) in the project area and the Reading fire created the current condition of the project area. The only current action that would take place is the falling of any hazard trees along identified system roads for public safety. At this time there are no future actions planned in the project area. Air Quality: Affected Environment The Badger project area is located between two Class I air sheds. Directly to the south and west of the project area is the Lassen Volcanic National Park Wilderness and to the north of the project area is Thousand Lakes Wilderness. The community of Old Station lies on the eastern side of the project area. The community of Shingletown is 15 to 20 air miles to the west of the project area. The project area is located in the Shasta County Air Quality district and is part of the Northeast Plateau Air Basin. Air quality within the project area is generally within national and state standards for visibility, particulate level (PM10), and pollutants. The air shed is influenced by a 12

13 westerly air flow from the northern Sacramento Valley and up and across the Cascade crest. The project s air quality can be affected by pollutants from downwind population centers such as the towns of Red Bluff and Redding, by agriculture, and adjacent private forest activities producing seasonal dust and smoke as well as residential and recreational dirt road traffic and wood stoves in the valley. Air quality is also affected by management activities with thin the project area, such as road dust from recreational use and smoke from recreational campfires. These effects are short term (less than 24 hours) and localized. Air Quality Direct, Indirect and Cumulative Effects Proposed Action Future Actions: The future actions that are foreseeable are the continued prescribed burning of the surface fuels for the projects completed under the North 49 EIS and the Old Station WUI. Depending on completion of projects (thinning) and burn windows this prescribed burning could be spread across the next 5-10 years. Past actions affecting air quality for the past five years in the project area include the burning of machine piles, landing piles and miscellaneous handpiles that has occurred on both federal and private lands. This burning took place on permissive burns days. Due to the fact that wind events and storms take place, the impacts from smoke are short term (less than 2 weeks) and are not cumulative. There has been fugitive dust created from individuals recreating in the area. There are two large fires that burned in the project area (Sugarloaf and Redding) that affected air quality for a short period of time. In addition in 1999, 2002, 2008, 2009 and 2012 the air quality was impacted from large fires burning elsewhere in northern California and Oregon. These smoke events depending on the prevailing winds and the high pressure system aloft lasted from 2-3 days to 1-2 weeks. Again due to the westerly flow of winds and precipitation events dispersing the smoke, there are no cumulative impacts from smoke. The proposed action of machine piling and burning would occur after the completion of the salvage logging. Depending on the timing of machine piling contracts and the amount of fuels in the project area, it is estimated that it could take 2-3 years to complete all the machine pile burning. As long as burning is conducted on permissive burn days and within the air quality constraints of Shasta County, there should be no effect to the air quality of the project area. A wildfire that occurs within the project area or to the west or south of the project area could impact the air quality of the area. Present Actions that are foreseeable include prescribed burning of other projects in the adjoining areas of the North 49 EIS projects and the Old Station WUI. Both these project areas have prescribed burning following thinning. Prescribed fire projects in the adjoining areas would take place on permissive burn days for Shasta County that would 13

14 allow for good smoke dispersion, so there are no short or long term effects to the project area. Future Actions: The future actions that are foreseeable are the continued prescribed burning of the surface fuels for the projects completed under the North 49 EIS and the Old Station WUI. Depending on completion of projects (thinning) and burn windows this prescribed burning could be spread across the next 5-10 years. Air Quality Direct Indirect and Cumulative Effects No action Alternative The area for the cumulative effects analysis is the project area, Thousand Lakes wilderness to the north, Lassen Volcanic National Park to the south and west and Old Station to the east. This cumulative effects analysis was based on prevailing wind flows (from south to west), the location of class one air sheds, and the location of population centers. The No Action alternative would not create a short-term impact to the local areas from prescribed fire. The air quality within the project area would remain within national and state levels for visibility, particulate levels, and pollutants. The air quality within the project area could still be affected by pollutants from downwind population centers such as the towns of Red Bluff and Redding, by agriculture in the valley and adjacent private forest activities. Air quality would also be influenced by traffic from highway 44, which may raise carbon dioxide levels and ozone levels along the travel corridors. There also would be fugitive dust from local residents recreating in the project area, firewood cutting and hunting. The project area could be impacted from a fire burning outside the area that affects visibility. This happened in 1987, 1992, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2008, 2009 and Past actions affecting air quality for the past five years in the project area include the burning of machine piles, landing piles and miscellaneous handpiles that has occurred on both federal and private lands. This burning took place on permissive burns days. Due to the fact that wind events and storms take place, the impacts from smoke are short term (less than 2 weeks) and are not cumulative. There has been fugitive dust created from individuals recreating in the area. There are two large fires that burned in the project area (Sugarloaf and Redding) that affected air quality for a short period of time. In addition in 1999, 2002, 2008, 2009 and 2012 the air quality was impacted from large fires burning elsewhere in northern California and Oregon. These smoke events depending on the prevailing winds and the high pressure system aloft lasted from 2-3 days to 1-2 weeks. Again due to the westerly flow of winds and precipitation events dispersing the smoke, there are no cumulative impacts from smoke. 14

15 Present Actions that are foreseeable include prescribed burning of other projects in the adjoining areas of the North 49 EIS projects and the Old Station WUI. Both these project areas have prescribed burning following thinning. Prescribed fire projects in the adjoining areas would take place on permissive burn days for Shasta County that would allow for good smoke dispersion, so there are no short or long term effects to the project area. Future Actions: The future actions that are foreseeable are the continued prescribed burning of the surface fuels for the projects completed under the North 49 EIS and the Old Station WUI. Depending on completion of projects (thinning) and burn windows this prescribed burning could be spread across the next 5-10 years. 15

16 References Cited: Agee, J.K Fire ecology of Pacific Northwest Forests. Island Press, Wash. DC. Anderson, Hal E Aids to determining Fuel Models for Estimating Fire Behavior, General Technical Report INT-122 Bauer, Ryan; Ewell, Carol, Fites, Jo Ann Chips Fire Behavior: Case Study DRAFT Beaty Matthew, Taylor, Alan., 2001 Spatial and temporal variation of fire regimes in a mixed conifer forest landscape, Southern Cascades, California, USA Bekker, Matthew F., Taylor, Alan H., 2001 Gradient Analysis of Fire regimes in Montane Forests of the Southern Cascade range, thousand Lakes Wilderness, California, USA. Behave Plus, Andrews, Bevins, Seli, Rocky Mountain Research Station Big Meadow Prescribe Fire Review, National Park service Pacific Southwest region Brown, J.K Fire regimes and their relevance to ecosystem management. Pages In Proceedings of Society of American Foresters National Convention, Sept , 1994, Anchorage, AK. Society of American Foresters, Wash. DC. Burgan, Robert E.; Rothermel, Richard C. Behave: Fire Behavior Prediction and Fuel Modeling System FUEL Subsystem. General Technical Report INT-167. Ogden UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station; Laverty, L. Williams, J. 2000: Protecting People and Sustaining Resources in Fire Adapted Ecosystems A Cohesive Strategy. Rothermel, Richard C How to Predict the Spread and Intensity of Forest and Range Fires General technical report INT-143, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Ogden Utah. Scott, Joe H.; Burgan, Robert E Standard fire behavior fuel models: a comprehensive set for use with Rothermel s surface fire spread model. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-153. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 72 p. Weatherspoon C., Skinner C., 1987 An Assessment of Factors Associated with damage from the 1987 Wildfires in Northern California. PSW Research Station, Redding California pages: 15,16. 16