Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa

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1 Regeneation of Gassland afte Removal of Pine Plantations in the Noth Easten Mountain Gasslands of the Dakensbeg Escapment, Mpumalanga, South Afica. Kuge Linda E 1 Cente fo Envionmental Studies, Univesity of Petoia, Petoia 0002, South Afica Addess coespondence to LE Kuge, kuge.linda4@gmail.com Abstact Concen fo the sevee loss of biodivesity of gassland species is often voiced. Plantation foesty is known to cause extensive and long lasting distubance of the natual envionment in paticula in aeas such as the mountain gassland of the Dakensbeg escapment. The suvey was conducted in the Gaskop aea on sites within pine plantations along the Teu Rive bodeing the Blyde Rive Natue Reseve. The esults showed that estoation of plant species biodivesity though natual succession, on cleaed plantation sites, equied peiods longe than seven yeas and that the egeneation of a geat many of the indigenous fob species emained uncetain. Two suvey aeas wee selected and within each suvey aea, sampling sites wee selected to epesent thee categoies of vegetation namely, undistubed gassland and sites whee pine tees had been emoved thee and seven yeas peviously. Samples of plants wee collected fom each of these sampling sites. Analysis by means of an classification technique detemined the species composition of the distubed sites in elation to that of the intact gassland. Wheel point suveys wee also caied out on these sites to povided infomation on the vegetation cove, as well as the degee of species egeneation on each site. The vaiation in vegetation composition of the vaious plots was analysed by means of Detended Coespondence Analysis (DCA) and Two-Way Indicato Species Analysis (TWINSPAN). The esults showed thee distinct species assemblages which coesponded with the thee categoies of sampling sites. Also that the indigenous fobs species compised 68% of all the sampled species most of which had failed to egeneate in eithe the thee o 1

2 seven yea cleaed plots. The most successful gass species in establishing and pesisting in all sites wee, Eagostis cuvula and Loudetia simplex. The fen, Pteidium aquilinum had a high pevalence on the distubed gassland plots and the theat of its invasion of these habitats is compounded by the physical distubance which eadication methods cause. Planning fo gassland estoation involves cognizance of the complexity of gassland ecology, the influence of a multiplicity of envionmental factos and the poximity of dono sites to the distubed aeas. Applying intenational estoation techniques used in gasslands of diffeent oigins to those of South Afican landscapes could esult in disappointing and costly effots. At best any attempt at managing gassland divesity should be peceded by an holistic investigation into the envionmental conditions paticula to the specific teain and theeafte maintaining a consevative appoach of allowing natual succession. The theat of invasive exotic species should be integal to conseving the integity of the emaining intact natual gasslands in South Afica. It is acknowledged that in this study egeneation of gassland species on plantation sites cleaed of pine tees thee and seven yeas peviously does not include a long time span such as needed fo succession to take place but is useful in showing a tend in species e-colonization to esemble the vegetation of intact gassland, as well as highlighting the absence of a geat numbe of indigenous fob species. Key wods Biodivesity, indigenous species, fobs, plantation foesty, consevation, estoation. Aim of the study The aim of the study was to detemine whethe egeneation of plant species on plantation sites which had been cleaed of pine tees, thee and seven yeas ago espectively, exhibited any tend of egeneation towad esembling plant assemblages of the natual gassland sites. The objectives wee to detemine (a) the disciminating species pesent on each sampling plot, (b) the extent of vegetation cove on the distubed sites, (c) whethe any species had failed to etun, (d) whethe e-colonization of distubed sites was influenced by the passing of time by noting the 2

3 tends in species composition between diffeently aged plots and (e) whethe the distubed plots esembled the oiginal gassland in species composition. Intoduction This study compised the botanical section of a thee pat epot on the floistic, vetebate and invetebate status of the study aea in ode to comply with the equiements of a mini thesis fo the M(InstAga) Envionmental Management degee at the Univesity of Petoia. The gasslands of South Afica cove 349,174 km². Exotic plantations cove 12,573 km². Appoximately 4,000 km² within these plantation aeas ae managed by foesty companies as consevation aeas (Foesty Industy Envionmental Committee, 2002). The gassland floa of the Noth-Easten Tansvaal Escapment of the Dakensbeg mountain ange in South Afica is one of the main southen Afican centes of biodivesity, as well as an impotant seconday cente of endemism (Van Wyk & Smith 2001). Classified as the Dakensbeg Afomontane Regional System in the Wolkbeg Cente, it is an extaodinay cente of biodivesity, with moe than 3,370 floal species occuing in these gasslands (Matthews et al. 1992; Van Wyk and Smith 2001). It is known that about 75% pecent of the total mountain gassland biome has been tansfomed and that only a vey small section theeof (2%) is conseved (Bedenkamp et al. 1999). The Wolkbeg Cente, whee this study took place, enjoys only 12% fomal potection (State of the Envionment Repot, Mpumalanga, 2003). Cetain aeas of the South Afican gasslands still epesent evolutionay intact natual entities of the wold s emaining oiginal pimay gasslands of ancient geological oigin (Van Wyk and Malan 1988, Van Wyk A.E. 2006). Theefoe, when consideing intenational eseach in gassland estoation and consevation, an impotant diffeence in the ecology and biological status of the gasslands in South Afica and those of othe continents must be noted, fo many studies epot on estoation in Euopean gasslands whee gassland ae mainly of seconday oigin having been tansfomed though decades of faming pactices. These ecosystems no longe epesent the 3

4 oiginal undistubed gassland biodivesity and can only be consideed as a bio-cultual heitage asset (Pywell et al. 2003; Gustavsson et al. 2007; Bischoff et al. 2009). Loss of biodivesity in mountain gasslands happens mainly though the extensive habitat destuction by commecial foesty and the incease in ual population settlements which esult in the intensified utilization of natual esouces, paticulaly fo pastues and cops (O Conno 2005). Also contibuting to the loss of biodivesity is the inadequate and often misplaced consevation effots in the past which have esulted in the insufficient potection of natual gasslands (Matthews et al. 1993; Van Wyk and Smith 2001). Vaious consevation pogammes such as the National Gassland Biodivesity Pogamme (Steyn 2005) and the Enkangala Gassland Poject have been initiated. These pogammes ae endosed by the Woldwide Fund fo Natue (WWF) and funded by the Geen Tust and the consevation of up to a million hectaes of gassland is envisioned by enabling biodivesity stewadship pojects on land belonging to pivate and communal landownes. The invasion by exotic invasive species emains seious theat to the integity of the gasslands and contol methods emain challenging to all landownes (Bomilow 2001). Restoation of gassland though natual succession equies that the sites seving as the souce of seeds and plant popagules should be in close poximity to the distubed aeas (Bischoff et al. 2009). Wheeas estoation by means of diect management may include any one o moe of the following manipulations; seed intoduction (Pywell et al. 2002), soil manipulation by ploughing o vegetation cleaing, nutient application, topsoil emoval, mowing of vegetation, o gazing by livestock o slash and bun pactices (Pywell et al. 2003). A South England study concluded that the poximity of intact natual gassland sites to estoation aeas poved moe successful than atificial seeding pocedues even though the seed mixtue used was caefully selected and the N:P atio of the soil nutient status was coectly manipulated (Fagan et al. 2008). Reseach epots eflect the wide ange of appoaches to gassland estoation and seve to highlight its convoluted natue. This conclusion is futhe undescoed by esults of such studies as the effects of affoestation on soil nutient status in pa amo gasslands (Faleya 2004), the gemination 4

5 capacity of soil seed banks of gasslands conveted to pine plantation (Maccheini S. and De Dominicis 2003) and the estoation by seed addition outweighing soil fetility eduction on exaable gassland (Kadol et al. 2008). In contast, it was found that diffeing management stategies of gasslands, such as continuous management, abandoning o estoing sites made no diffeence in the species ichness found thee (O ckinge et al. 2006). Howeve, some evidence of the negative effects of abandoning distubed sites was also found by these authos. Although egeneation of gassland species on land peviously planted with conifeous species is still little descibed in intenational liteatue, Maccheini and De Dominicis (2003) wites that few popagules and seed of gassland species wee found in soil samples taken unde conifeous plantations. Howeve, Cuevas and Zalba (2009) epoted that egeneation of gassland species did occu afte the felling of invasive alien tees if the emoval theeof took place ealy enough afte its establishment. In South Afica cetain shade toleant gassland species pesisted within pine plantations but these aeas ae theatened by the invasion of the exotic species Rubus cuneifolius, as well as the physical distubance caused by lumbeing activities (O Conno 2005). It can be gleaned fom this multiplicity of envionmental factos that estoation and monitoing pojects which focus on species ichness only, may poduce biased assessments on the status of species divesity and habitat (Reitalu et al. 2009). The effect of time on the egeneation of gassland species in distubed land is vey elevant as a numbe of studies have shown. It was found that he etun of abandoned communal copland land to indigenous gassland devoid of exotics took about 20 yeas and that gassland potected fo some 50 yeas showed a species ichness twice that of gazed gassland (O Conno 2005). The emoval of pine tees within a cetain time to pevent pemanent changes in soil popeties was found of paamount fo gassland estoation (Cuevas and Zalba 2009). It is concluded fom eseach esults such as these, that the assessment methods, as well as the chaacte and oigin of the physical envionment in which estoation is to take place should be consideed with cicumspection befoe deciding on a estoation appoach in gassland. 5

6 Pio to 1972 uncontolled affoestation took place and ecent govenment diectives have been issued in conjunction with pemits and licenses to limit these pactices but despite the legal, as well as foesty cetification equiements, plantation establishment continues along the banks of peennial steams and in wetlands (Foesty Industy Envionmental Committee, 2002). Howeve, the Wate Consevation and Demand Management Stategy fo the Foest Secto in South Afica povides guidelines fo foesty companies on the cleaing of teains fo affoestation (Depatment of Wate Affais and Foesty, 2000). Study aea The study was conducted in the Teu Rive Valley on the London Foesty Station Fam 496K which is situated in the Noth Easten Dakensbeg escapment, 35km noth of Gaskop, Mpumalanga. The suvey sites wee selected along the Teu Rive at an altitude of 1,500m and within the Blyde Rive Natue Reseve, as well as adjacent commecial pine plantations. Two suvey aeas wee selected along the banks of the ive within 5kms of each othe. Suvey aea 1 was located at 24º 45 S, 30º52 E and Suvey aea 2 at 24º47 S, 30º53 E. Fig 1. Map of the study aea. of Suvey aeas 1 and 2 to show the positions of Sampling plots A, B and C in tems of the Teu Rive, the London Foesty Fam and the R532 povincial oad to Gaskop, South Afica. Souce: 1: Topocadestal map, Govenment Pintes, Petoia and Van Wyk (2001). 6

7 The appoach was to select two suvey aeas simila in vegetation composition, within which sampling sites could be selected in tems of the time afte cleaance of pine plantations. Sampling plots in each site epesented, thee yeas afte cleaance (sampling site A) seven yeas afte cleaance (sampling site B) and undistubed gassland (sampling site C). The gassland plots have been intact fo appoximately 45 yeas (Pofesso J. W. H. Feguson, 2005, Univesity of Petoia, Petoia, pesonal communication) and seved as an indicato of intact plant communities. Two plots of 100m² each wee pegged out within each categoy of sampling site at a distance of 100m of each othe, giving a total of 12 sampling plots. The topogaphy of the teain consisted of a noth-south oientated valley with a steep eoded idge on the westen bank of the ive and gentle slopes to the east. The study aea fell within a tempeate climatic zone. Summes hee ae wam to cool with a high ainfall and thundestoms, dizzle and mist occuing fequently. In winte it is cold and dy with occasional fosts (Matthews et al. 1993). The annual ainfall anges fom 708mm to 1,821mm with a mean ainfall of 1,321mm pe annum (Matthews et al. 1993). The daily tempeatue vaies fom -8 in winte to 39 in summe with an aveage daily tempeatue of 15 C. The geology of the egion compises the Tansvaal Supe Goup, the Black Reef Quatzite Fomation, the Wolkbeg goup, the Timeball Hill Fomation and the Chuniespoot Fomation (Matthews et.al.1993). The soils of this egion ae complex but compise two distinctive vaiations namely, soils with an acidic ph which developed fom quatzite and shale ock and have a low nutient base with minimal phosphous content and soils deived fom the Chuniespoot Fomation which ae high in nutient levels, with an alkaline ph due to chemical weatheing of the cabonifeous and dolomite component of the basic paent ock(matthews et.al.1993). These distinct soil types ae known to give ise to paticula vegetation assemblages (Tilman 1988 in O Conno 2005) Methods 7

8 Plant samples wee taken fom all twelve sampling plots duing Decembe 2003 and May 2004 to coincide with the floweing times of summe and autumn gassland species (Daubenmie 1986). Obsevation and weighting of the species cove abundance was done accoding to the Baun- Blanquet cove-abundance scale and fom this a phytosociological classification table was compiled (Van De Maael 1975; Muelle-Dombois and Ellenbeg 1974; Gauch J 1982) (Appendix). Species wee identified by liteatue seaches (Gibbs et al. 1990; Gabandt 1985; Hobson and Jessop 1975; Ondestall 1984; Retief and Heman 1997; Schelpe and Anthony 1986; Van Wyk and Malan 1988; Van Wyk and Oudtshoon 1999). Plant samples wee compaed with peseved specimens at the H.G.W.J. Schweicket Hebaium of the Univesity of Petoia and identification of species was veification by Pofesso G.J. Bedenkamp of the Depatment of Botany, Univesity of Petoia. Two sets of Wheel point suveys wee caied out on the same sites as the species sampling sites but each plot was inceased to 200m². Fistly, a suvey of species canopy hits was done to detemine the extent of vegetation cove on each plot and theeafte a suvey of cown hits of species was done to detemine the indicato species pesent on each plot (Tidmash and Havenga 1955). Data analysis The phyto-sociological classification table showed six goupings of species odeed accoding to thei occuence and abundance in the thee yeas, seven yeas and gassland sampling plots (Appendix). Fom the wheel point suveys data matices wee compiled fo each sampling plot on the suvey sites 1 and 2. Data tables of cown hits and canopy cove hits of species wee compiled fo all plots. Then data matixes wee compiled to show (a) the total pecentage canopy hits on suvey aeas 1 and 2 combined which indicated the vegetation cove (Table 1a), (b) the total pecentage 8

9 mean canopy cove pe species fo each plot (Table 1b) and (c) the total pecentage mean cown hits pe species fo each plot (Table 1c). Thidly, a detended coespondence analysis (DCA) was undetaken using the CANOCO compute pogam (Jongman et al. 1995) (Figue 2). In the DCA analysis the DETR-POLY3, Biplot scaling, no tansfomation and the Hill s scaling method of weighting of species scoes and sample site scoes was used which identified the twenty species most significant in accounting fo vaiance in species composition. A dendogam illustating the clusteing patten of species associations on sampling plots was compiled by means of the Two-Way Indicato Species Analysis method (TWINSPAN) (Hill 1979) (Figue 3). In ode to detemine the species associations with the sampling sites, a data analysis was done by compiling a two-way odeed table of species scoes and sample plots by means of the TURBOVEG compute pogam (Dufêné and Legendé 1997; Hill 1979; Van Goenewoud 1992). Results Phytosociological classification table A total of 129 species wee identified of which 112 wee indigenous and wee much moe abundant in the gassland plots and vey ae in the distubed plots (Appendix). Thee wee 82 indigenous fob species, 24 gass species, 3 tee species, and 2 fen species. The species pesent in the gassland as well as seven yea plots amounted to 31 of which 5 species wee exotic, 9 wee gass species and 17 indigenous fobs. The thee yea plots yielded 19 species, 3 exotic species and 1 gass species. Eleven species wee pesent on all thee categoies of sites of which Eagostis cuvula was the most pevalent followed by Pteidium aquilinum, Commelina aficana va. babaea and the exotic weeds, Cypeus esculentus and Sonchus oleaceus. Howeve, Pteidium aquilinum was the most pevalent species in the cleaed sites and appeaed only aely 9

10 in the gassland plots. Nineteen exotic species wee ecoded of which the gassland sites contained 47%, the seven yea sites 53% and the 3 yea sites, 71% of these species. The species wee Rubus igidus, Solanum mauitianum, Rumex sagittatus, Acacia dealbata, Sesbania punicea, Cypeus esculentus, Sonchus oleaceus, Plantago lanceolata, and Conyza bonaiensis. Wheel Point suvey The esults of the mean pecentage vegetation cove based on canopy hits on all thee categoies of plots of Suvey aeas 1 and 2 combined, showed that the total vegetation cove fo the gassland was 81%, the seven yea plots 49% and the thee yea plots 59% (Table 1a). The esults of the total pecentage mean canopy cove pe species on the gassland, thee and seven yea old plots of Suvey aeas 1 and 2 (Table 1b) showed Pteidium aquilinum to be the most extensive vegetation cove on the thee and seven yea plots. Wheeas Eagostis cuvula contibuted towads the most cove on all thee categoies of sites and inceasing fom 3% on the thee yea plots to 21% on the seven yea plots indicating it as successful pionee gassland species. Othe dominant gass species contibuting to the vegetation cove on the gassland (18%) and seven yea plots (8%) wee Loudetia simplex, and on gassland plots Themeda tianda (15%) and Monocymbium ceesiifome (7%) wee the most abundant. Despite thee being less abundance of cetain species in the gassland plots than the seven yea plots thei canopy cove exceeded that of the distubed plots and may be attibutable to being moe matue plants. Howeve it indicated a gadual tend towad senescence in the gassland succession and an inceased tend in species colonization on the distubed plots. The analysis of the total pecentage cown hits pe species on the gassland, thee and seven yea old plots evealed the following dominant species occuing in each (Table 1c). Eagostis cuvula was the most pevelent species on all thee categoies of plots followed by Pteidium aquilinum on the thee and seven yea plots, Monocymium ceesciifome on the gassland plots and the invasive 10

11 Cypeus esculentus, which is typically found on distubed sites, dominated the thee yea plots. The gass species indicating successful egeneation on the seven yea plots was Melinus neviglume and the fob Tetaselago nelsonii. This indicated a pesistence of these species though succession ove seven yeas. The only significance fob species wee have appeaed on both categoies of cleaed plots wee, Commelina aficana va. babaae and to a lesse degee Pentanisia angustifolia and Tetaselago nelsonii. Detended Coespondence Analysis (DCA) The coelation between the species and the plot scoes in tems of a coelation coefficient index is shown by gaph (Hill 1979; Gauch 1982; Te Baak 1986) (Fig 2). Of the fou axes, axes 1 and 2 wee shown to contibute 35% of the pecentage vaiance of species data and used to intepet the gaphic epesentation of the species data. The Eigen values of the sample plots and species scoes wee on the fist axis and on the second. Being close to 1 than zeo these values indicated a high degee of coespondence between species and sampling plots (Gauch, 1982; Pielou, 1984).The patten of spatial distibution of species in tems of the thee categoies of sampling plots showed thee distinct goups of disciminating species which coesponded with the distibution patten of the sampling plots. Secondly, those species which had, accoding to the DCA pecentage weighting, achieved a scoe >1 (Table 2) indicated which species seved to disciminate most clealy between the diffeent categoies of sampling plots. The gassland sites wee clealy diffeentiated fom the thee and seven yea plots. The thee yea plots wee discenible fom the seven yea sites as these appeaed above and below the hoizontal axis espectively. The distibution patten of the plant species coesponded with that of the thee categoies of sampling plots. The DCA confimed the existence of two distinct plant communities namely, the natual gassland and the distubed gassland because these two categoies of species associations wee placed on eithe side of the vetical axis. The gassland species wee Themeda tianda, Loudetia simplex, Panicum natalense, Heteopogon contotis, Monocymbium ceisiifome Tachypogon spicatus, Diheteopogon amplectens, Spoobolus pectinatus, Panicum maximum and the fob Venonia natalensis. Species associated with the distubed sites wee the exotics Cypeus 11

12 longus, Amaanthus hibidus, Sonchus oleaceus. Uochloa panicoides, Pteidium aquilinum, Panicum schinzii, Commelina aficana va. babaae, Eagostis cuvula and Melinus neviglume. Those species which wee associated with the cleaed sites as well as the gassland sites, indicated below the hoizontal axis wee Themeda tianda, Loudetia simplex, Panicum natalense, Heteopogon contotis, Monocymbium ceisiifome, Commelina aficana va. babaae, Eagostis cuvula and Melinus neviglume. Howeve, Eagostis cuvula and fob Commelina aficana va. babaae wee associated with the seven yea sites which indicated a tend of egeneation ove seven yeas of indigenous species. The exotic weeds, Cypeus longus, Amaanthus hibidus, Sonchus oleaceus, Uochloa panicoides and Panicum schinzii wee associated mainly with the thee yea sites and is known to happen on distubed sites but had diminished o disappeaed in the olde sites indication that they wee effective pionee species. The gass species Eagostis cuvula, Loudetia simplex wee associated with the seven yea sites. Eagostis cuvula and Commelina aficana va. babaae wee associated with the thee and seven yea sites and indicated a gadual succession of these species fom the thee to the seven yea plots. TWINSPAN analysis The dendogam illustated two main clustes namely, the gassland goup and a second goup made up of the thee yea and seven yea plots which also fomed two distinct sub goups (Fig. 3). The configuation of the dendogam fom the TWINSPAN analysis showed a coesponding patten of clusteing of species and sampling sites as the DCA. The indicato species identified by TWINSPAN coesponded with cetain of the species identified in the classification table namely, Helichysum cephaloideum, Pentanisia angustifolia and Ipomea obscua in all thee categoies of plots, Acacia dealbata, Helichysum acutatum and Helichysum kausii in the seven and thee yea plots, Rubus igidus in the gassland and seven yea plots and Diospyos lycoidens subsp. seicea and Pennisetum macouum in the thee yea plots. The wheel point suvey esults of the most common species found to contibute to the mean pecentage canopy cove had cetain species in common with the esults of the DCA pecentage weighting in which species wee identified to disciminate most clealy between the diffeent categoies of sites (Bold font Table 2) namely, 12

13 Eagostis cuvula, Loudetia simplex, Themeda tianda, Diheteopogon amplectens, Monocymbium ceesiifome, all fom gassland sites. Pteidium aquilinum and Amaanthus hybidus fom 3 yea sites and Melinus neviglume fom 7 yea sites (Table 2). This obsevation shows that both the DCA and Wheelpoint suveys analysis methods pesented coesponding species in thei esults and this confims that these species ae the most chaacteistic gassland species which wee also successful in egeneating on distubed land. Discussion The cleaed sites showed vey little esemblance to the natual gassland in plant community composition. The conclusions dawn fom this study ae: (1) With the exception of the gass species Eagostis cuvula, Melinus neviglume, Panicum maximum, Loudetia simplex, Panicum natalense and Monocymbium ceesiifome egeneation of indigenous species afte the distubance by defoestation is extemely limited. (2) The plant assemblages found on the diffeently aged plots diffeed significantly fom each othe and even moe so fom the gassland plots. (3) Non-indigenous species wee pedominantly found on the cleaed plots and Pteidium aquilinum had a high level of pesence on these plots. Although most of the exotic species had diminished ove time on the seven yea plots compaed to the thee yea plots, some continued to pesist in the seven yea as well as the natual gassland plots. (4) The gass species Eagostis cuvula poved the most chaacteistic species on all the plots. A limited numbe of the othe indigenous gass species had successfully colonized the cleaed sites and indicated that a tend towads the climax stage in succession existed. (5) The absence of most of the indigenous fob species fom the cleaed plots was vey noticeable fom the study esults as they constituted two thids of all species sampled. (6) Natual succession of indigenous fobs equie longe peiods than seven yeas to take place afte distubance. This esult is undescoed by the eseach findings of othes such as Fagan et al. (2008) who pedicted that it was a slow pocess which could equie moe than 60 yeas and O Conno (2005) who concluded that abandoned communal copland only eveted to indigenous gassland within 20 yeas, in the gassland of the southen Dakensbeg. In thei efeence to the oigin of Nothen and Southen Hemisphee gasslands, 13

14 Bedenkamp et al. (2002) state that succession afte distubance is slow and esults in a seconday gassland which does not esemble the climatic climax gassland. A vaiety of distubance factos ae consideed to account fo the loss of biodivesity in gasslands. Amongst othes the loss of seed and popagule banks (Bischoff 2009), dono gassland sites being too distant fom the distubed sites fo natual vectos to tanspot the seed (Mulle et al. 1998) and the changes in soil popeties caused by pine tees (Cuevas 2009). In ecoding thei findings on the techniques used in estoation of gassland communities Pywell et.al. (2003) admit to the lack of undestanding of the mechanisms ceating natual species divesity in semi-natual gasslands. Accoding to thei study on the ehabilitation of coastal dune foests in Nothen KwaZulu-Natal, Van Aade et al. (1996) found that the souces of species wee needed in close poximity to distubed sites fo natual succession to take place. Contol methods fo Pteidum aquilinum equies biannual cutting of this species, which will pomote gemination and establishment of indigenous species by exposing the soil to moe light (Cox et al. 2008). Howeve, management intevention by means of vehicles and can lead to inceased distubance which compomises the aim of achieving and maintaining stability in the existing plant community stuctue (Hist et.al. 2005). The findings of this study concued with the findings epoted by Neke and Du Plessis (2004); Pywell et al. (2002), and Kiehl et al. (2006) that egeneation of distubed aeas did not have a high success ate. The pudent action should be to potect aeas with existing high species divesity fo those aeas which suppot ae species ae indicative of land of high consevation value by vitue of thei high genetic seed bank value. (Buhk et al. 2007). Reseach pojects, as in the case of this study, will need to be extended ove much longe peiods than seven yeas in ode to detemine the ate and success of natual egeneation of species afte distubance (Adle 2003). Meanwhile, the findings such as poduced by this study, of the appaent inability of indigenous fobs species to egeneate successfully, highlighted the ugent necessity to conseve emaining intact gassland aeas. The consevation management pactice of 14

15 elying on natual succession alone, pesents a time constaint which implies the ievesible loss of indigenous and endemic species. Competition fom exotic species, the effects of climate change and effots to ehabilitate distubed land only seve to incease the complexities of gassland estoation. Conclusion This study on gassland egeneation found that afte seven yeas two distinct plant communities existed which showed no esemblance with each othe. These wee the distubed gassland communities whee pine plantation had been cleaed and the natual intact gassland communities. The management pactice of emoving pine plantations and abandoning them to allow fo natual succession to take place had esulted in the failue of plant communities to etun to a natual gassland state. The appaent non-egeneation of most fobs highlighted in this study, points to the seious potential loss of gassland biodivesity though plantation foesty and incoect estoation pactices. 15

16 Implications fo Pactice It is impeative that emaining mountain gasslands should eceive potection fom all foms of distubance. The invasive exotics Pteidium aquilinum should eceive pioity attention in gassland management. Caeful consideation should be given to applying intenational estoation appoaches to local gassland envionments. All natual gassland fagments should eceive potection in ode to seve as seed and popagule bank fo dispesal. This applies paticulaly to foesty companies who engage in cleaing of sites and emoval of pine tees. It must be noted that Pine tees should which emain in situ fo peiods longe than cetain peiods could esult in pemanent soil popety changes. It is impeative that long tem eseach on egeneation of plants species in South Afican gasslands be continued. Reseach esults on gassland ecology must continue to infom all political and economic consideations in ode to pomote integative, co-opeative decisions egading land use and consevation of gassland biodivesity by govenment depatments, paastatals and pivate institutions. Public awaeness of the theats facing gasslands must be encouaged as it fostes esponsible esouce use and owneship by those who ultimately ely on the natual envionment fo thei livelihood. Acknowledgements. My sincee appeciation to Pofesso J. W. H. Feguson and D M Robetson of the Cente fo Envionmental Studies, Zoology Depatment, and Pofesso G. J. Bedenkamp and Ms M. Deutchlande of the Botany Depatment, Univesity of Petoia. To M T.G. O Conno my gatitude fo his much valued eview of this study. 16

17 Table 1a. Summay of the esults of the wheel point suvey of the mean pecentage vegetation cove based on canopy hits on the gassland, thee and seven yea old plots of Suvey aeas 1 and 2. Mean pecentage canopy cove Suvey aea 1 Gassland 3 ys 7 ys Plot Plot Suvey aea 2 Plot Plot Total 81% 49% 59% Table 1b. Summay of the total pecentage mean canopy cove pe species on the gassland, thee and seven yea old plots of Suvey aeas 1 and 2. Species Gassland 3 ys 7 ys Pteidium aquilinum 29% 12% Eagostis cuvula 18 % 3% 21% Loudetia simplex 18% 8% Themeda tianda 15% Monocymbium ceesiifome 7% Helichysum aueonitens 6% Peasonia sessilifolia 6% 5% Cypeus esculentus 3% Amaanthus viidis 5% Melinus neviglume 13% Tetaselago nelsonii 8% 17

18 Table 1c. Summay of the total pecentage cown hits pe species on the gassland, thee and seven yea old plots of Suvey aeas 1 and 2. Species Gassland 3 ys 7 ys Eagostis cuvula 4% 2% 12% Pteidium aquilinum 7% 9% Cypeus esculentus 5% Melinus neviglume 5% Monocymium ceesiifome 3% Tetaselago nelsonii 3% 18

19 Table 2. The combined esults of (a) the most common species found to contibute to the mean pecentage canopy hits in all thee sampling sites accoding to the wheel point suvey and (b) the esults of the DCA pecentage weighting scoes >1 (backeted in bold font) of species which seved to disciminate most clealy between the diffeent types of sampling site. Species Gassland 7 ys 3 ys Oveall mean Eagostis cuvula 33; (4.5) Pteidium aquilinum ; (2.2) 14 Loudetia simplex 18; (2.8) (11) 0 10 Themeda tianda 15; (3.6) Peasonia sessilifolia Melinus neviglume 0 8; (3) 0 3 Helichysum aueonitens Diheteopogon amplectens 6; (2) Monocymbium ceesiifome 7; (2) Amaanthus hybidus 0 0 5; (3) 2 Sonchus oleaceus 0 0 (5) 0 Cypeus longus 0 0 (4) 0 Commelina aficana subsp. babaea 0 (3) 0 0 Venonia natalensis (3) Panicum natalense (2) Spoobolus pectinatus (2) Panicum schinzii 0 0 (1.6) 0 Byophytum 0 0 (1.6) 0 Uochloa panicoides 0 0 (1.5) 0 Panicum maximum 0 (1.3) 0 0 Heteopogon contotus (1)

20 Figue 2. DCA of the plot and the species scoes (Hill s scaling) illustating the coelations between the spatial distibutions of species in elation to the thee categoies of sampling sites. 5 4 Uochloa panicoides Plots scoes Species scoes 3Yeas plot 1Ba 3 Panicum maximum Cypeus longus Tachypogon 3 Yeas plot 1Bb spicatus Spoobilis pectinatus 2 Diheteopogon pectinatus Gassland plot 1Aa Sonchus oleaceus Amaanthus hybidus Gassland plot 1Ab 2Ba 3Yeas plot 2Ba 1 Venonia natalensis Pteidium aquilinum Panicum schinzii 3 Yeas plot 2Bb 0 Themeda tiada 7 Yeas plot 2Bb Commelina 1 aficanus Gassland plot 2Ab spp. babaae Loudetia simplex 7 Yeas plot 2Cb 7 Yeas plot 1Ca Gassland plot 2Aa -1 7 Yeas plot 2Ca Byophytum sp. Panicum natalense Eagostis cuvula Melinus neviglume Heteopogon Monocymbium contotus ceisiifome -2 20

21 Figue 3. A dendogam by TWINSPAN analysis illustating the clusteing patten of species associations on the plots of within the gassland, thee and seven yea sampling sites Aa 1Cb 1Ca 2Ba 1Bb 1Ab 2Ca 2Cb 2Bb 1Ba 2Aa 7 yeas 3 yeas 2Ab Gassland 21

22 Table 3. Summay of indicato species identified by TWINSPAN Gassland 7 yeas 3 yeas Helichysum cephaloideum Pentanisia angustifolia Ipomea obscua Rubus igidus Buddleja salviifolia Senecio oxyiifolius Helichysum cephaloideum Pentanisia angustifolia Ipomea obscua Acacia dealbata Aistida congesta Helichysum acutatum Helichysum kaussii Rubus igidus Asplenium splendens Commelina aficana va. aficana Cyathea degei Cynodon dactylon Cypeus upestis Gladiolus spp. Helichysum nudifolium Helichysum oligocephalum Hibiscus pusilus Anthospemum hispidulum Kohautia amatymbica Ledebouia ovatifolia Lotononis calycina Rumex sagittatus Tistachya leucotix Vebena bonaiensis Helichysum cephaloideum Pentanisia angustifolia Ipomea obscua Acacia dealbata Aistida congesta Helichysum acutatum Helichysum kaussii Buddleja salviifolia Senecio oxyiifolius Abaltgadia ovata Diospyos lycoidens subsp. Seicea Pennisetum macouum Pinus spp 22

23 APPENDIX. Phytosociological table of species and sampling plots. The cell enties denote the species cove abundance accoding to the Baun-Blanquet cove-abundance scale. Sampling site B (3 Yeas) Sampling site C (7 Yeas) Sampling site A (Gassland) Suvey aea 1 Suvey aea 2 Suvey aea 1 Suvey aea 2 Suvey aea 1 Suvey aea 2 Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot1 Plot2 Eagostis cuvula* Pteidium aquilinum Commelina aficana va. babaea Sonchus oleaceus*** Cypeus esculentus*** Tetaselago nelsonii Ipomea obscua Helichysum cephaloideum + Pentanisia angustifolia Linum thunbegii + Buddleja salviifolia Melinus neviglume*** Byophyta 1 2 Uochloa panicoides* Cypeus longus*** Andopogon eucomus* + 1 Conyza canadensis*** 1 Acacia dealbata*** 1 Pinus spp***. 1 Helichysum kaussii + Helichysum acutatum Hibiscus micocapus Panicum maximum* Helichysum aueonitens 1 1 Acanthospemum hispidum Conyza bonaiensis*** Cynodon dactylon*** 1 Cypeus upestis*** 1 Helichysum nudifolium 1 Tistachya leucothix* 1 Asplenium splendens + Commelina aficana va. Aficana + Lotononis calycina + Vebena bonaiensis + Kohautia amatymbica Anthospemum hispidulum Cyathea degei Diospyos lycoidens subsp. seicea Gladiolus spp. Helichysum oligocephalum Hibiscus pusilus Ledebouia ovatifolia 23

24 Pennisetum macouum* Rumex sagittatus Loudetia simplex* Panicum natalense* Monocymbium ceesiifome* Tetaselago spp Oxalis obliquifolia Cypeus obtusiflous va. flavissimus*** Helichysum pilosellum + + Indigophea cyptantha + + Lobelia einus + + Clutia monticola + Fagodia tetaqueta angustifolia + Rubus igidus*** + Eucomis autumnalis subsp. clavata Plantago majo Rhynchosia monophylla Oenothea indicoa Amaanthus hybidus*** Panicum schinzii* 1 2 Panicum coloatum* 1 Pennisetum clandestinum* 1 Digitaia eiantha* 1 Amaanthus viidis*** + Tephosia capensis* + Solanum mauitianum*** + Abilgadtia ovate Aistida congesta* Pavonia buchellii Commelina kebsiana Cucumis zeyhei Senecio spp.. Sesbania punicea*** Themeda tianda* Heteopogon contotus* 2 5 Spoobolus pectinatus* 3 3 Venonia natalensis Tachypogon spicatus* 3 Diheteopogon amplectens* 1 2 Hypoxis acuminate Heteopogon amplectans* 2 Athanasia aceosa 1 Eiosema codatum Monopsis decipiens 1 + Setaia sphacelata* 1 Bulbostylis hispidula Cepis hypochoeidea 1 + Becium obovatum

25 Peasonia sessilifolia Kyllinga alba + + Rhynchosia nitens + + Acalypha schinzii + Alloteopsis semialata + Gnidia caffa + Haplocapa scaposa + Hypoxis igidula + Justicea anagaloides + Peacedadanum magalismontanum + Rubus cuneifolius*** + Sphaeanthus incises + Eiosema salignum + Senecio coonatus + Cyphia assimilis + Dima elata + Pentanisia punelloides + Acalypha glandulifolia + Felicia spp. Knowltonia tansvalensis Sebaea gandis Acalypha spp. Acalypha angustata Chamaesyce spp. Ajuga ophydis Antheicum coopei Agyolobium tubeosum Cypeus fuiena*** Dicoma anomala Hemania spp. Ledebouia zebine Lotononis laxa va. multifloa Moea spathulata Onithogalum tenuifolium Pelagonium luidum Plantago lanceolata Polygala hottentota Senecio inaequidens Sonchus spp*** Venonia galpinii Gass species * exotic species *** 25

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