BIOLOGY. TOPIC: Life Processes: Growth, Reproduction & Development (plants)
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1 BIOLOGY CLASS: VIII TOPIC: Life Processes: Growth, Reproduction & Development (plants) Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the ripe anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower. Pollination must occur between the plants of the same species The transfer of pollen grain takes place in two different ways: POLLINATION Self-Pollination Cross pollination Self pollination: Transfer of Pollen from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or to the stigma of another flower on the same plant. Cross pollination: Transfer of Pollen from a flower of one plant to the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same species. Agents of pollination: Is an agent that moves pollen from the anther of the flower to the stigma of a flower. They include wind, water, insects, birds and larger animals. Artificial Pollination: When man himself transfers pollen from the anther to stigma of the flower for better quality, high yield, disease resistant variety, the process is called as artificial pollination 1
2 Difference between self-pollination & cross pollination Self -Pollination 1. It is transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of same flower or same plant. 2. No external agents are required 3. Male & female parts mature at the same time. 4. No new varieties are formed. Cross-pollination 1. It is transfer of pollen grains from anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower. 2. External agents (wind, insects, water) are required 3. Anthers and stigma mature at different time. 4. New varieties are formed. Fertilization Fertilization is the union of male and female gamete to form a zygote. In flowering plants: The pollen grain carries the male gamete. Hence the androecium is called the male part of the flower. The ovule inside the ovary contains the female gamete. Hence the gynoecium is called the female part of the flower. 2
3 A:POLLEN GRAINS GERMINATING ON STIGMA. ONE POLLEN TUBE HAS ENTERED THE OVULE. B: A MATURE POLLEN GRAIN C: POLLEN GRAIN BEGINNING TO GERMINATE 3
4 D. D:GERMINATED POLLEN GRAIN E: OVULE SHOWING THE EMBRYO SAC IN ITAND THE EVENTS OCCURING THERE Structure of the pollen grain: - The mature pollen grain is a cell with a double wall--- outer exine and the inner intine - It has two nuclei. A tube nucleus and a generative nucleus. - Further changes in pollen grain occur only if it has fallen on the stigma of a flower of the same species Structure of the ovule: - Ovule is found in the inner part of the ovary. - Ovule is destined to become a seed and the ovary becomes the fruit. - Single ovule produces single seeded fruit and many ovules produce a many seeded fruit - Each ovule has one or two protective coverings the integuments - A minute opening or pore through which the pollen tube enters is called the micropyle. - The nutritive tissue lining the inside of the ovule is the nucellus ( a mass of food laden cells) - In the centre of the nucellus is the embryo sac. - The embryo sac contains seven cells(3+3+1) o 3 cells towards the micropyle. ( 1 egg cell and 2 synergids) 4
5 o 3 cells at the opposite end are called antipodal cells o 1 large central cell called the secondary nucleus. It is formed by the fusion of two nuclei called the polar nuclei. Germination of pollen grain: - Pollen grain germinates only if it has fallen on the stigma of the same plant species, otherwise it gets decomposed - Stigma of the flower provides a solution of sugars to feed the pollen cell. - A pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain by breaking through its exine. - The generative nucleus divides into two male nuclei (male gamete nuclei or sperm nuclei) - Thus there are three nuclei which share a common cytoplasm- they are the 2 male nuclei and the tube nucleus. - The pollen tube grows through the stigma and style and reaches the ovary by dissolving the tissues with the help of the enzymes. - In the ovary the pollen tube pushes through the micropyle and reaches the embryo sac - The tube nucleus which had directed the growth of pollen tube all the way down, now disintegrates - The pollen tube releases its two sperm nuclei - Of the two sperm nucleus, one sperm nucleus enters the egg cell and fuses with its nucleus. - While the other sperm nucleus moves towards the secondary nucleus and fuses with it to form the endosperm nucleus. (Thus 3 nuclei together produce endosperm nucleus. This is called triple fusion.) Double Fertilization: - One of male nuclei unites with the egg cell forming the fertilized egg or zygote. - The other male cell combines with the secondary nucleus to form endosperm nucleus. - Since there are two sets of fertilization taking place, it is called Double Fertilization. Fate of floral parts & parts of the ovary after fertilization: Part What it becomes Ovary Ovule Fruit Seed 5
6 Outer integument Inner integument Secondary nucleus Egg cell Petals, Stamen, Style & Stigma Calyx Testa Tegmen Endosperm Embryo Wither & fall off May fall off or remain intact in dried or shrivelled form as in chillies and capsicum. SEED STRUCTURE AND GERMINATION. FRUIT SEED GRAIN - It is the ripened ovule. - It contains embryo, which develops into a new plant. - The seed coat protects the embryo from mechanical damage - It is the enlarged ripened ovary. - Fruit protects the seed and helps in dispersal of seeds. - Afruit in which the fruit wall and seed coat is fused together. - They are fused to form a protective layer. Seed: A seed is a mature ovule after fertilization. - It contains the tiny living part embryo( it developed by fusion of sperm cell and egg cell) - The embryo within the seed remains in dormant state (inactive) until exposed to conditions for germination. - The seed also contains food material for the nourishment of the embryo. Classification and structure of seeds Types of seeds Number of Cotyledons Size of seeds Basis of Endosperm TYPE A - NUMBER OF COTYLEDONS description Example 6
7 1. Monocotyledonous 1 cotyledon present Maize, Rice, grass. 2. Dicotyledonous 2 cotyledons present Bean, gram, pea TYPE B - SIZE OF SEEDS 1. Very small Not visible to naked eyes. Poppy seeds, orchid seeds. 2. Quite large Visible Water melon, mango. 3. Largest Very big in appearance Coconut TYPE C - BASIS OF ENDOSPERM 1. Albuminous/ - Endosperm present. endospermic seeds - Cotyledon thin millets, cereals 2. Exalbuminous/ non- endospermic seeds - Cotyledon stores food. - Cotyledon thick and fleshy. mango, gram Structure of a bean seed External and Internal structure of a bean seed Part External parts Testa 1.Seed function Outermost hard layer protects the seed from bacteria and fungi. 7
8 coat Tegmen Thin layer below testa, protects inner parts. 2. Hilum White oval scar, point where ovule was attached to the ovary wall. 3. Micropyle - Water enters the seed from this point - Allows entry of respiratory gases. Internal parts Radicle Develops into root. 1.Embryo Plumule Develops into shoot. 2. Cotyledon Stores food to nourish the growing embryo. Maize grain External structure of a Maize Grain L.S of a maize grain Internal structure of a maize grain Part function 1. Pericarp Outermost thin layer made up of the fruit wall and seed coat fused together 2. Endosperm Upper darker area, stores starch 3. Aleurone layer Outermost layer of endosperm, rich in protein. 4. Epithelial layer Separates endosperm region from embryonic region. 5. Scutellum Is the lower lighter area. It is the cotyledon 6. Radicle At the pointed end, enclosed in a protective root sheath called COLEORHIZA 7. Plumule At the broad end, enclosed in a protective plumule sheath called COLEOPTILE Difference between bean seed and maize grain 8
9 PARTS BEAN MAIZE 1. Cotyledon 2 cotyledons 1 cotyledon 2. Endosperm Absent Present 3. Embryo Large embryo Small embryo 4. Plumule Plumule leaves folded Plumule large Plumule leaves rolled Plumule small 5. Hilum and micropyle Visible Not visible 6. Seed Contained in a fruit called pod Seed coat and fruit wall fused to form a grain, no separate seed. Germination - The seed contains inactive (dormant) embryo. - When placed in proper conditions seed awakens, becomes active----forms seedling. - All these changes leading to formation of a seedling is called germination. - Germination is the formation of a seedling developed from the embryo. - Seedling is a stage of the growth of a new plant from a seed before it has become wholly independent of the food stored in it. Conditions necessary for germination The conditions necessary are water, oxygen and suitable temperature. a.water: enters through the micropyle. It plays an important role as- 1. seed swells, seed coat ruptures, allowing radicle to come out and form root system. 2. Water stimulates enzymes to act upon the food stored in the cotyledons,dissolves it and then it can be easilyutilized by growing embryo. b. Oxygen: During germination, cell growth takes place, which requires energy. Energy comesthrough respiration. For this oxygen is required. c. Suitable temperature: - Very low temperature hinders growth of seed. - Very high temperature destroys the tissue of seeds. Hence, an optimum temperature favours germination (25 0 C to 35 0 C) Note: Some seeds sown deep into the soil fail to germinate due to insufficient oxygen for respiration. Hence there is lack of pushing force in the embryonic part (hypocotyl or epicotyl) to break through the upper layers of the soil. The three bean seeds experiment: 9
10 -Take 3 mature air dried seeds and tie them to a glass slide at 3 positions. - Keep the slide in a beaker with water, in such a way that the top seed is way above water, the middle seed is half above and half below the water level, and the lowermost seed is submerged in water completely. - leave the beaker in a warm place for a few days. Observation: The top seed does not germinate (gets oxygen but no water) -The middle seed germinates (gets both oxygen and water.) -The lowermost seed either does not germinate or starts to germinate and stops (getswater, but very little oxygen) Conclusion: water, oxygen and an optimumtemperature is necessary for germination. Epicotyl: region on the embryonic axis, between the point of attachment of cotyledon and plumule. Hypocotyl: region of embryonic axis below the point of attachment of cotyledons and radicle. Note: both do not elongate together. 10
11 Types of germination Three types of germination are:- Hypogeal germination, Epigeal germination and Viviparous germination 1. Hypogeal germination: - Epicotyl elongates faster than the hypocotyl. - Cotyledon remains underground. - Eg pea, gram, maize. 2. Epigeal germination: - Hypocotyls elongates faster than the epicotyl. - Cotyledons pushed above the ground. - Eg. Bean, castor, sunflower and cotton 3.Viviparous germination: - Seed germinates inside the fruit, while still attached to the parent plant. - the seedling falls into the soil, develops roots and fixes itself. - Eg. The mangrove plants like rhizophora, show germination of seed by vivipary. 1. Stages in Epigeal germination of a bean seed 11
12 2. Stages in hypogeal germination of a maize grain 3. Viviparous germination as seen in Rhizophora Questions Q1] Complete the Following Chart FLOWERING PLANT Flower NON-REPRODUCTIVE REPRODUCTIVE Calyx sepals MALE- Androecium (stamen 12
13 Anther (pollen) Stigma Q 2] Name the Following: 1. Part of the flower where ovule is formed. 2. Three agents of pollination. 3. Fertilization taking place in flowering plants 4. A minute opening through which pollen tube enters the ovule. 5. The nutritive tissue lining inside of ovule. 6. The fusion of three nuclei to form endosperm. 7. Three agents of pollination. Q 3] Study the following diagram that shows the plant gynoecium and answer the questions that follow. 13
14 1. Provide labels for parts numbered 1 to Describe the processes that will take place to the numbered parts 6 and 8 after fertilisation? 3. What does the term double fertilisation mean? Q 4] Complete the Following Blanks 1. is the transfer of the male grain from the to the of the female pistil. 2. is the union of male and female gamete to form a. 3. Each ovule has one or two protective coverings the. 4. In the centre of the nucellus is the. 5. Pollen grain germinates only if it has fallen on the stigma of the plant otherwise it gets decomposed. 6. A grows out of the pollen grain by breaking through its. 7. The divides into two male nuclei. 8. The pollen tube grows through the stigma and style and reaches the ovary by dissolving the tissues with the help of the. 9. In the ovary the pollen tube pushes through the and reaches the embryo sac 14
15 10. The which had directed the growth of pollen tube all the way down, now disintegrates. Q5] Explain the following terms. 1. Pollination 2. Cross Pollination 3. Artificial Pollination 4. Fertilization 5. Germination 6. Seed Q.6] State advantages & disadvantages of each: 1. Artificial Pollination 2. Self Pollination Q.7] State the fate of each of the following after fertilization: 1. Ovary 2. Ovule 3. Outer Integument 4. Secondary Nucleus 5. Egg cell 6. Calyx 7. Stamen Q.8] Differentate between the following: 1. Albuminous seed and Exalbuminous seed. 2. Fruit and Seed. 15
16 3. Monocotyledonous seed and Dicotyledonous seed. 4. Testa and Tegmen. 5. Radicle and Plumule. 6. Epigeal germination and Hypogeal Germination. 7. Bean seed and Maize grain. 8. Coleorhiza and Coleoptile. 9. Epicotyl and Hypocotyl. Q.9] State the function of the following of maize grain: 1. Pericarp 2. Endosperm 3. Aleurone layer 4. Epithelial layer 5. Plumule Q.10] Briefly explain the factors that are necessary for germination. Q.11] Three bean experiment set up is shown below. 1. What is the aim of the above experiment? 2. What do you observe in seed A, B and C? 16
17 Q.12] Give two examples of :- 1. Albuminous seed 2. Exalbuminous seed 3. Monocot seed 4. Dicot seed 5. Hypogeal Germination 6. Epigeal germination 7. Vivipary germinating seed. Q.13] Draw a neat labeled diagram of :- 1. Mature Pollen grain 2. A bisexual flower showing the various parts. 3. Germinating pollen grain 17
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