9/23/2013. Mass extinction events change the course of evolution and induce a dramatic shift in the types of organisms inhabiting the planet

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1 Mass extinction events change the course of evolution and induce a dramatic shift in the types of organisms inhabiting the planet HABITAT LOSS, BIODIVERSITY, AND CONSERVATION Chapter percent of species inhabiting the Earth at the time went extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period (65 mya) due to a meteor impact in the Yucatan Peninsula 50 percent of species (96 percent of marine species) went extinct at the end of the Permian (250 mya) A current mass extinction is due to human activities Overkill has been the main cause in virtually all modern extinctions Stellar's sea cow New England sea mink Caribbean monk seal Great auk Passenger pigeon Carolina parakeet The primary cause of species extinctions is habitat destruction Expansion of agricultural lands is the largest cause of land transformation The global net loss in forest area during the 1990s was ~94 million ha (2.4 percent of the world's forests) Net deforestation rates were highest in West Africa and South America On a global scale, as much as 140,000 km 2 of tropical forest are being lost each year Amazon (Brazil): 1 percent of forest clear/year during the 1980s Madagascar: 90 percent of the original forest cover removed Western Ecuador: 95 percent of rain forest cover has been destroyed since

2 Habitat fragmentation Large-scale extinction brought about by habitat destruction happens in many areas around the world Clearing of tropical dry forest for crop production and cattle grazing Natural grasslands have shrunk to less than 12 percent of their original size because of conversion to cropland and grazing lands Aquatic ecosystems have been polluted, dredged/filled, and suffered from eutrophication Coral reefs have been destroyed Human-introduced exotic species threaten many native species Humans have served as dispersal agents for countless species of plants and animals, transporting them outside their natural geographic ranges Some species, when freed from constraints of their native environment (e.g., predators, competitors), successfully establish themselves and spread There are ~50,000 nonnative plants and animals (exotic, alien, invasive, or nonindigenous species) in the United States which cause damage and losses totaling $137 billion annually Invasive animal species often cause extinction of native species through predation, grazing, competition, and habitat alteration 51 of Hawaii's native bird species are extinct and 40 are endangered due to the introduction of exotic predators (e.g., rats, cats) 2

3 Invasive plant species outcompete native species and alter fire regimes, nutrient cycling, energy budgets, and hydrology Exotic plants are the cause behind 95 percent of plant species loss and endangerment in Hawaii Exotic species also invade aquatic ecosystems and displace native species Over 139 nonnative species have invaded the Great Lakes (United States and Canada) by way of global shipping Zebra mussel The San Francisco Bay Area is occupied by 96 nonnative invertebrates Exotic fish are responsible for 68 percent of fish extinctions in North America 3

4 Alteration of community structure Species Differ in Their Susceptibility to Extinction A ubiquitous species has a widespread geographic distribution An endemic species occurs in a single geographic area and no place else Endemic species are particularly susceptible to extinction due to a loss of habitat Small metapopulations are also at risk of extinction due to chance factors (habitat destruction, disease, etc.) Seasonally migratory species depend on two or more distinct habitat types in different geographic regions Migratory barriers can restrict a species from carrying out its life cycle Species that require a large home range are often endangered due to habitat fragmentation that restricts access to mates Species with specialized habitats are extremely susceptible to habitat alterations 4

5 Species that are hunted or come into conflict with human needs or activities are vulnerable to extinction Identifying threatened species is critical to conservation efforts International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) developed a quantitative classification based on the probability of extinction Critically endangered species Endangered species Vulnerable species The IUCN system provides a standard, quantitative method of classification Regions of High Species Diversity Are Crucial to Conservation Efforts Biological diversity is not equally distributed over the land and ocean surfaces of the planet Tropical rain forests support more than 50 percent of all plant and animal species although it only covers 7 percent of Earth's surface Regions characterized by topographic variation support high numbers of species relative to flatter areas Most of Earth's species are endemic distributed unevenly over Earth's surface or even within a geographic region Hotspots are regions of unusually high diversity Overall diversity of the region Significance of impact from human impact Plant diversity is the biological basis for hotspot designation To qualify as a hotspot, a region must support 1500 or more endemic plant species and the region must have lost more than 70 percent of its original habitat The 25 designated hotspots contain 44 percent of all plant species and 35 percent of all terrestrial vertebrate species in only 1.4 percent of the planet's land area 5

6 Because endangered species consist of a few or even a single local populations, protecting populations is key to preserving these species What sizes of populations are needed to save the species? Must be large enough to cope with chance variations in demography (births and deaths), environmental changes, genetic drift, and catastrophes The minimum viable population (MVP) is the "smallest isolated population having a 99 percent chance of remaining extant for 1000 years despite the foreseeable effects of demographic and environmental stochasticity, and natural catastrophes." The actual MVP for a species depends on the life history of the species and the ability of individuals to disperse The minimum dynamic area (MDA) is the area of suitable habitat necessary for maintaining the minimum viable population Based on the home-range size of the individuals, family groups, or colonies Protecting Populations Is the Key to Conservation Efforts J. Berger's study of bighorn sheep persistence in the deserts of the southwestern United States provides a documented case of minimum viable population size 120 populations were studied All populations with 50 individuals or less went extinct within 50 years All of the populations with 100 or more individuals persisted over the same period 6

7 Reintroduction Is Necessary to Reestablish Populations of Some Species In some cases, the direct action of ecologists through transplants and reintroductions may be the only way to save a species from inevitable extinction White and black rhinos White rhino Reduced to near 50 at the beginning of the 20th century "Operation Rhino" transported surplus numbers of individuals to protected areas Numbers have recovered to an estimated 7500 individuals Reintroduction Is Necessary to Reestablish Populations of Some Species Whooping crane Hawaiian goose (nene) Peregrine falcon California condor Wolf Habitat Conservation Functions to Protect Whole Communities The most effective way to preserve overall biological diversity is by protecting habitats and whole ecological communities Relationship between area and species richness Large areas generally contain more species than do smaller areas Large areas generally contain more species than do smaller areas Larger areas are often more heterogeneous and can provide for a greater variety of species Larger organisms have larger home ranges Smaller areas have a greater edge-to-area ratio that poses constraints Species that are locally rare require a larger area to be present in small numbers 7

8 Habitat Conservation Involves Establishing Protected Areas Current conservation efforts focus on existing protected lands, providing buffer zones and corridors that enhance their conservation value A uniform, contiguous block of land or water Link isolated protected areas into one large system through the use of habitat corridors Corridors facilitate dispersal and migration though they can also have negative impacts (e.g., disease transmission) Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park (southern Africa) 8

9 Habitat Restoration Is Often Necessary in Conservation Efforts The goal of restoration ecology is to return an ecosystem to a close approximation of its condition before disturbance, by applying ecological principles 9

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