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1 ITTO FD IMPACT OFINCREASEDUTILISATION OFLESSER-USED SPECIES (LIJS) (CAMEROIJNREPORT) It. *,^:!!?^ V, * * **>. ^66' \* ". a, **.,. tv \ ~,, \ ~., I,, *\, t DC,, *... t'*..,*- *-.-,.., '.,,.,. -...,,.-~,. 151^>*;*_;.,,,, I^? :':=*,...,,, 4_,...***::,* ****^?'...'11^^;*:,,,,.-.-J, '.:*!,.,. '..,.*- ~ t;**. I;~-:\-'\*.- -t. :I.,-..*-,,<$1 -.. ;/'-*;-. -.-~*:.., ' "\!'*,.--.'.:*-. " ",'.-',...-_."',,",,,,,,'.-,,"_,,, *;.":',..;:"I. :4'1,.. '.:,:..-^, """' ".'..',, "'* *' '...,,<...-. "'. ~',*~'*~.. *.~~..f*,,.',,;. 11?. -',' '."""' *....:'.'.;I;;1< ':..-^.,;.::~:^;,;b.,*.:;;;,,*:lit, ~*,.. f:,,,.,;;:',{;,:3:<:1^^~,,;,-:.;;;:;:\~,;:^..\,-,,.,;**^14,-.t,,.,, -.,.* -. **,~*,$1,,.,, "~,".. -..'- ~"***,*;*I^, *- I,.~*.,*. J. -..*~*<;t-.,.' '.',*' ~ ~*' 1/11~"' ' "' '*"'~'*"' "'"~ ' "~""*""'~\.'>'*"*"""""~'~" ""*"~*""'~ ' " "**'.: _ I ~'^.^._;^*g,,:1,...'.~' -,-,,^I^^*,,.,- -.*,,.-:?:.,-$~*..**.,^-'*51^;;:- I^..>..>,.>... A>,,,,,-*~*.,~33*-^;,,,.T!':.'~ A*,,,-;.$.=",J;.,:"g:,\"**;;,*^:"..,,,---'-.,* ^**~. f*^,*" 'I;:*.*. '--.*,- '*' " **, '~~.,.- '.."t=:11;", ILL",.*..,.,>;4*';~<>...,.-^,*;:,=.':*:;>,.:,,'-,.*.; I,.^.*.-- -^, aji,,""i. ~';..;-.;\,.,., #;*-.-,*,--..,,,.$:**!,\-*,,,;\t~::;.$;^;,~^^;\*;:>;,^+*,---.*e:*$;;^^^";;^;^:*:: it~, -**- -~*,:*;^--?^,"'.^**:*,,..,*,-*^;i^+**:*:ja':^^':; ~"--*.*^*-{::^;t'' ^;::.-:4* *^~*- ~,^---j^;:^****#-**,^,^*,.,*-,,..,,.~,\,**,*,**,,,,*^^~-,^^!^;',~..,-it, -.:.,*,*;\*;~;,..:1'3,* *..~*,*~**t~,.*-~*;~!^:,\~~,*,;:;z*::*;...,:'^,*?**';^'.>*:;;~**--- *-' - ' "' ^ *., ""'*j;,*?$,,,' "::;,*t*'~'.;. "**:tt -;-'"-"~ ',,*,"'~ "**"" -',~"-,,~' ~~-~,"~~:'~.,~~,.^,,--\.._. "~""""'~*","'~','"".".~'""*"' 111'*,*.',..,-:;~'1<'1^I:' is^, f'*. *..* '^':;::'\'+~*',. -,-^^*dj',*,.;*., "'*,;^fit;*. ~ ~~',"'*.: "*".*,*,... '~' * " 4<*'^"'^^ ' - '.* * I..,'*~,, by Appiah, S. 1<., Sjisi-Wilson, E. ', Aoycinan, V. 1<.' Otsin, G'. and Binkoi. ing, G ' ' Timbe Expot Development Boad (TEDB), Takoadi ' Ministiy of Lands and Fo'esty (MLF), ACca ' FoestI. y Reseacli Institute of Ghana (FORTG), Kuilasi Foesty Consultant, ACci. a August1999

2 '~I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This epot is an output fom a study visit to Cameoon funded by the Intenational Topical Timbe Oganisation (ITTO) unde Poject No. ITTO PD We ae gateful to M. Jean Williams Sollo, Diecto Geneal of ONADEF and cuent chaiman of the Intenational Topical Timbe Council(ITTC), fo hosting the study team. Ou sincee appeciation also goes to M Themotuo Batoum, Chef des Eaux et Foets (Attache de Diection) fo planning ou visit and fo making ou stay in Cameoon a pleasant and memoable one' Finally we ae thankful to all oganisations and individuals who allowed us to inteview them especially, M. Tabi Philip Tako-Eta, Deputy Diecto of Foests, Ministy of Envionment and Foests (MINEF). I~ I_

3 ^ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE, INTRODUCTION Timbe Exploitation. 1.2 Rationale fo LUS Study Chaacteistics of Study Site Land Aea 1.32 Climate and Vegetation Biodivesity... CHAPTERTWO. FORESTRESOURCESANDEXPLOITATION... I I Total Foest Cove Policy, Legislation and Tenue Policy Foest Legislation. 2.3 Foest Management /8cion Sysien Inst!witonalt. speds 2.33 Foes!myenjoyy Local Community Poncjpo!ion in Timbe Management Timbe Havesting Pactices and Contols Haves!ing FFQc!ices 2.42 Hm, yes!ing Contols CHAPTERTHREE. STRUCTUREANDEFFICIENCYOFTHETIMBER INDUSTRY 3.1 Stuctue and Development. 3.2 Poduction Capacity Efficiency of Timbe Industy Contibution of Timbe to the National Economy.. CHAPTERFOUR. EXPLOITATIONANDMANAGEMENTOFLESSERUSED SPECIES Definition and Chaacteistics of Lesse Used Species 41.1 Denniiibn Some Chaacteistics of Lesse Used Species I

4 412.1 Small Sizes and Poo Fo111 of Tees Duability and Pesevation Seasoning 4.2 Exploitation and Utilisation of Lesse Used Species 4.3 Incentives fo LUS Utilisation Pomotion and Maketing oflus. CHAPTERFIVE. IMPACTS OFINCREASEDUTILISATION OF LESSERUSED SPECIES Implications of Inceased Utilisation oflus Ecological Impact 5.3 Socio-economic Impacts REFERENCES 26 APPENDIX I 35 I~ L I I I

5 --. CHAPTERONE INTRODUCTION t-- I^ L. _ Timbe Exploitation Topical foests of Afica ae composed of a lage numbe of species in a complex mix, many of which ae non commecial. These featues tend to make pofitable logging and sustained yield management difficult to attain (FAO 1993). At pesent only about 7% of tees in the topical foests ae being exploited. Fo example, in Cameoun 86% of timbe havested is fom 15 species out of 56 commecially exploitable species (Evans 1990). The estiction of expots to a elatively small numbe of species may be attibuted to the fact that most impotes fom industialised counties ae eluctant to impot lessenknown species fom Afica. This is pobably due to the availability of adequate supplies of the moe established species fom a vaiety of West Afican counties (ITTO 1991). Effots ae being made to utilise moe species fo both local and expot makets. Govenments of most topical Afican counties ae thus encouaging theitimbe industies to expand the species base in ode to incease net evenue fom the foesty sub-secto of the economy (TEDB undated). Inceased utilisation of a wide numbe of species, especially lessenused species (LUS), will pevent ceaming of the few taditional high value species; cate fo inceasing local demand and ensue sustained poduction and supply of timbe. Pesently, many of the LUS ae being bunt o othewise wasted afte logging in the eseved I~' ~' LUS ae limbe tee species which silo\v pomising maket potential. SUGli species tend to be GIIaacteised by. Flexibility in fitting today's apidly clianging makets i. e. tlie distibution and exploitable volunie of tile species ae sufficient fo maket inteest. (Often) stategically positioned as a substitute to pime commecial species and thus ae potentially of high value. Howeve, most of these species may have one o moe undiseable chaacteistics (WITicliinay o may not be possible to ovecome tliougli impoved pocessing Iecltniques). A species fo whiclt Inakeiing OPPottiniiies aise diie to geate pocessing optioiis, and 111us a bulk niaket, elatively low value species, possibly in compelion willi plantation poduction

6 .-.. foests and convesion of foest lands into agicultual use in off-eseve aeas. Thee is the need to initiate pogammes aimed at the sustained utilisation of LUS especially in counties whee logging volumes o yield ae low (Yeom 1984). Logging volume and theefoe the extent of logging distubance can be effectiveiy contolled by implementing log poduction quotas which has been detemined based on the concept of sustainability. 1.2 Rationale fo LUS Study Thee have been a numbe of studies into the effects of inceased intensity of timbe havest fom topical foests but none has consideed LUS extaction sepaately (Rietbegen & Pooe 1995). Thus it is difficult to daw definitive conclusions on the ecological, social and economic impacts of inceased havest of LUS alone. Howeve, it is possible to exploe the effects of inceased LUS utilisation on the gounds of basic silvicultual easoning such as:. Inceased utilisation will esult in heavie havesting which may lead to ove-exploitation and inceased damage to the foest stand. A longe than desied felling cycle may have to be used to estoe the foest.. Altenatively, an incease in LUS utilisation may help open the canopy and pomote faste gowth in foests with low havesting intensity Geneally, ensuing that LUS ae exploited withoutjeopadising the integity of the foest ecosystem emains a challenge to foestes and consevationists. -. A majo objective of the Intenational Topical Timbe Ageement (1983) is divesification of tade in timbe species. The impotance of species divesification is also emphasised in ITTO's Action Plans with specific stategy elements in each of the fields of Foest Industy, Refoestation and Foest Management and Economic Infomation and Maket Intelligence. Accodingly, the ITTO has diectly addessed the issue of species divesification though pojects and pe-pojects which involve the use of LUS. 2

7 L Theefoe, ITTO Poject PD was dawn up in ode to be able to addess finfomation gaps" on the envionmental, silvicultual and socio-economic impacts of inceased LUS havesting. This epot is the output of a study visit to Cameoon. ~~ The objectives of this Cameoon county study epot ae:. To identify the complexities and vaiations in LUS utilisation. To collect infomation on the extent to which LUS utilisation has contibuted to total poduction and eplaced ove-exploitation of a few cuently taded species. To assess the extent to which LUS utilisation has contibuted to o detacted fom sustainable management of foests.. To detemine the impacts of inceased LUS utilisation 1.3 Chaacteistics of Study Site 1.3., Land Aea The total land aea of Ganeoun is appoximately 475,440 kin. The county lies between latitudes 2' and 13'N and between longitudes 8' and 16'E. It is located between West and Cental Afica, bounded to the West by Nigeia and the Atlantic Ocean, to the Noth by Chad, to the East by Cental Afican Republic and to the South by Equatoial Guinea, Gabon and Congo (Gatlan undated). The county had a total population of 11.1 million people and an annual ^ population gowih ate of 2.6% in Population density vaies fom 90nOO pesons kin' in the West and Littoal Povinces to only 5 pesons kin' in some savannah and moist foest aeas. Appoximately 60% of the population live in ual aeas (Foaham and Jonkes 1992). 3

8 : L -., Climate and Vegetation The vegetation of the county is discussed compehensive Iy by Letouzey (1985) and Gatlan (undated). The vegetation is closely elated to the ainfall distibution. The amount, duation and egulaity of ain inceases fom the Nothen to the Southen pats of the county. The wette pats of the county is coveed mostly by topical moist foest, while the die pats have Steppes and Savannahs (IRSC 1974). The topical moist foests consists of thee majotypes, namely; Evegeen Rain Foests, Semi-Deciduous Foests and Mangove Foests. The Evegeen Rain Foests have mean annual ainfallanging between 2000 and 3000 min, except fo the mountainous aeas whee mean annual ^ L' pecipitation can exceed 10,000 mm. Whee the evegeen ain foests ae intact, vey lage tees with diamete at beast height (DBH) of up to 4 in and tee heights of up to 25 in ae faily common. These foests ae ich in Caesalpinaceae (Foaham and Jonkes 1992). Pimay poduction of the Evegeen Foests ae estimated at between 200 and 300 in' ha' The Semi-Deciduous Foests which ae ich in Steculiaceae and Ulmaceae ae located to the east of the Evegeen foests. The Evegeen and Semi- Deciduous Foests ae subject to an equatoial climate with fou seasons pe yea(long and shot wet and dy seasons). Mangoves ae most extensive in the deltas of the lage ives whee the vigou of the sea suf ae boken by sand banks. They also occu in small bays and lagoons, whee soils ae backish, between high and low tide maks. The most common mangove species is Rhizophoa acemosa which gows up to 25 in and makes up almost 95% of the mangove aea (Gatlan undated). Othe mangove species ae R. halfi'sonii, R. mangle, AVIcennia geminans (syn. A. Aficana and A. imda) and Lagunculaia acemosa. These species geneally fom a dense tangle and gow to heights of to in (Dyksta at a/. 1996).,-- 4 I

9 ^ L Biodivesity ~ Ganeoun has a high biological divesity (Monon 1972, Gatlan 1989) due to the ancient and stable systems, paticulaly in the lowland coastal foests (Gatlan undated) and is elated to the high ecological(habitat and mico-habitat) divesity (Foaham and Jonkes 1992). Cameoun also has the second lagest biodivesity esouces in Afica afte Madagasca. Thee ae 9000 species of plants in the county, with at least 156 endemics, including 45 on Mount Cameoun alone. It is estimated that between 12 and 13% of the estimated 6,500 floweing plant species in Cameoun ae endemic. The foests of South Cameoun ae descibed as a PIeistocene efugia fo foest floa and fauna (Hamilton 1983, Maley 1989, (c. f. Foaham and Jonkes I 992)). About 48% of the endemic plant species of West Afica ae also found in the county. Cameoun has about 297 species of mammals and 848 species of bids (Stuat at a/. 1990). Faunal divesity has also been descibed in detail by seveal authos (Stuat 1986, Kingdon 1990, Gallan undated). The main theats to biodivesity ae defoestation, logging, shifting cultivation, collection of nontimbe foest poducts (NTFPs) and plantation foesty (Foaham and Jonkes 1992). L 5 f~ L.

10 L CHAPTERTWO FOREST RESOURCESAND EXPLOITATION ' ' I 2.1 Total Foest Cove ~I L The total foest cove is estimated to be 22.5 million hectaes (about 46% of the national teitoial aea) which is the second lagest in Afica afte the Democatic Republic of Congo (fomely known as Zaie). About 80% of the foest aea accounting fo 37.6% of the total land aea can be classified as poductive foests (Eba'a Atyi 1998). Almost 45% of the poductive foests have so fa been opened up fo exploitation, while 39% and 16% of the aea ae eseved and peseved fo biodivesity espectively. Thee hunded tee species have been identified as having potentials to be exploited as timbe. Howeve, only about 49 tee species ae officially ecognised as being commecial. Only about 15 of these species ae egulaly exploited and make up fo moe than 80% of the total wood volume poduced annually. Of these only thee species (T^/ooh^^on soleoxylon, Entandophagma cylindioum and Lophia alata) accountfo almost 60% of poduction (Wehiong 1990). ~ L The annual ate of decline in the natual foest aea of Cameoun in the decade afte 1980 is estimated at 122,000 ha (0.9%)., while that of Ghana is estimated at 138,000 ha., Nigeia at 119,000 ha., Libeia at 25,000 ha. and Siea-Leone at 12,000 ha. (FAO 1995). The high population gowth ate and poo agicultual pactices (Shifting Cultivation) and foest fies ae the majo causes of foest degadation and destuction. L L. L 6 C

11 2.2 Policy, Legislation and Tenue 2.2. I Policy.I The exploitation of foests in the West Afican sub-egion, including Cameoun, dates back to the 16'' Centuy (Hall and Swaine I 981). Howeve, it was not until the ealy 1940's that the opeations of the timbe industy came unde stict official contols. Between 1940 and 1970, a seies of policy decisions wee made which wee aimed at impoving havesting techniques and educing logging waste. The system of contols includes the detailed epoting of felling and tanspot of logs (Foaham and Jonkes 1992). L, Thee was a apid ise in timbe havests in the 1970's and 1980's. Accoding to Gatlan (undated), this was due to the diminishing petoleum esouce and falling wold pices which combined to put pessue on the foesty secto to make good the diffeence. The Govenment fomulated and implemented a numbe of stategies in the ealy 1990's to ensue that the activities of the expanding foesty secto wee effective Iy contolled (FAO 1995). A Ministy of Envionment and Foests (MINEF)' was ceated in 1992 to fomulate policies that would ensue sustainable foest management. Institutional e-oganisation was done by meging the two majo implementing institutions in the foesty secto. The Cente National de Developpement Foestie (GENADEFOR) and the Office National de Reboisement Foestie (ONAREF) wee meged to fom an oganisation named National Office fo Foesty Development (ONADEF). A new foest policy was fomulated between 1993 and 1994 and fomed the basis fo Law No. 04/01 of 1994 to egulate foest exploitation, wildlife and fisheies esouces. The policy is aimed at mobilising the full potential of the foesty secto to poduce 4 million in of sawlogs and 9 million in of fiewood pe annum. The policy also aims at ensuing that timbe exploitation is done sustainably. In ode to achieve this objective, the new policy lays down clea ' MINEF has fou divisions, namely; Foest, Wildlife, Envionment and Administation divisions. The total wokfoce of MINEF is 2,000. 7

12 objectives and stategies which is summaised by MINEF and ONADEF (1994) as follows: Objective I: To ensue the potection of its foest heitage and to paticipate in safeguading the envionment and peseving biodivesity. Stategies: Ceation of pemanent foest estates, development of potective measues and integation of policy fomulation and development, Objective 11: To impove the integation of foest esouces in ual development Stategies: Pomotion of paticipatoy foest management, impovement of sectoal and inte-sectoal co-odination of peoples paticipation, pomote development of pivate foesty and development of ago-foesty in agaian system. Objective 111: To ensue the sustainable development of foest esouces Stategies: Incease the supply of timbe and non-timbe foest poducts (NTFPs), impove foest exploitation and evenue geneation systems and pomote the use and divesification of finished poducts Objective IV: To evitalise the foest secto by setting up an efficient institutional famewok ~ Stategies: Impove the oganisation and co-odination of foest secto institutions, encouage human monitoing and evaluation. esouce development though taining, One of the most impotant aspects of the new foest policy is that it guaantees customay usage ights of foest esouces. This is egaded as being an essential pe-equisite fo secuing the ights and livelihoods of fames and villages (Schmithusen 1986). Diffeent degees of usage ights ae guaanteed depending on the type of foest. Land usage ights may geneally be execised feely in accodance with taditions and customs on un-eseved lands. Howeve, ights of individuals and local communities ae likely to be esticted in quantity and quality on pemanent foest estates. 8

13 ^ Foest Legislation The pupose of foest legislation is to ensue the consevation, exploitation and development of foest esouces. Foest legislation of Ganeoun theefoe offes a boad famewok fothe utilisation and management of foest esouces based on a multiple use concept (Schmithusen 1986).. I'. The fist unified law was pomulgated in This law included povisions elated to national pak establishment, hunting, wildfie and fisheies management. The Foesty Code of 1974 was evised in 1981 and completed by the Application Decee in 1983 (Schmithusen 1986). The evised law was moe compehensive than the fome one with egad to foest management and timbe allocation pocedues. The 1981 foest law defines seveal categoies of foest lands and potential utilisations allowed fo each categoy. The egulations govening the logging industy, including allocation of concessions, havesting contols, evenue geneation and taxation wee also enshined in the law..,-- A new foest law was pomulgated in 1994 to eplace the ealie one of The new Foesty Law No. 94/01 of 1994 was suppoted by a Decee of Application No /PM of The law stipulates that 20% of the national teitoy is to be eseved as pemanent foest estate. It futhe defines diffeent types of foests and thei espective owneship. Accoding to Eba'a Atyi(1998), the 1994 foest law stipulates that logging activities should be egulated by an official acceditation in the logging pofession and the acquisition of exploitation ights. 9

14 ^ 2.3 Foest Management 2.3. I Selection System ^: L. F1 L The selection system is the main foest management tool in Cameoun. The system involves commecial logging with o without egeneation o silvicultual teatment. Selective logging involves the emoval of single economic tee species scatteed thoughout the foest. Unde the Selection System of management, the foest is divided into a numbe of moe o less equal coupes and concession aeas fo ease of logging and contol of exploitation. The coupes ae of size 2,500 ha. while the concessions ae lage aeas (up to 200,000 ha. ) consisting of a numbe of coupes. The foest management system ensues that management plans ae dawn fo concession aeas befoe exploitation. This is to ensue that concessions ae managed sustainab!y. Howeve, coupes ae not equied to have management plans of thei own since the aea is consideed too small to be managed sepaately. The management of coupes ae theefoe integated with those of the boad concessions aea. I. f~ The annual felling takes place in one o moe coupes depending on the capacity of the logging opeato o concessionaie, the length of the felling cycle and the aea of poduction foest. The Ministy of Envionment and Foests (MINEF) is esponsible fo detemining the numbe of coupes that should be exploited within the felling cycle. The foest management system allows fo the advetisement and public auction of tees above the gith limit in the coupes and concessions. Once the coupes eamaked fo exploitation have been advetised, concessionaies ae given 40 days within which they can submitthei application. Ten copies of the application fom including official identification, technical capability of the company and the financial offe pe unit coupe ae submitted to MINEF. It is woth mentioning hee that the minimum offe fo each coupe is fixed by MINEF unde elevant povisions of the Financial law. L, 10

15 L An InteMinisteial Commission has been set up to evaluate the bids, and to select the concessionaie who should be awaded the contact. The Inte- Ministeial Commission play only an advisoy ole since the law makes it clea that it is only the Ministe of Envionment and Foests acting on behalf of the pesident who has the authoity to awad timbe contacts. The InteMinisteial Commission has on the othe hand appointed an eight membe technical committee to open the bids and assess the technical and financial suitability of the applicants using a points systems. The technical committee meets twice a yea unde the chaimanship of the secto ministe. Accoding to Eba'a Atyi(1998), two types of ights ae ganted to the contactos afte advetising and competitive bidding. The fist type of ights is that of "Sales of standing volumes (vente de coupe)" which can be smalltacts of land (no moe than 2,500 ha. ) o a given volume of standing timbe. Sales of standing volumes within both the pemanent and non-pemanent foest estates can be ganted only to Cameounians. Concessions on the othe hand ae lage tacts of foest land coveing up to 200,000 ha within the pemanent foest estate which ae ganted to both foeignes and Cameoun nationals. As pointed out by the Topical Foesty Action Plan, thee is cuently no managed foest, which epesents a vey seious poblem fo the futue and the pepetuation of the foests Institutional Aspects L_ Institutional stuctues that have been established to manage foest and wildlife esouces ae hieachical. Implementation of foest policy and management stategies ae done at the national level by MINEF. Institutional contol of foest management also occus at the povincial, divisional, sub-divisional and distict levels. Thee ae 10 Povinces in the county which ae divided into a numbe of divisions and sub-divisions. The sub-divisions ae futhe divided into a numbe of disticts depending on how big the sub-division is. F~'~ 11

16 . I ^: Within each of the 10 Povinces, thee is a Povincial Delegation esponsible fo foesty and wildlife management. Delegations have also been set up at the Divisional level. These Divisional Delegates diectly epot to the Povincial Delegates. Sub-divisional and Distict levels howeve have foesty and wildlife posts. The closest foesty official to the foest who is in chage of the day to day contol of timbe exploitation is the Chief of Posts. Foest bounday maintenance, enfocement of logging egulations and potection ae some of the activities that ae supevised by the Chief of Posts.. I, Foest inventoy The management of the foest esouces in Cameoun has fo a long time employed vaious field suveys (inventoies) to detemine the gowing stock within individual foest eseves. Fou diffeent types of foest inventoies, namely; national, management, pe-investment and havesting ae caied out peiodically in accodance with the boad objectives dawn up unde the foest policy. National Inventoy: The objective of the national inventoy is to know the esouces level, especially that of LUS, fo national level planning. The national foest inventoy was stated in 1984 and cuently, about 14 million ha. out of the total foest aea of 20 million ha. have been inventoied. The national inventoy uses a 0.1% sampling intensity due to the lage coveage aea.. I_ The esults of the national inventoy povided the basis fo the fomulation of the 1994 foest policy and law. A numbe of stategies and policy decisions aimed at ensuing sustainable foest management have been dawn up using the national inventoy esults. Management Inventoy: The pupose of this inventoy is to enable foest manages daw up effective foest management plans fo concession aeas. A I% sampling intensity is used duing Management Inventoy. So fa about thee 12 -,

17 .-, I. million hectaes of foests have been inventoied unde this system fo pivate contactos.,^-. c! (.- In some cases a Pe-Investment Inventoy is equested by pivate contactos duing the Management Inventoy. A pe-investment havesting is done to help contactos know the potential stocking and value of a paticula foest aea. This infomation enables pivate contactos to make a decision as to whethe to bid fo a paticula aea. t:. Havesting Inventoy: This is a field suvey that is conducted on timbe exploitation within the coupe o poduction aea. The havesting inventoy is peceded by a stock suvey duing which a too% count of all exploitable commecial timbe species with minimum dbh of 30 cm ae made. The concessionaie is allowed to exploit alltees above the gith limit o basal aea pe unit aea pescibed by the management plans fo the given foest. Havesting inventoy has been done systematically on 60,000 ha. of foests fo pivate contactos. post-exploitation Inventoy: This type of inventoy is done afte timbe exploitation. It includes an assessment of distubance, tee damage and egeneation following timbe exploitation Local Community Paticipation in Timbe Management ^: -. Land and the tee esouces belong to the state. Theefoe, the local communities in Cameoun have compaatively lowe ights to foest esouces than communities in Ghana whee the land and foest esouces belong to the local communities. Howeve, Govenment policy is aimed at ensuing geate paticipation of local communities in foest management. This is because the extent of degadation in the county is so high that MINEF alone cannot pevent foest degadation due to inadequate staffing stengths. It is only with the active paticipation of the local community that sustainable foest management can be achieved. The Govenment believes that the well-being of local communities is inticate Iy linked with how wellfoest esouces ae managed and that community 13 I~

18 paticipation is impotant if a cost effective, efficient and sustainable foest management pogamme is the be developed. Accoding to Dyksta at a1. (1996), local communities ae the majo and diect J consumes of the goods and sevices and theefoe should be involved in foest management. The 1994 Foest Policy and Law seems to adequately identify and addess the issue of local community paticipation. Howeve, its implementation C c~ has not been vey effective due to the slow development of stuctues and the lack of esouces necessay to implement the stategies. The benefits of community paticipation in foest management ae educed costs to the govenment, geneation of income and employment within the local communities and bette maintenance, potection and exploitation of natual foest esouces, especially NTFP. In ode to ensue that local communities benefit fom timbe exploitation, The.. Govenment has instituted a social amenity contact between pivate contactos and local communities. An amount of 1000 CFA ae paid pe cubic mete of timbe by pivate contactos to a fund which ae late disbused to the communities. Peviously, fames could convet foest land into agicultue with impunity, wheeas they could not havest a tee on the agicultual land fo convesion into timbe. Howeve, at pesent individuals and local communities ae pemitted on basis of contact to havest single tees fo pesonal use. I"~' 2.4 Timbe Havesting Pactices and Contols, I Havesting Pactices The national inventoy indicated that thee is about 2 billion in of exploitable ~ timbe within the poductive foests. The aveage annual poduction stands at 2.3 million in' of timbe (MINEF and ONADEF 1994). Howeve, the poduction taget of the govenment is 4.0 million in by the yea 2000 and 5 million in by the yea The exploitation ate is cuently low with up to 3 tees pe ha. being 14 I~ I_.

19 emoved. A numbe of measues have been put in place to incease the havest intensity. These include a boadening of the exploited species base to include LUS and a eduction in esidue geneation.,- Accoding to Gatlan (undated), concessions had been ganted on at least 8 million ha. by This is moe than half the land aea officially classified as exploitable. About 50% of poduction foests have been logged at least once while some aeas have been logged thee o fou times. Logging activities in natual foests occu only in five povinces. Howeve, moe than 57% of timbe poducts havested in Ganeoun ae fom the East Povince (Eba'a Atyi I 998) Havesting Contols Accoding to Evans (1990), logging contols ae stictly enfoced and the penalty fo flouting of logging egulations ae quite sevee. Logging in Cameoun has been egulated by estictions on gith limits fo most tees and efficient log tacking systems fom the foest to the mill gate. \- I'~~ The application of a gith limit has been consideed as one of the useful timbe poduction contol tools applicable to both eseved and off-eseve foests. Minimum felling limits ae supposed to define the point of matuity of vaious species suitable fo timbe and othe uses, allowing fo the emoval of only matue tees. Silvicultually, the effect of applying a felling limit is that it allows the esidual stand to be composed mainly of poductive tees (i. e. tees that ae vigoously gowing). Consequently the basal aea o volume stocking inceases ove the peiod of the felling cycle, and the poduction of viable seeds is enhanced, thus ensuing adequate natual egeneation. The gith limits vay with species fom 100 cm fothe most logged, and deceases down to 50 cm dbh fo species that ae not well known (Be song 1992). In Ghana and Nigeia the minimum felling limit anges between 70 and 110 cm dbh (Dyksta at a/. 1996). Log tacking pocedue as a measue of havest contolis outlined by Depatment of Foesty (DF) Fom 10. It is the esponsibility of the timbe I' ^ 15

20 -.... I~. contacto to make sue that the logs and stumps fom any felled tee ae appopiateiy maked. The maks include the date of felling, coupe numbe, licence numbe, povince, division and zone (which is based on the distance fom pot of expot). The contacto is expected to file etuns using DF Fom 10 to the Divisional Delegation at the end of each month. Felling tax and customs duty to be paid by the contacto ae calculated by officials of MINEF based on infomation fom the filed etuns of the DF Fom 10.1nfomation fom DF Fom 10 ae coss-checked with infomation collected by the Povincial Dele ation. Anothe havesting contolis that of the issuance of way bills to tucks ca in logs and timbe poducts. The waybills contain infomation on the volume of each log and details of the chaacteistics of the log including type of s ecies. J, I 16

21 F1.. C' 11 CHAPTERTHREE STRUCTURE AND EFFICIENCY OF THE TIMBER ^.. INDUSTRY 3.1 Stuctue and Development.. The logging industy is unde the effective contol of foeign companies, even though the numbe of industies owned by foeignes ae fewe than that of nationals. Seventy-thee pecent of egisteed logging companies ae owned by Cameounian nationals, while 22% ae foeign entepises and the est have mixed capital(eba'a Atyi 1998). Howeve, the total of aea of poductive foests exploited by Ganeounian nationals (12,000 kin ) in 1987 was 20% of that of foeignes (Gallan undated). Accoding to Eba'a Atyi (1998), not all the egisteed industies ae active. Only 48% of locally owned and 60% of foeignowned industies ae active. This futhe indicates that the foeign entepises ae much moe successful in the timbe industy. L, ~' C. About 2.3 million in of timbe was poduced in 1990/199,, while 2.81 million in wee poduced in the 1995/96 fiscal yea. The foest egulation of 1974 stipulates that at least 60% of alltimbe havested should be pocessed locally (Schmithusen 1979). Howeve, only 38% of the total amount of timbe poduced was pocessed locally and 23% was sold on the domestic maket (Diection des Foets 1992). This indicates that the timbe industy is expot oiented. Accoding to Willan at a1. (1989) the dependence of the timbe industy on the expot maket with its emphasis on high quality and exteme selectivity has led to the vitual stagnation of the domestic wood makets in the topical moist Afican Region. Govenment policy is cuently aimed at stengthening the pocessing secto and inceasing the pecentage of locally pocessed wood by too fo by the yea

22 ,. In spite of the low level of wood sold on the domestic maket, the pecentage of locally pocessed wood sold on the domestic maket in Ganeoun (77%) is consideably highe than that of the othe counties in Cental Afica. This is pobably because the foest secto is not competitive intenationally due to inefficient mill opeations (Wehiong 1990), lack of a timbe maketing boad which pomotes and makets wood poducts intenationally (Willan at a ). Othe factos contibuting to the elatively low pecentage of expoted wood poducts ae stict egulations, incomplete knowledge of the esouce and insufficient oad and pot infastuctue (Foaham and Jonkes 1992). The total capacity of industies in the foest secto is ove 3.2 million Howeve, the total log poduction is about 2.8 million in, epesenting 89% of the total equiements of the logging industy. Howeve, the log supply situation in Cameoun is bette than a lot of counties in the West/Cental Afican sub-egion, including Ghana, Nigeia, Cote d'ivoie, Cental Afican Republic, etc. whee log supply is on aveage less than 50% of the total installed capacity of the timbe industy. The 1981 and 1994 foesty laws have set vaiable taxes and fees fo pocessed and unpocessed wood in ode to encouage seconday and tetiay pocessing. Howeve, in spite of these taxes, the expot maket is lagely dependent on logs due lagely to the elatively high capital and opeational costs involved in log pocessing compaed to log expots. Accoding to Gillis (1988) the dependence of the industy on log expots may be due to the factthat the net induced value added though pocessing is lowe than the loss of taxes. It is clealy moe pofitable to expot logs athe than sawn timbe with egad to the oveall financial spin-offs fothe county (Foaham and Jonkes 1992). Thee is theefoe the need fo a eview of the taxation and foest oyalty systems to make the industy moe efficient. The necessay policy mechanisms should also be fomulated in addition to the e-tooling of the timbe industy to ensue moe downsteam pocessing in. I~ (- 18

23 I _ I 3.2 Poduction Capacity,I. --,, F~. Thee ae a total of 61 pimay wood pocessing entepises (Wehiong 1990). These entepises include 50 sawmills, 7 venee factoies and 4 plymills. Of the 61 pimay pocessing companies, about 60% belong foeign investos and 7% ae joint ventues between foeignes and nationals (Eba'a Atyi 1998). Accoding to (Eba'a Atyi 1998), the total installed capacity of these 61 pimay pocessing units amounts to almost 2 million in of oundwood. Howeve, only about 1.55 million in' of logs, which is about 78% of the installed capacity, has on aveage been pocessed. Accoding to Willan at a1. (1989), many of these mills wok at 50% capacity because of inefficiencies associated with high logging esidue geneation esulting fom the lack of skilled staff and the use of obsolete machiney. This indicates that thee is an ove-capacity of the timbe industy. The 1994 foest policy and law has set a taget of pocessing 70% of total log poduction by local entepises. Howeve, cuently only 55% of logs ae pocessed locally. Thus, the actual volume pocessed is both below the nominal capacity of established fims and the foest policy tagets. The domestic maket accounts fo about 30% of the total log poduction. Allthe domestic consumption is as pocessed poducts, mainly lumbe, plywood and matches. These poducts ae mostly of lowe quality and cannot be expoted (Eba'a Atyi 1998). I \-,. I 3.3 Efficiency of Timbe Industy The aveage ecovey of timbe fom aw logs fo expot is 30%, but can be as low as 20%. Futhemoe it is estimated that as much as 20-35% of each felled tee is lost at the logging site. As a esult the waste fom felled tee to sawn poduct is as high as 65-75% (Gatlan undated). The aveage ecovey ate of the sawmills is 35%, the plywood and venee pocessing is 57%. The high level of pocessing waste is pobably due to the factthat most of the good quality logs ae expoted while the poo quality ones ae tansfomed locally. Othe easons ~ 19 I~ I_

24 F1. fothe low ecovey include obsolete machiney, lack of skilled wokes and lack of standadisation fotansfomed poducts (Wehiong 1990). 3.4 Contibution of Timbe to the National Economy ^. Cameoun is cuently the seventh lagest expote of topical timbe in the wold and the thid in Afica afte Cote d'ivoie and Gabon. Timbe is the thid lagest foeign exchange eane afte oil and agicultue and accounted fo 4.0% of Goss Domestic Poduct (GDP) in 1980 (Gillis 1988). The pecentage contibution of the timbe industy to the Goss National Poduct (GNP) has inceased fom 3.5% in 1989/1990 to 6.7% fothe 1995/1 996 fiscal yea (Eba'a Atyi 1998). The contibution of the foesty secto to the national economy is fa geate than the figues quoted above due to the fact that a lage pat of the poduction of foest esouces othe than timbe ae not accounted fo in the national accounts. I_ ~ I'~ Foest poducts (including logs, lumbe and panels) accounted fo 11% of total expots in the 1970's (FAO 1986) and 20% in the 1990's (Eba'a Atyi 1998). The total value of timbe expots in the 1995/1996 fiscal yea amounted to Us $321. I million. The amount of timbe poduced locally has also been inceasing steadily. Fo example, about 30% of alitimbe poduced wee pocessed locally in 1992 (Foaham and Jonkes 1992) whilst 55.3% of the total amount of timbe, epesenting 1,254 million in, wee pocessed locally in Almost 30% of the timbe expot expessed as log volume equivalent is pocessed locally. The foesty secto povided diect employment fo about 3,500 people in 1973 and 33,000 people in 1998, equivalent to 7% of the total labou foce (Wehiong 1990). Wok in the timbe industy is labou intensive, and theefoe laboues account fo ove 90% of the wok foce in the timbe industy. Thity-one pecent of the labou foce ae in the havesting secto and the est ae in the foestbased industies. (- I' ~ 20 I..,

25 As a contibution to govenment evenues, the logging industy povides income though felling taxes (based on maket values of the diffeent timbe species), aea based taxes, miscellaneous (including penalties and special pemit) and expot taxes. The fist thee type of taxes ae collected by Diection des Foets while the latte is collected by the Customs Depatment. Taxes collected by the govenment fom the logging industy inceased fom Us$184 million in 1992/1993 to Us$592 million in the 1995/1996 fiscal yea which epesents a elative contibution of 4.4% of govenment evenues (c. f. Eba'a Atyi 1998). L 21

26 CHAPTER FOUR EXPLOITATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LESSER USED SPECIES 4.1 Definition and Chaacteistics of Lesse Used Species Definition ^ The tems Lesse Used Species, Lesse Known Species (LKS) and Seconday Species ae often used intechangeably in the liteatue and within the timbe tade. As fa as the timbe tade is concened, the definition of such species is essentially a negative one: it coves all species that ae not pat of the limited goup of "taditional timbe species" that have been taded intenationally in lage volumes ove many yeas (c. f. Cate 1998). Howeve, in pactice the tems have slightly diffeent connotations. LUS is used moe as a maketing definition, while LKS often implies a geneal lack of knowledge aboutthe ecology, chaacteistics and management of the species. The use of the tem seconday species on the othe hand denotes species with inteesting chaacteistics but the maketing of which, eithe as logs/sawn timbe o as semi-finished/finished poducts, is as yet not o little developed in one o moe counties (Paant 1990). Thee seem to be no fixed definition of LUS o LCDS. Howeve, in Ghana the LUS is defined jointly by the Timbe Expot Development Boad (TEDB) and Foest Poducts Inspection Bueau (FPIB) of Ghana as "any timbe species which is not endangeed and has not been esticted in any fom and which on its own meit has inteesting chaacteistics/qualities o has the potential to substitute the taditionally known/pimay species, but whose aveage annual level of poduction, ove the last thee yeas, in tems of extaction and expot does not exceed 5,000 in' and 2,000 in' espectively. Accoding to ITT0 (1991), an LUS is any species that has on aveage a level of 1000 in of wood taded 22 _I

27 pe yea. Moe than 60% of species in Ganeoun ae listed as iegula maket species o LUS (Wehiong 1990) Some Chaacteistics of Lesse Used Species Small Sizes and Poo Fom of Tees Matue tees of some species attain elatively small diamete at beast height (DBH). Such species ae difficult to saw, especially if they also have a high sapwood:heatwood atio. Fo most of these species thee is the need fo a etooling of the industy, since the industy is used to sawing lage diamete logs, to be able to pocess them. Anothe chaacteistic of LUS is poo bole fom of most of the matue tees. This esults in a low ecovey ate, thus making such species unattactive fo logging by the timbe industy Duability and Pesevation Many species emain unused fothe sole eason that they ae not duable and, in many counties, people will go to geat expense to obtain a high gade, duable wood to build thei house athe'than accepting a lowe cost timbe teated with pesevative. The cost of pessue teatment with a pesevative is seldom moe than 20-25% of the pice of the cheape wood and, theefoe, the total pice is nomally consideable lowe than that of the duable wood. Teatment is vey effective, fo example, teated stakes of non-duable species have lasted fo moe than 30 yeas in the gound in topical conditions (Us DA 1989). Cameoun is cuently building up the capacity to undetake lage scale teatment of non-duable LUS.. 23

28 Seasoning Anothe majo cause of failue to use LUS is inadequate dying; consequently the poducts made fom them ae faulty. The climate is geneally humid and theefoe it is difficult to ai dy LUS timbe below a moistue content of 16-20% even duing dy seasons. It is, theefoe, essential to kiln dy LUS timbe to be used fo funitue and joiney manufactue, if a quality poduct is to be obtained. 4.2 Exploitation and Utilisation of"lesse Used Species The Afican timbe tade accounts fo aound 8 pecent of the total wold timbe tade by volume. The expot tade is dominated by a elatively limited numbe of highly pized timbe species which geneally have a widespead natual distibution. In the 1970s, Afica expoted aound 35 pincipal species with 10 accounting fo 70 pecent of the total tade (Efuth and Rusche 1976). Inceasing effots have been made to divesify the tade hence an incease in the logging and havesting of new species o species cuently descibed as LUS. Assuing the futue supply of topical timbe poducts fom sustainably managed foests is one of the most citical challenges facing the topical timbe secto in both poducing and consuming counties today. Maket-oiented havesting caused the topical timbe supply to concentate on elatively few species. Foest management, as a esult, was induced to limit gowth to a small numbe of economicaliy viable species. In such a situation, the objective of biological divesity and consevation in a tuly sustainable system was difficult to attain. Within this famewok, a long-tem pogamme to stimulate and pomote the poduction, utilisation, and tade of lesse-known timbe species on a sustainable basis has been developed. The intoduction of lesse known species is desiable fo a numbe of easons. It will substantially diminish the isk of depletion of a elatively small goup of species. In addition, obtaining a geate yield of timbe pe hectae will slow down exploitation of foest aeas. The 24

29 oppotunity to exploit a geate numbe of species pe hectae will incease oyalty and foeign exchange evenues to poducing counties. Conventional wisdom holds that expanding the numbe of species utilised will help to ensue both the suvival of the topical timbe tade and the foests on which it depends. Moe species imply moe aw mateials fothe tade, leading to the pomotion of biodivesity in utilisation. 4.3 Incentives fo LUS Utilisation Thee is the need fo the govenment to put in place an effective incentive scheme to encouage the foest industy to exploit both LUS and pimay species. Some of the incentives include the setting of oyalties o foest fees fo standing timbe at a ate whee it is equally pofitable to cut, pocess and maket pimay species and LUS. This is cuently difficult to achieve in Ganeoun due to the fact that a detailed knowledge of poduction costs fo the diffeent species and evenue fom diffeent poducts is unknown. Foest fees set up in the 1994 foest law is lowe fo LUS compaed to pimay species. This is designed to encouage the timbe industy to exploit and pocess moe LUS. Anothe appoach that is being consideed is to impove the technology used to pocess the wood so as to add value to low value timbes. The thid appoach that has eceived consideable attention is fo the govenment to set up a Timbe Maketing -Boad to be esponsible fo the maketing of the poducts and identify "niche" uses fo peviously low value timbes in ode to obtain a highe value fothem. 25 ~

30 ^. ^^ 4.4 Pomotion and Maketing of LUS. The pomotion of LUS is a majo govenment policy. This is because an incease in the utilisation of LUS is one of the ways in which the govenment hopes to use to achieve its 2000 objective of ensuing 5 million in of log poduction in the county. In line with this objective, the govenment has mandated ONADEF to develop mechanisms fo the effective pomotion of LUS on the domestic and expot makets. A new law banning the expot of ound log expots comes into effect on 20 July This law is aimed at encouaging downsteam pocessing which would lead to the pocessing of moe LUS. In ode to futhe encouage the exploitation of LUS, a few of these species will be allowed to be expoted in ound log fom fo a shot time following the ban to encouage thei exploitation, pomotion and maketing. Lowe taxes has also been instituted to encouage the pocessing and utilisation of LUS. A famewok fothe pomotion of LUS has been developed by the Diection des Foets. These include a numbe of steps.. The fist step is to pomote the knowledge of the ecology of individual species and esouce base of the foest in geneal. The esults of the inventoy studies would be used in the pomotion dive.. Secondly, the popeties of LUS would be studied. Based on the popeties, the most appopiate uses of the species would be outline. The Govenment has set up a Wood Pomotion Cente which is mandated to develop new poducts fom LUS fo maketing. L_. Thidly, the focus of LUS pomotion would be by species goups, accoding to similaities in chaacteistics. The cuent method of pomoting individual species is geneally not a vey effective means of pomotion.. Wood pomotion on the domestic maket is done by oganising peiodic fais and wood shows. 26 ~ I~~

31 I~ Thee is no Govenment agency that deals with maketing of timbe in the county. Howeve, the 1994 Foest Law makes oom fo the ceation of a National Timbe Boad which will be esponsible fo developing a maketing L. famewok fo the pomotion of LUS. Cuently, the Societe Geneale Suveillance (SGS), contol maketing and expot quality..-, Continuity of supply and continuity in the nominated makets ae essential fothe sustainable management of lesse used species of alltopical foests. The maket pospects of many lesse used species have been the subject of consideable debate fo some time (Bethe1 1984). The taditional view that the maketability of new species will impove with scacity -induced pice incease fo moe popula species has been challenged by ecent eseach. Vincent et al (1990) found that the popotion of Dipteocap (which ae well known in the tade) to non-dipteocap (which contibute to the list of LUS) logs impoted by Japan emained statisticaliy constant ove an 18 yea peiod unaffected by vaiations in pice o available pocessing technologies. I. 27

32 ,^ CHAPTER FIVE IMPACTS OF INCREASED UTILISATION OF LESSER USED SPECIES 5.1 Implications of Inceased Utilisation of LUS The inceased havesting of LUS may help peventthe ceaming of the foest. Howeve, this can only be achieved if tees ae exploited in popotion to thei natual occuence in the foest. This can be done by incopoating s atiai data in foest inventoies to ensue that sufficient volumes of LUS exist in conti uous foest aeas to make havesting ecologicaliy wothwhile. Inceased havesting of LUS also has an effect of the socio-economic conditions of local communities. Howeve, the extent of impact is not known. Thee is theefoe an ugent need to undestand, the ecological, social and economic, Impacts of the pomotion and inceased utilisation of LUS in ode to avoid ievesible damages that ae associated with ove exploitation of species. 5.2 Ecological Impact Logging is an integal pat of the management and SIIvicultue of the foest in West Afica and its caeful execution will assist in the sustainability of the foests fo futue timbe. It is widely believed that one of the hindances to sustainable foest management pactices has been the destuctive fom of logging caied out in many opeations (Aentz 1994). Accoding to Putz (1994), logging is damaging, no matte how well planned and caefully implemented, but with pope planning and opeational pactices it~ need not geatly disupt foest pocesses. Many of the eductions in logging damage chaacteistic of well managed foests ae the esults of caeful havest planning (Dyksta & He in ich 1992). Inceased havesting of LUS if not caefully planned can lead to vey open 28

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