Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and

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1 Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author.

2 Sustainability of Agroforestry in New Zealand. A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Regional Planning, at Massey University. Tania L. Bray 1995.

3 Abstract. 11 The aim of this thesis is to assess the concept of sustainability and apply it in a practical sense to New Zealand agroforestry. Sustainable management of natural resources is fast becoming recognised as necessary for the long term survival of our species. The agricultural communities prominence as the major user and steward of New Zealand's natural resources requires change in the values placed on these resources by farmers, and the incorporation of the principle of sustainable management at the farm level. The concept of sustainability is broken into three component parts; economic, environmental and social sustainability. Each of these components is broken again into specific measurable principles. Through literature research and a case study, the principles are applied to agroforestry, and a conclusion reached. It is found that given good management practices and normal business risks, agroforestry had the potential to maintain the natural capital stock and remain relatively profitable. Agroforestry is also found to have the potential to maintain the life support systems and biodiversity of the environment. Finally agroforestry is found to positively impact on rural societies, and provide the necessities of life and is relatively robust to political change. This thesis concluded that agroforestry as practiced in New Zealand is a profitable enterprise which improves the environment and increases the viability of many rural communities.

4 Acknowledgements. lll Thank you to my supervisor Mr D. Williams, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Planning, Massey University, for his academic guidance. Thank you to Mr D. Hocking, who a llowed his life and land to be put both under the microscope and on paper, and thank you to Mr H. Kidd, who gave English support. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Dr M. Roche, Dr M. Tuohy and MrS. Laghai for offering a wandering eye over my work. Finally my thanks for the support of my parents, family and friends, who listened patiently to the joys and woes of my research.

5 Table of Contents. lv Acknowledgements iii List Of Figures vii List Of Abbreviations ix Chapter Introduction Background Aims And Objectives... 6 Study Organisation Chapter Agroforestry Agroforestry: The World Perspective...? Agroforestry: New Zealand Perspective Definitions Chapter 3. Sustainability Chapter Measures Of Sustainability Economic Sustainability Sustainable Yield Harvesting Sustainable Waste Disposal Depletion Of Non-Renewable Resources Economic Return Environmental Sustainability Conserving Life Support Systems Energy Nutrients Air Medium Water Medium Soil Medium Biodiversity Social Sustainability Respect, Care, And Equality Within The Community Sharing Of Benefits And Costs Adequate Participation Quality Of Life Cultural Sustainability

6 4.3.4 Political Sustainability v Chapter ' Results Of Other Studies Economic Sustainability Sustainable Yield Harvesting Sustainable Waste Disposal Depletion Of Non-Renewable Resources Economic Return Factors Effecting Profitability Agroforestry Economic Case Studies Environmental Sustainability Conserving Life Support Systems Biodiversity Social Sustainability Respect, Care And Equality Within The Community Sharing Of Benefits And Costs Of Agroforestry Equitable Distribution Of Resources Equal Access To Participate In Agroforestry Adequate Participation Quality Of Life Cultural Sustainability Political Sustainability Central Government Local Government Chapter ' Case Study, Rangitoto Farm, Bulls Methodology Economic Sustainability Methodology Environmental Sustainability Methodology Life Support Systems Methodology Biodiversity Methodology Social Sustainability Methodology Rangitoto Farm, Bulls Introduction Rangitoto Farm The Four Dunes Case Study Results Economic Sustainability Sustainable Waste Disposal

7 Depletion Of Non-Renewable Resources Economic Return Environmental Sustainability Soil Erosion Organic Matter Physical Properties Chemical Analysis Botanical Composition Soil Fauna Social Sustainability Respect, Care And Equality Within The Community Quality Of Life Cultural Sustainability Political Sustainability vi Chapter Summary And Conclusion Summary Economics Environmental Social Conclusion Appendix A: A.E.M. Input Data Appendix B: PCSTANDPAC Data Appendix C: A.E.M. Output Tables Appendix D: Environmental Data Appendix E: Social Data Glossary Bibliography

8 List of Figures. Figure 1: Agroforestry Nutrient Cycle Figure 2: Soil Nitrogen At Tikitere Figure 3: Soil Phosphorus At Tikitere Figure 4: Soil Sulphur At Tikitere Figure 5: Soil Calcium At Tikitere Figure 6: Calcium Concentration Changes Figure 7: Soil Magnesium At Tikitere Figure 8: Magnesium Concentration Changes Figure 9: Soil Potassium At Tikitere Figure 10: Potassium Concentration Changes Figure 11: Soil Sodium At Tikitere Figure 12: Sodium Concentration Changes Figure 13: Soil Minor Elements At Tikitere Figure 14: Daily Wind Run At Tikitere Figure 15: Mean Annual Soil Moisture At lnvermay Figure 16: Soil Organic Matter Figure 17: Trends In ph At Tikitere Figure 18: Changes In Soil ph Figure 19: Biodiversity Figure 20: Soil Fauna AtTikitere, Figure 21: Brandon Hall Dune Figure 22: Rangitikei Dune Figure 23: Rangitoto Farm, Bulls, New Zealand Figure 24: No. 1 Dune Figure 25: Rangitoto Dune Figure 26: Farm Cash flow - Using Own Labour Figure 27: Net Present Value- Using Own Labour Figure 28: Slumping On Rangitikei Dune Figure 29: Eastern Slope Of Rangitikei Dune Figure 30: Gouging Caused By Skidder Figure 31: Organic Content Figure 32: Moisture Differences Figure 33: Bulk Density Figure 34: Soil Profiles Figure 35: Soil Fertility Figure 36: Comparison Of Data Figure 37: Botanical Composition Vll

9 Vlll Figure 38: Soil Fauna Figure 39: Four Different Mushroom Species At Rangitoto Dune Figure 40: Moss's, Lichens, Etc At Rangitikei Dune Table A 1: Area Planted And Area Felled Table A2: Constants Used Table A3: Labour Requirements And Costs Table A4: Spreadsheet Values... o.. o... o.. oo oooo o... oooooooo o... o140 Table A5: Livestock Units Table A6: Log Aggregation Table Table A7: Farm Accounts... oo... o... o... o... o... o.. o... o.. oo... o.. oo... o.. o Table B 1 : Parameters Used For Stand Growth Table B2: Farm Forestry Regime Table C 1: Net Present Value Of Marginal lnvestment Table C2: Total Farm Cashflowoooooooooooo... o... o Table C3:. Internal Rate Of Return Table D 1: Organic Matter Table D2: Statistics For Organic Matter Table D3: Moisture Content... o... o oo... o... o Table D4: Statistics For Moisture Content Table D5: Dry Bulk Density Table D6: Statistics For Bulk Density Table D 7: Humus Content Table D8: Statistics For Humus Content Table D9: Black Sand Content Table D 10: Statistics For Black Sand Table D 11 : Soil Fertility Results Table D 12: Botanical Composition Table D13: Soil Fauna... o Table D14: Historical Values For Foxton Sand Soil Figure E 1 Bulls Population

10 List of Abbreviations. l X A.E.M. = CCA= DSIR= EEC = EPA= GATT= GDP= ICRAF = LSU = MAF= MOWD= NPK = NZFS= PCP= ppm= RMA= SPH = Agroforestry Estate Model Copper-Chrome- Arsenic Department of Scientific and Industrial Research European Economic Community Environmental Protection Agency General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs Gross Domestic Product International Council for Research In Agroforestry Live Stock Units. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Ministry of Works and Development Nitrogen Phosphate Potassium. New Zealand Forest SeNice Pentachlororphenol Parts per Million Resource Management Act Stems Per Hectare