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1 Asia s New Woods 46 Journal of Forestry June 2004

2 ABSTRACT Patrick B. Durst, Wulf Killmann, and Chris Brown Plantations of agricultural and industrial crops, such as rubber, coconut, bamboo, and oil palm, are providing important new wood sources for forest industries in Asia. Several of these new woods are becoming mainstream species in the manufacture of traditional forest products and in the production of innovative product lines in Asia. The estimated 27.4 million hectares of these crops in the region constitute an enormous resource that is still largely untapped. Technological improvements are permitting the use of previously wasted materials into plywood, particleboard, paper, and even lumber and furniture. The acceleration in rubberwood processing during the past decade is indicative of the potential importance that other crops may soon assume in Asian markets. Keywords: industry; international forestry Opposite: Rubber trees are tapped for latex, and increasingly rubberwood is used for making furniture and high-quality wood panels. Twenty years ago, many observers questioned the efforts of the Forest Research Institute Malaysia to develop uses for the large numbers of unproductive rubber trees that were being cut and replaced each year. Why, some people wondered, would Malaysia bother with such crooked, small-diameter trees, whose wood was susceptible to blue stain and borer attack and for which there was virtually no market recognition? Today no one is questioning the logic of Malaysia s efforts. In barely two decades, rubberwood has become the preferred raw material for Malaysia s $2 billion furniture industry and the mainstay of the country s particleboard and fiberboard sectors. Rubberwood handcrafts, toys, and kitchen utensils are ubiquitous in shops and department stores around the world. Rubberwood is only the most dramatic and visible of several new woods in Asia. Driven sometimes by opportunity (as in the case of rubberwood, where large volumes of previously wasted raw material are available) and often by necessity (because of declining stocks of traditional forest timber and tighter restrictions on harvesting of natural forests), the utilization of these new woods is rapidly transforming forestry in Asia. Several new woods and wood substitutes have rapidly gained prominence as important alternatives to traditional wood supplies from natural forests. Rubberwood is now well established in the marketplace and often substitutes for traditional tropical hardwoods across a wide range of uses. Other wood and fiber sources include wood from fruit trees, oil palm residues, coconut wood, bamboo, rattan, and agricultural residues. Rubberwood Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) was planted extensively throughout Southeast Asia during the past century for the production of latex. Plantations are currently estimated to cover about 9 million hectares (table 1, p. 48), making rubber the most widely planted June 2004 Journal of Forestry 47

3 Asia has an abundance of over-mature coconuts, which are readily converted for use as timber and local specialty products. tree species in Asia (FAO 2001). Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia together account for about 80 percent of all rubber plantations in Asia and for more than 70 percent of the world s total. Rubberwood was first introduced into markets in the late 1970s, after developments in kiln drying, steam and vacuum treatments, and preservative treatments improved its use as timber. These advances successfully mitigated problems associated with the wood s high starch and sugar content, such as susceptibility to insect infestations (e.g., pin borers) and blue stain, and with latex content (e.g., surface blotches in panels). Previously, overmature rubberwood stems (around age 30) were considered a waste material and were used as fuel for locomotives, tobacco curing, brick baking, and the like, or simply burned in open piles. Rubberwood achieved broad market acceptance during the mid- to late-1980s, and for the past decade it has been a significant component in the mix of Southeast Asian wood products. At present, it is estimated that the economically viable rubberwood harvest in Southeast Asia exceeds 6.5 million cubic meters per annum (Balsiger et al. 2000). Most of the harvested rubberwood is processed into sawn lumber Table 1. Areas of major woody agricultural plantation crops in Asia (thousand hectares). Malaysia Indonesia Thailand Philippines Others Total Rubberwood (1997) 1,635 3,516 1, ,705 8,910 Coconut (1997) 270 3, ,314 2,593 10,314 Oil palm (1999) 3,313 1, N/A 35 5,310 Total 5,218 9,083 2,498 3,402 4,333 24,534 SOURCE: Killmann (2001). and then into furniture. Rubberwood s physical characteristics it is a medium-dense hardwood (air-dry density of 560 to 650 kg m 3 ) with light color and easy machining and good staining properties enable it to substitute for many other species, including ramin (Gonystylus spp.), meranti (Shorea spp.), teak (Tectona grandis), oak, and pine. In Malaysia, rubberwood furniture is estimated to account for more than 80 percent of the country s furniture output. Malaysian exports of rubberwood products are now valued at about $1.1 billion annually. Thailand also has a large and dynamic rubberwood furniture industry, with exports totaling more than $300 million a year. Because of its uniformity and light coloration, rubberwood is an exceptional raw material for manufacturing panels. It is increasingly being used in the manufacture of particleboard, plywood, cement board, and medium density fiberboard (MDF). Trials are also being conducted on using rubberwood in oriented-strand board. 48 Journal of Forestry June 2004

4 Mobile sawmills help make coconut wood economically accessible. In Malaysia alone, rubberwood is the primary feedstock for eight particleboard mills and 10 MDF mills (Malaysia has 14 MDF mills in total, producing around 1.6 million cubic meters annually). In Thailand, rubberwood supplies the raw material for the region s largest corporate producer of particleboard, which is increasing its output to 750,000 cubic meters per year. Thailand also has several MDF mills using rubberwood as raw material. Although continued growth of the rubberwood industry is expected, supply and price gyrations may make this a bumpy road. Rubber growers in Asia are currently able to capitalize on revenues from latex production as well as from the sale of wood. The benefits of such diversification are reinforced by government incentives that help offset the costs of replanting existing plantations and planting new areas. Rubber growers are now concentrating on new dual-purpose clones that maximize both latex and timber production. Clones like the RRIM 2000 series, developed by the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, grow faster and straighter and yield much higher volumes of latex and timber than traditional lines. Despite those promising developments, important raw material pricing issues remain. Throughout the 1990s, a general slump in the world latex market, together with rising labor costs, pushed many plantation owners to shift from rubber to oil palm. The resulting glut of rubberwood logs from plantation conversion depressed prices below $20 per cubic meter for much of the decade, compared with prices of around $100 per cubic meter for meranti logs commonly harvested from the natural forests of Southeast Asia (although it must be recognized that the quality of such logs is much higher and the cost of harvesting logs from natural forests is generally much greater). Rubberwood was already priced much lower than traditional timber species, as both plantation owners and wood processors viewed rubber logs largely as a residue of latex production. More recently, however, many processors in Malaysia have been reporting shortages of timber supplies, which has pushed the price of rubber logs to as high as $75 per cubic meter (compared with the current price of $180 per cubic meter for meranti). The Thai government has banned exports of rubberwood logs and sawn lumber to encourage more domestic processing. Rubberwood log prices in Thailand have consequently fallen, sending a discouraging signal to growers. Such gluts and shortages are typical teething problems in many new industries. Coconut The coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) is planted extensively throughout Asia and the South Pacific as an agricultural crop; copra, from which coconut oil is derived, is the primary harvest. There are more than 10 million ha of coconut plantations in Asia, of which at least 2.1 million ha are older than 60 years, at which point copra yields decline. In plantations, these senile palms are usually felled and replaced by higheryielding, earlier-bearing dwarf vari- June 2004 Journal of Forestry 49

5 Densely planted oil palms produce around 235 cubic meters of stem material per hectare. Rubberwood furniture is now marketed around the world. Courtesy of Forest Research Institute Malaysia eties. If decaying palm stem material is not removed from the plantation, it provides a niche habitat for the rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) and other pests, which then infest newly planted palms. The economic costs of stem removal to maintain plantation hygiene can be offset if the material is converted into lumber. Indonesia and the Philippines have the largest coconut resources, with 3.8 million and 3.3 million ha, respectively. India, Sri Lanka and Thailand also have extensive areas of coconut plantations (Killmann 2001). Botanically, the coconut palm is not a tree but belongs to the monocotyledons. Therefore, strictly speaking, its fibers are not classified as wood, but provided that special processing techniques are applied, parts of the stems from old palms of the tall varieties can be used as a wood substitute. A typical coconut plantation of tall varieties has about 100 stems per ha; thus there are an estimated 1 billion coconut palms in Asia, of which at least 200 million senile palms should be replaced. One stem from tall varieties of coconut yields around 0.7 cubic meters of roundwood, which can effectively be converted to an average of 0.28 cubic meters of sawn coco lumber (Government of the Philippines 1992). Based on these figures, Asian countries are estimated to be able to produce around 5 million cubic meters of sawn coconut timber each year from palms that are no longer producing copra. At current rates of replacement, this level of production could be maintained for 20 to 30 years, by which time most tall varieties of coconut will have been replaced with the higher-yielding dwarf varieties. The fibers of the dwarf varieties are not as well-suited for use as solid timber as the tall varieties, but they may be utilized in manufacturing wood-based panels. Coconut wood has good machining properties. However, high silica content (Killmann and Hong 1989) and the particular structure of the tissue require the use of tungsten carbide tipped tools to achieve good surfaces (Killmann and Fink 1996). Although it has low natural durability, pressure- 50 Journal of Forestry June 2004

6 treated coconut stems can be used in exposed locations. At present, coconut sawing is carried out mainly on a small scale, although the overall volumes are significant. Sawing is commonly done with small portable sawmills, two-person handsaws, or chainsaws. Lumber is usually cut to meet the needs and specifications of local users. The bulk of rough-sawn coconut lumber is used as a substitute for traditional timber species in building rural houses and bridges. Commercial processing of coconut wood began in a few locations during the 1970s, with lumber being used for construction, pallets, decorative wall paneling, stairs, window and door jambs, and flooring. For the most part, however, coconut lumber is still sold in domestic markets. In the Philippines, for example, the annual coconut lumber production of about 720,000 cubic meters supplies more than 14 percent of domestic timber demand (Guiang 2001). Increasingly, though, niche markets are being identified for specialty products made from coconut wood. Prospects for expansion into export markets are encouraging as consumers seek distinctive nontraditional wood products. Coconut wood is also being used for nonconstruction purposes. New technologies enable it to be processed into such fabricated products as millwork, cabinetry, and craft wares jewelry boxes, cups, vases, plates, and bowls, often painted with distinctive ethnic motifs (Arancon 1997). Bamboo Bamboo has a long history of use in Asia and thus barely qualifies as a new wood. However, the many new uses being developed for bamboo open numerous opportunities for bamboo growers and processors. Bamboo culms (stems) have traditionally been used as substitutes for timber in construction and scaffolding, and these uses remain important in Asia today. Recent technological developments have cleared the way for bamboo to be used extensively in manufacturing reconstituted panel and board products, such as particleboard, fiberboard, ply-bamboo, Coconut wood makes beautiful and durable homes and resort facilities. June 2004 Journal of Forestry 51

7 laminated boards, bamboo flooring, and pulp and paper (Ruiz-Perez et al. 2001). Bamboo furniture is rapidly gaining market share, with new and innovative designs contributing to growth. Bamboo flooring is also becoming popular in western markets. The bamboo trade is growing, particularly between China and the United States. China has more than 4 million ha of dense bamboo areas, of which 1.25 million hectares are managed intensively as plantations (Ruiz- Perez et al. 2001). China is the world s largest producer of commercial bamboo, with production of unprocessed bamboo valued at $1.5 billion in Processing operations are estimated to have added another $1.3 billion to this total. The sector provides part- or fulltime employment for more than 5 million people in China. India s bamboo forests extend across 10 million ha, with varying densities (Ganapathy 1997). In India, the annual bamboo harvest approximates 4 million tons, with slightly more than half used in rural construction and scaffolding. Most of the remainder is used for pulp and paper making. Despite some environmental problems in its utilization (mills using bamboo tend to be small and less regulated), bamboo accounts for more than 20 percent of the raw material used in India s pulp and paper industry (Ganapathy 1997). Bamboo is also used extensively in papermaking in Thailand, Bangladesh, and the Philippines. Household Fruit and Timber Trees In a growing number of countries, fruit and timber trees produced by individual households have become surprisingly important sources of industrial timber. In Sri Lanka, for instance, where the enforcement of a logging ban in natural forests has necessitated the utilization of alternative sources of timber, an estimated 500,000 cubic meters of logs (40 percent of the country s log supplies) come from home gardens (Bandaratillake 2001; Ariyadasa 2002). In the densely populated Indian state of Kerala, an estimated 83 percent of all timber supplies (12 million cubic meters per year) comes from homesteads (FAO 2001). Several fruit tree species, such as jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) and tamarind (Tamarindus indica), supply high-value wood for furniture making and cabinetry in several countries of the region. More-traditional timber species, such as mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) and teak, and other special-purpose and flowering trees, such as kapok (Ceiba pentandra), domba (Callophyllum inophyllum), mango (Mangifera indica), and sapu (Michelia champaca), are also grown in home gardens and commonly used in lieu of increasingly scarce forest timbers. On the island of Bali, where wood carving is important to local culture and livelihoods, Paraserianthes falcataria grown alongside rice fields has become an important raw material for carvings in the past 10 years. In Thailand, wood from raintree, also known as monkeypod (Samanea saman) commonly planted along roads and around houses has largely replaced scarce teak wood in the traditional wood-carving industry. Raintree wood is also increasingly used in making furniture in Thailand, Philippines, and other Asian countries. Oil Palm Strong market demand and high prices for palm oil have stimulated a boom in planting oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) in Asia in recent years. Grown in plantations, oil palm produces the palm oil and palm kernel oil used in margarine and other foods and in soaps and cosmetics. Oil palm plantations also produce biomass. In 1999, the area of oil palm plantations in Asia was more than 5.3 million ha (Killmann 2001). Malaysia (with 3.3 million ha) and Indonesia (with 1.8 million ha) dominated oil palm planting and production in 1999 and continue to do so today, although new planting is also now occurring in several other Asian countries, including India, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, and Thailand. Recent data on the extent of oil palm plantations in Asia are uncertain, but it is likely that the total area now exceeds 6.5 million ha. Oil palms are grown on a 25- to 30- year rotation before being felled and replanted. At the time of felling, oil palms produce an average of 235 cubic meters of stem material per hectare. This means a total of approximately 50 million cubic meters of stem residue will be generated each year in Asia over the coming decades (although the actual volume depends on the rate of plantation replanting, which is often influenced by incentive programs and current market prices for palm oil). In addition, some 100 million tons of palm fronds, 20 million tons of empty fruit bunches, and 5 million tons of palm kernel shells are produced annually as byproducts. In theory, those residues could be available for processing by the forest products industry. In practice, however, nearly all of this production is currently burned or left to decompose. A major problem in converting oil palm stems is their low recovery rate. Palm stems are harvested at a relatively young age and thus build up less medium- and high-density tissue than do, for example, coconut palms. Additionally, fresh oil palm stems have very high moisture, sugar, and starch contents, which accelerate decomposition after felling and generate high transport and seasoning costs (Killmann and Woon 1990). Present technologies do not yet allow for economically viable use of the full range of those residues. However, laboratory research continues, and trials utilizing oil palm fiber in mechanical and chemical pulping processes show promise. Research on using oil palm in manufacturing wood panels and gypsum fiberboard (which makes use of the high moisture content) has advanced much faster (Brian 2002). Two commercial processing plants in Sabah and Peninsula Malaysia have already been established, both utilizing empty fruit bunches to produce MDF. Other research is investigating prospects for using palm fronds in making molded furniture, sawing and lamination of palm trunks, particleboard production, and the manufacture of activated carbon (Razak 2000). One challenge is to establish efficient systems for collecting oil palm residues and distributing them to manufacturers and, simultaneously, to motivate investment in processing facili- 52 Journal of Forestry June 2004

8 ties. However, those who might doubt the prospects for fuller utilization of oil palm residues by forest industries should note the similarities between the current status of oil palm utilization today and that of rubberwood some 30 or 35 years ago. Other Fiber Sources Agricultural residues have been used in papermaking in Asia for centuries, but recent technological advances in collection and handling have spurred a significant upscaling of operations in several countries. The total production of nonwood pulp in Asia is now estimated to be more than 16 million tons (FAO 2001). The vast majority of this production occurs in China, where annual nonwood pulp manufacturing totals more than 14 million tons, or twothirds of total pulp production. India produces more than 1 million tons of nonwood pulp. Straw, the main byproduct of grainharvesting operations, is the most extensively used nonwood fiber in pulp and paper manufacturing in Asia; wheat and rice straws are the most commonly used. Asia has more than 10 million tons of straw-pulping capacity, and China alone has 9.7 million tons of capacity. India, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka are other major producers of straw-based papers. Bagasse, the fibrous residue left after extracting juice from sugarcane, is another important fiber source. In India, the world s largest sugar producer, an estimated 7.2 million tons of bagasse could feasibly be used in making pulp and paper (Ganapathy 1997). India already produces more than 1 million tons of paper from bagasse each year and has the world s largest bagasse mill (in Tamil Nadu state), which produces 180,000 tons of paper annually. Indonesia has recently commissioned a $200 million bagasse mill in Lampung. Other countries producing bagasse pulp include China, Pakistan, Thailand, and Bangladesh. Bagasse has also been used for particleboard manufacture. In the early 1980s, 70 percent of Pakistan s particleboard production was already being made from bagasse (Killmann 1984). A variety of other nonwood fibers are used in pulp and paper. The most important of these are reeds, jute, abaca (manila hemp), and kenaf. But more remarkable uses of agricultural residues are emerging: In Malaysia, for example, the development of rice husk boards has created considerable interest during the past five years. A rice husk particleboard plant has been established in Kuala Selangor with the potential to utilize around 4,000 tons of rice husks per annum. Rice husk board has very high silica content, which renders it extremely durable and, importantly, termite proof. It is used for flooring, paneling, and furniture manufacturing. Strawboard is another panel product being commercialized, with mills being established in China, India, the Philippines, and Thailand. Strawboard is generally equivalent to MDF in strength and appearance. In addition, it has environmental and cost advantages, as alternative disposal of straw is polluting (if burned) or expensive (if plowed under). Conclusion Asia s new woods constitute an enormous resource that is still largely untapped. Woody species and agricultural residues alike are making significant contributions to the production of pulp, paper, reconstituted boards, and specialty products. This trend is rapidly gaining momentum with frequent establishment of new mills and has enormous potential for future growth. Asia s history of innovation in the forestry sector suggests that these new woods will be an exciting, and increasingly important, aspect of the forest products industry in the decades to come. 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FINK Coconut palm stem processing: A technical handbook. Eschborn, Germany: Protrade, GTZ. KILLMANN,W., and L.T. HONG Some observations on the stegmata in palm trees. Proceedings, Second Pacific Regional Wood Anatomy Conference, October 15 21, Los Baños, Philippines, KILLMANN, W., and W.C. WOON Oil palm stem utilization: Costs of extraction and transportation. Report No. 54. Kuala Lumpur: FRIM. RAZAK, A.M.A Recent advances in commercialisation of oil palm biomass. Malaysian Timber 6(3): RUIZ-PEREZ, M., M. FU, X. YANG, and B. BELCHER Bamboo forestry in China: Toward environmentally friendly expansion. Journal of Forestry 99(7): Patrick B. Durst (patrick.durst@fao.org) is senior forestry officer and Chris Brown is forestry consultant, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, UN Food and Agriculture Organization, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Wulf Killmann is director, Forest Products and Economics Division, FAO, Rome. June 2004 Journal of Forestry 53