Organisation of the Book

Transcription

1 Organisation of the Book The book has a broadly chronological structure. The first chapter sets the scene and describes social and economic features, forms of government, individual states and empires and the world of ideas represented by the Enlightenment. The next eight chapters cover the period from 1783 to 1815 and are mainly concerned with the French Revolution and its repercussions in Europe and the rule of Napoleon, both in France and Europe. There are additional chapters on the Industrial Revolution, Changes in the world of Ideas and the growth of Nationalism. Chapters ten to fifteen examine Restoration Europe, the 1848 Revolutions, the Second Empire in France, the Unification of Italy and Germany and Reform and Reaction in Russia.. The final third of the book covers the period from 1871 to 1914, with individual chapters on France, Germany, the Habsburg Empire and Russia. In addition there are chapters on Imperialism, the changing relationship between Europe and the United States and the influence of Marxism and the growth of working class organisations. The book concludes with a study of international relations between 1890 and 1914 which led to the outbreak of the First World War and a final chapter which seeks to describe how the Europe of 1914 differed from the continent it had been in Each chapter has four features. Each begins with a List of key dates to provide a framework and a summary. Section A, provides an exposition of the topic under consideration, and seeks to explain as well as to describe what happens. Section B, Topics for Debate, provides an opportunity to raise controversial issues of interpretation, e.g. whether Poverty or Prosperity provides the better explanation for the outbreak of the French Revolution (chapter 2) or whether Germany should bear the main responsibility for the outbreak of the First World War (chapter 23). Each topic contains contemporary sources relevant to the issues raised and the views of later historians upon them. The fourth feature is a guide to Further Reading which draws attention to in depth studies of the topics considered and the different interpretations of those topics where they arise.

2 CONTENTS List of illustrations x Acknowledgements xii Chapter One The Condition of Europe c Europe s extent and the concept of Europe 2 The social and economic background 3 Industry and trade 5 The states of Europe 6 The Enlightenment 12 Chapter Two The French Revolution, Key dates 17 The collapse of the ancien régime, The year Poverty or prosperity as explanations for the French Revolution 26 Chapter Three The Collapse of the French Monarchy and the International Response, Key dates 32 The constitutional monarchy, The international response and the outbreak of war 37 Why did the experiment in constitutional monarchy fail? 41 Chapter Four The Revolution at War 45 Key dates 46 The radicalisation of the French Revolution under the pressure of war 46 The reign of Terror 50 The Directory 56 Why did Republican France wage war, and what effect did war have on the Revolution? 59 Chapter Five The Rule of Napoleon 64 Key dates 65 Napoleon s rule in France 66 War, Defeat, The Napoleonic impact on France 76 Napoleon s relationship to the French Revolution 77 Chapter Six The Impact of the French Revolution and Napoleon on Europe and the Congress of Vienna 82 Key dates 83 The varied impact of French rule 84 The making of the peace settlement 90 The Treaty of Vienna: a backward looking settlement? 96 Chapter Seven The Industrialisation of Europe and its Effects 101 Key dates 102 Economic change 103 Science and the industrial revolution 107

3 Social consequences of industrialisation 110 Ideological responses to industrialisation 114 Living standards and the industrial revolution 116 Chapter Eight Changes in the World of Ideas 121 Key dates 122 New ways of looking at the world 122 Romanticism 126 The cultural achievement 129 The significance of the Romantic movement 135 Chapter Nine Nationalism and the Breakdown of the Concert of Europe, Key dates 141 Nationalism and its supporters 142 Challenges to the Vienna settlement 144 The Near East 146 Nationalism and its opponents 149 Chapter Ten Restoration Europe, , and Challenges to Authority 154 Key dates 155 France The Habsburg empire and the German Confederation 162 vi Contents Russia 164 Reaction, change and the failure of the French monarchy 170 Chapter Eleven 1848: The Year of Revolutions 175 Key dates 176 The political and economic background 177 The course of Revolution 178 The re-establishment of authority 184 The 1848 revolutions: common features and failures 188 Chapter Twelve The Second Empire in France, Key dates 193 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte and power 194 The flourishing of the Second Empire: the 1850s 196 Failure or fulfilment: Liberal at home and abroad? 205 Chapter Thirteen The Unification of Italy, Key dates 210 The nationalist movement prior to Italian unification, Remaining problems 219 The roles of Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi in the making of Italy 220 Chapter Fourteen The Unification of Germany,

4 Key dates 226 Possible solutions to the German problem 227 Pressures to unite 229 The process of unification, The process of unification, The process of unification, Bismarck s role in the unification of Germany 239 Chapter Fifteen Reform and Reaction in Russia, Key dates 245 Defeat under Nicholas I 246 Contents vii Alexander II, Alexander III and the return to reaction, The limitations of Alexander II s reforms 255 Chapter Sixteen The Age of Imperialism 262 Key dates 263 Economic growth in Europe 264 The imperialist impulse 268 Africa and the Far East 273 Colonial expansion and European rivalries 282 Chapter Seventeen Europe and the United States, Key dates 287 Europe and the United States 287 The political relationship, ; The economic relationship 304 Immigration 306 Heritage, environment or experience 307 Chapter Eighteen Marxism and the Growth of Working Class Organisations 311 Key dates 312 Karl Marx, his life and works 312 Varieties of Marxism 315 Working class movements 316 International organisations 319 Left-wing alternatives to capitalism 320 Chapter Nineteen The Third Republic in France, Key dates 326 Establishing the Republic, : a compromise with the past 327 Challenges to the Republic 331 French foreign and colonial policy, The extent of support for the Third Republic 339 Chapter Twenty Imperial Germany, Key dates 346

5 The problems of German history 347 viii Contents German domestic history, German foreign policy, German foreign policy, The links between German domestic concerns and foreign policy 361 Chapter Twenty-One The Habsburg Empire, Key dates 367 The problems facing the Habsburg empire 368 The return to absolutism 370 Austria-Hungary under the Ausgleich, Austrian foreign policy, The weaknesses of the Habsburg empire 380 Chapter Twenty-Two Russia, Key dates 385 Witte s reforms and the 1905 Revolution 386 Stolypin s reforms and the Dumas 389 Foreign policy, The impact of the Dumas and Stolypin s reforms 394 Chapter Twenty-Three International Relations, , and the Origins of the First World War 401 Key dates 402 The background to The Balkan tangle 409 Countdown to catastrophe 411 Responsibility for the outbreak of war 415 Chapter Twenty-Four Europe in 1914: Retrospect and Prospect 421 European states and empires 422 Forms of government 423 The European economic system 424 Society 425 Science and technology 426 The intellectual climate 428 Cultural trends 433 Challenges to Europe s stability 437 Index 441 Contents ix

6 ILLUSTRATIONS Figures 2.1 The peasant s burden: 1789 cartoon Louis XVI at the first meeting of the Estates General, 5 May Annual average price of corn in France, Lafayette s oath at the Festival of the Federation, 14 July A British view of the Terror, September The value of the assignat, Napoleon crossing the Alps, May 1800 (David) Napoleon crossing the Alps, May 1800 (de la Roche) Napoleon s abdication at Fontainebleau, 4 April The Congress of Vienna, The Royal Foundry at Gleiwitz in Upper Silesia, The urbanisation of Sheffield, Female Drawer in a Coal-Pit at Little Bolton, Execution of the Defenders of Madrid, 3rd May, Barges on the Stour with Dedham Church in the Distance, Giuseppe Mazzini ( ), apostle of nationalism Prince Metternich ( ), opponent of nationalism Family tree of the Bourbons Procession in the province of Kursk Barricade at the corner of Boulevard and Rue Masagran, near the Porte St Denis, Paris French troops capturing Rome, Haussmann s rebuilding of Paris The execution of Maximilian of Mexico, June Cavour, Garibaldi and Sicily: Forbidden fruit Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel II: Right leg in the boot at last Germany s future The proclamation of the German empire at Versailles, 18 January General Février turned traitor : Tsar Nicholas I s death from winter conditions, 18 February Serfs for sale at the annual fair on the river Volga Queen Victoria s Diamond Jubilee celebrations, Advertisement in 1887 for The formula of British conquest Michael Bakunin ( ), one of the founders of anarchism Bismarck and Thiers watch Paris stewing in its own juice Dreyfus the traitor publicly disgraced by his sword being broken Germany circa 1895: Berlin (Germany). Panorama of Reichstag. Architect: Paul Wallot ( ) Bismarck and the Three Emperors League: Punch cartoon, 20 September

7 22.1 Peter Stolypin ( ) German reservists on their way to the western front, August Mobilisation of the French army, Paris, August Impression: Sunrise, Le Havre, Les Demoiselles d Avignon, A postcard to commemorate the battle of Sedan, A souvenir of the centenary of Trafalgar, Maps 1.1 Europe in 1789: states and frontiers Paris in The federal revolt and provincial Terror, Sites of Napoleon s principal battles, The Napoleonic domination of Europe, The Vienna settlement, The growth of European cities, Italian unification, The unification of Italy, The German Confederation, German unification, The Crimean war Africa and the Ottoman empire, c Imperial expansion in Africa Imperial expansion in the Far East The United States in The Territorial Growth of the U.S.A., Support for Left and Right in France, The Habsburg empire: nationalities The Habsburg empire: political boundaries, The Russian empire in War plans of the great powers The Balkans, Tables 1.1 Total population of Europe by country, British and French economic statistics, c Economic development in the third quarter of the nineteenth century Grain prices in Hamburg, Participation in the insurrection of June 1848: professions of those arrested Population of selected European countries, Coal, iron and steel production and railway mileage of selected European countries, Death rates in selected European countries, Structure of the active population of selected European countries in 1850s, (1880s) and c Exports from UK and other industrial countries, 1899 and UK average annual net investment, Foreign trade figures in $million External trade with the main trading partners of the USA in million dollars (selected years) The impact of restriction on American immigration Political parties in the Dumas, The impact of land reform in Russia, Defence estimates of the great powers,

8 24.1 Relative shares of world manufacturing output, Energy consumption of the powers, Registered motor vehicles in selected European countries and in the United States,